1

Environment

Lecture - 06
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BioGeoChemical Cycles
Nutrients:
Nutrients are of two types:
Macro Nutrients which are required in large quantity. Example: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen
Micro Nutrient which are required in small quantity. Example: Iron, Zinc, etc
All the nutrients are circulating in a cyclic format, whereas energy is always in linear format (unilateral
direction).
Biogeochemical Cycle or Nutrient Cycle:
About:
It means the movement of nutrients between abiotic and biotic factors of an ecosystem.
Energy flows in a unilateral direction. Nutrients flow in a cyclic direction.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycle: Based on the nature of reservoirs, the biogeochemical cycle can be
classified into two types:

Nature of
Reservoir

Gaseous Sedimentary
Reservoir Reservoir

Gaseous Reservoirs: (Its examples are as follows)

Water cycle or Hydrological cycle
Oxygen cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen (N2) cycle
Sedimentary Reservoir: (Its examples are as follows)
Phosphorus cycle
Sulphur cycle
Nitrogen Cycle:
Air comprises 78% of nitrogen.
Nitrogen gas has a nitrogen-nitrogen triple bond. Nitrogen is an inert gas.
Nitrogen compound is the base of DNA, RNA, and Protein (Amino acid).
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-
containing compounds in nature.
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Atmospheric nitrogen is the biggest source of nitrogen.

Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates and nitrites from the soil and water.
Animals get nitrogen when they feed on plants.
Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins and nucleic acids in living organisms.

The Nitrogen Cycle can be Studied in Five Steps:

Nitrogen Fixation: The process of conversion of nitrogen into ammonia is called nitrogen fixation. As we
can see in the figure. above, nitrogen can be fixed in two ways:
Lightening during cloud formation: Nitrogen and oxygen combine with each other to form oxides
of nitrogen in the atmosphere by lightning. These nitrogen oxides then dissolve in rainwater and on

Free-living microorganisms: Microbes like blue-green algae and bacteria fix the atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrites and nitrates. These nitrogenous compounds are then released into the soil.
Nitrogen Assimilation: In this, nitrates and ammonia are assimilated into specific tissues of algae and
higher plants. Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates to prepare amino acids. This nitrogen is then
taken up by the animals in the form of proteins through the food chain.
Ammonification: In this process, dead remains of the living organism and their waste products are
decomposed by microorganisms and converted into ammonia. The proteins in the body of the animals are
broken down into simpler forms like urea and ammonia. These are then removed from the body along with
urine and excreta. Dead plants and animals also return nitrogen to the soil as ammonium compounds. These
ammonium compounds are then converted to ammonia by ammonifying bacteria.
Nitrification: The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is called nitrification. Nitrifying bacteria like
Nitrosobacter and Nitrosomonas found in the soil convert ammonia into nitrate. Some other bacteria
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present in the soil convert ammonia into nitrites. Some of these nitrates and nitrites are again taken up by the
plants for their nutrition.

Nitrifying bacteria Convert Ammonia to Nitrate

(Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas)

Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas and Clostridium living in the soil reduce the soil
nitrites and nitrates into nitrogen which is returned into the atmosphere.

Denitrifying bacteria Reduce Nitrates and Nitrites to Nitrogen

(Pseudomonas, Clostridium)

Water Cycle:
The water keeps going from one component of an ecosystem to another component in a cyclic manner which
is called the water cycle.
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Stages of Water Cycle:

Evaporation/\Transpiration/Sublimation: In these, water converts into vapour in the atmosphere.
Condensation: Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. It is a phase change process in which a
substance changes from a gaseous state to a liquid state.
Precipitation/Deposition: Precipitation is a vital meteorological and hydrological process in the Earth's
water cycle. It refers to any form of water, liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's
surface.
Infiltration: It is a critical process in the Earth's water cycle that describes the movement of water from the
surface of the Earth into the ground or soil. It is the process by which precipitation, such as rain or snow,
soaks into the soil or permeable rock layers.
Runoff Water: refers to water that flows over the surface of the Earth, typically in the form of rainwater or
snowmelt, and does not infiltrate into the ground. Instead, it moves across the land surface, eventually
finding its way into streams, rivers, lakes, and, ultimately, the ocean.
Plant Uptake: It refers to the process by which plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil or other
growing media.
Carbon Cycle:
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the soil, water, and
atmosphere (air) of the earth.
It is the most important cycle of the earth and allows for carbon to be recycled by all of its organisms.

If the concentration of carbon dioxide increases it leads to the global warming phenomena.
If the concentration of carbon dioxide decreases it causes a global cooling phenomenon.
Carbon is an important molecule of protein, DNA, RNA, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.
At the time of the formation of Earth there was a high concentration of carbon dioxide and the
temperature was also high, at the same time oxygen was absent.
Due to photosynthesis, the present Earth has witnessed a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide
and an increase in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, and temperature has attained its
optimum level.
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Steps of Carbon Cycle:

Photosynthesis: Atmospheric Carbon is absorbed by the plant for the photosynthetic process. The
photosynthesis process leads to the formation of biomass.
Carbon Accumulation: Plant biomass is consumed by the animals leading to carbon accumulation in
animals.
Respiration/Decomposition (In plants and animals): Respiration is a fundamental biological process that
occurs in living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. It is the process by which cells
obtain energy from organic compounds, such as glucose, by breaking them down in the presence of oxygen.
Carbon Sink: A carbon sink is a natural or human-made system or process that absorbs and stores carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate climate change by reducing the concentration of this
greenhouse gas. Carbon sinks are crucial in the context of the carbon cycle, which involves the exchange of
carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, vegetation, and other components of the Earth's environment.
Fossil Fuel Combustion: It refers to the process of burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to
produce energy in the form of heat, electricity, or mechanical work. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary
source of energy for a wide range of applications, including electricity generation, transportation, industrial
processes, and residential heating.
Oxygen Cycle:
The movement of Oxygen through the Atmosphere (air), Biosphere (plants and animals), and
Lithosphere (the Earth's crust) is known as the Oxygen Cycle.
o 21% of Oxygen is found in the elemental form in the atmosphere.

dioxide.
It is found as the oxides of most metals and Silicon, and also as Carbonate, Sulphate, Nitrate, and other

It is also an essential component of most biological molecules like Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic
Acids, And Fats (or Lipids).
Process of Oxygen Cycle:
Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by processes like combustion, respiration, and formation of oxides
of nitrogen.
All aerobic organisms use free oxygen to respire. However, animals exhale CO2 back into the atmosphere.
Plants release oxygen into the atmosphere as a by-product of photosynthesis.
Phytoplankton ( floating algae or plants on oceanic water) produce maximum oxygen on the earth by
photosynthesis (more than terrestrial plants and trees).
Some amount of oxygen is also produced when strong sunlight is mixed with the water vapour in the
atmosphere.
2H2O + strong sunlight 2H2 + O2
Oxygen gets decomposed into fossils and fossil fuels.
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A large amount of oxygen is stored in the Lithosphere in Earth's crust in the form of oxides, but it can't be
used in the respiratory process.

Steps of Oxygen Cycle:

Respiration: All living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, carry out respiration.
During respiration, organisms use oxygen to break down organic compounds like glucose and convert them
into energy.
Industrial Combustion: Combustion is the process of burning fossil fuels, such as wood, fossil fuels (coal,
oil, and natural gas), and biomass. During combustion, oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with carbon and
hydrogen in the fuels to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat.
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the primary process responsible for producing oxygen in the atmosphere.
Green plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to produce
glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) as a byproduct.
Photolysis: Sunlight-induced photolysis also releases some oxygen in the atmosphere.
Four main processes that use atmospheric oxygen:
Breathing (Respiration)
Decomposition
Combustion
Rusting
Interconnection of Carbon Cycle and Oxygen Cycle:
Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen.
Oxygen is used by animals for respiration and releases carbon dioxide.
Again carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis by plants and they release oxygen. That is how the
interconnection of cycles goes on.
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Phosphorus Cycle:
The phosphorus cycle (unlike the carbon and nitrogen cycles) lacks an atmospheric component.
Phosphorus is one of the most important nutrients in biological systems since it is a fundamental
ingredient of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), phospholipids, Biological energy ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate), and several phosphorylated compounds.
Phosphorous is part of bones and teeth.
The Phosphorus is present in rocks and soil, the atmosphere does not play any role in this cycle.

Steps of Phosphorus Cycle:

Weathering of Rocks: Rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphorous and other minerals over
time. This inorganic phosphate is subsequently distributed in ground soils and water.
Absorption by Plants: Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil and then these plants are consumed
by animals. The phosphate is incorporated into organic molecules such as DNA in plants and animals. When
the plants and animals die, it decays and the organic phosphate is returned to the soil.
Consumption by Animals: In the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made available to plants by
bacteria that break down organic matter into inorganic forms of phosphorus. This process is known as
mineralization.
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Return to the Environment by Decomposition: Phosphorus from the soil can enter streams and eventually
the seas. It can then be absorbed into sediments over time.
Human Impact on the Phosphorous Cycle:
Use of Fertilizers in Crop Fields:
Fertilizers, particularly those containing phosphorus compounds, are widely used in agriculture to
enhance crop growth and increase agricultural productivity.
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant growth, and when added as fertilizer, it becomes available
for plant uptake.
However, excess phosphorus from fertilizers can lead to several environmental issues:
Eutrophication / Algal Bloom:
Eutrophication is a natural process that becomes problematic when accelerated by human activities. It
occurs when excessive nutrients, including phosphorus, enter aquatic ecosystems.
Phosphorus, in the form of phosphates, is a key driver of eutrophication. When high concentrations of
phosphates are introduced into lakes, rivers, or coastal waters, they can lead to the following
consequences.
Sulphur Cycle:
In the Sulphur cycle, there is a circulation of sulfur in various forms throughout nature. Sulphur is found in
all living things as a constituent of some amino acids.
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except for two of its compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) and
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), which add a gaseous component.
Process of the Sulphur Cycle:
Atmosphere: The primary source of sulphur in the environment is sulphur dioxide. It is caused by both
human and volcanic activity. Another source is hydrogen sulphide gas, which is created mostly by
microorganisms acting on dead and decaying organic materials. When hydrogen sulphide is oxidized sulphur
dioxide is produced.
Biosphere: The sulphur then enters the biosphere, either through rock weathering or through the atmosphere.
Sulphur can be found in three forms in the biosphere:
Elemental Sulphur: It can be found in sulphur deposits and sulphide ores.
Inorganic Sulphur: Sulphate in aerobic soils and sulphide in anaerobic soils are the two forms of
inorganic sulfur.
Organic Sulphur: Organic sulphur can be found in amino acids as well as plants and animals.
The presence of sulphur in the atmosphere aids in the formation of clouds by increasing the quantity and
size of cloud droplets. As a result, sulphur dissolves in rainwater and enters the biosphere as droplets of
mild sulphuric acid. Moreover, during the process of pedogenesis, chemical weathering allows sulphur to
migrate from the rocks to the soil and water. Some sulphur is converted to sulphate during the weathering
process and released into the environment.
Sulphur Absorption by Living Organisms: Sulphur is absorbed by plants through their roots from the soil.
Several soil microorganisms help to produce sulphur for plant uptake. Sulphur is absorbed indirectly by
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animals, including humans, via plant ingestion. Sulphur is needed in the biosynthesis of biomolecules such
as nucleotides and proteins in living organisms.
Release: Sulphur in the biosphere moves through the food chain via consumers feeding on producers and
eventually reaching the decomposers. During the breakdown process, this sulphur is converted from its
sulphate form into sulphides and released back into the atmosphere. Sulphur that does not enter the food
chain accumulates in deep sea and terrestrial rocks.
Sources of the Sulphur Cycle:
Natural sources of sulfur, such as volcanic eruptions and the evaporation of water, contribute to the sulfur
cycle.
Volcanic eruptions can release significant amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, impacting local and
global sulfur cycling.
Human Impact on the Sulphur Cycle:
Use of Sulfate in Fertilizer: Agriculture relies on the use of sulfate-containing fertilizers to enhance plant
growth. This can lead to increased sulfur levels in the soil and runoff into water bodies, affecting the natural
sulfur cycle in those ecosystems.
Burning of Fossil Fuels: The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, releases sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere. This significantly increases sulfur levels in the atmosphere, contributing to acid rain formation
and negatively impacting air quality.

Sulphur

+A
Sulphateir

By plants or
bacteria
Organic
Eat
Consum

Decomposit
ion
Sulphur
Back to
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Environment

Lecture - 07
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Biomes
Ecosystems/Biomes of the World:
Biome:
About:
A biome is defined as a large geographical region comprising its biotic community of plants and
animals found in a specific climatic condition.
Here, all the biota have the minimum common characteristics and all the areas of biomes are characterized
by more or less uniform environmental conditions.
Factors that define a Biome:
Climate: Climatic conditions determine the boundaries of biomes and plants and animals living in that
biome. Climatic conditions of biomes influence the vegetation pattern, this vegetation pattern facilitates
the specific adaptation in flora (plants) and fauna (animals)
Geographical Distribution: The geographical location and topography of an area play a significant role
in defining a biome.
Plant Community: The dominant plant species and their adaptations to the climate and environmental
conditions are key components of a biome.
Animal Community: The types of animals that inhabit an area are also indicative of its biome.
Tribal and Indigenous Group: Tribal and indigenous groups are important for understanding human-
environment interactions and cultural aspects of a region. They can play a role in the management and
conservation of natural resources within a biome.

Types of Biomes:

Terrestrial Biomes Aquatic Biomes

Tropical rainforest Sea

Temperate forest River

Grasslands Wetlands

Deserts Mangroves

Taiga (It is the largest terrestrial biome. It Coral reefs

comprises 11% of biome space.)

Tundra Estuaries

Intertidal zone
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Major Ecosystems of the World:

Forest Ecosystems (Biome):

The distribution of trees and their number in a forest ecosystem is determined by soil type, climatic
conditions, and local physiography.
It can be classified according to the climatic conditions in the following ways:
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Coniferous Forest/ Taiga Forest/ Boreal Forest:

Boreal or coniferous are evergreen coniferous forests present in the south of the Tundra.
It is sandwiched between the tundra to the north and the temperate forest to the south.
Distribution:
It stretches in a great continuous belt across North America, Europe, and Asia.
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They are absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of the southern continents in the
high latitudes.
Abiotic components:
Well-defined seasons: A lengthy, bitterly cold winter and a brief, mild summer. The existence of local
winds, such as the Buran of Eurasia and Blizzards of Canada. Days are short. Summer temperature goes
up to 20 degrees and winter temperature goes up from -40 to -50 degrees.
Precipitation: Evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year in between the annual average of 25
to 125 cm.
Soil type: Podzolized soil (acidic, excessively leached, and mineral deficient)
Biotic components:
Flora: Consists mostly of conifers evergreen; conical in shape; thick, leathery, and needle-shaped leaves.
E.g.: Pine, Fir, Spruce, Larch.
Fauna: Mink, Silver fox, Lynx, and Wolf.

Temperate Deciduous Forests:

Distribution: They occur mostly in northwest, central, and eastern Europe, eastern North America, north
China, Korea, Japan, Denmark, New Zealand, far eastern Russia, and Australia. These regions are present in
45 to 60 degrees North and South of the equator on the western margin of the continents. This is also
characterized by the British type of climate.
Climate: These forests occur in areas of moderate climatic conditions such as temperatures ranging but 10 to
20 degree Centigrade with a 6-month-long winter and an annual rainfall between 50 to 150 cm. It experiences
all four seasons.
Summer temperature - 18 to 20 C.
Winter temperature - Below 0 C.
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Flora: Natural vegetation comprises deciduous forests hard and durable wood. Common tree species are
oak, beach, maple, health, chestnut, birch, and pine are present. These forests also show stratification and
have an understory of saplings, shrubs, and tall herbs. In New Zealand, the Kauri tree is highly priced for its
timber and resin.
Fauna: Prominent grazers include deer, bison, and rodents. Rodents play a very important role in these forests.
They feed on seeds, fruits, and tree leaves. Black bears, raccoons, wild cats, wolves, foxes, and skunks are
the omnivores found in these forests. Hibernation or winter sleep during winter is a common feature of animals
found in these forests. Invertebrate fauna comprises green flies, aphids, certain moths, and butterflies.

Temperate Evergreen Forest:

It is distinguished by broad-leaved trees that produce new foliage in the autumn and shed their leaves in the
autumn.
Distribution:
Temperate evergreen forests are found in both hot and cold climatic zones closer to the equator, which
spread to southern and northern regions. It is found in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Asia, in
areas that generally receive between 300 and 900 mm of rain per year and with seasonal temperature
extremes ranging from -40 to 20 °C.
Abiotic components:
Presence of distinct seasons. Moisture-filled, warm summer and frosty or wet winter.
Soil type: Alfisol or brown forest soil.
Biotic components:
Flora: Vegetation includes coniferous-evergreen tree species that produce cones and needles, dominated
by spruce (Picea), pine (Pinus), fir (Abies), and hemlock (Tsuga) species, and the trees retain at least some
of their needles year-round. In the southern hemisphere, conifer genera also include Araucaria and
Podocarpus, which are widespread.
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Fauna: Squirrels, marsupials, brown bears, bats, rodents.

Temperate Rainforest:
Climate: Temperate rainforests are found in regions with moderate temperatures and receive high levels of
rainfall throughout the year. They are typically located along the coastlines of continents. Rainfall in temperate
rainforests can exceed 100 inches (250 cm) per year, creating a consistently wet environment.
Distribution: Notable temperate rainforest regions include the Pacific Northwest of North America (in states
like Washington and Oregon), parts of British Columbia in Canada, the southern regions of Chile, and New
Zealand's West Coast. These ecosystems are vital for their role in carbon sequestration, habitat preservation,
and their unique beauty.
Vegetation: These rainforests are characterized by dense and lush vegetation. They are dominated by tall,
evergreen trees, such as spruce, fir, cedar, and hemlock. Mosses, ferns, and other undergrowth plants thrive in
the moist conditions.
Biodiversity: Temperate rainforests support a high level of biodiversity. They are home to a variety of plant
and animal species, including black bears, eagles, salmon, and unique flora like the Sitka spruce.

Tropical Evergreen Rainforest (Equatorial Type of

Climate):
Distribution: These are found in the high rainfall areas
on either side of the equator. Such forests are found on
the western coast of India, scattered in southeast Asia,
some parts of Africa, and South America. This region
has the equatorial type of climate that has direct rays of
the sun almost throughout the year. Geographical
distribution is 0 to 10 degrees south and north of the
equator.
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Flora: Tropical rainforests occur in areas with high temperatures and high humidity and receive equal or above
200 cm of rainfall per year. Soil is rich in humus. These forests also support epiphytes, like creepers, woody
creepers, and orchids, etc. The annual range of temperature is 22 to 27 degrees. Rainfall is equally distributed
throughout the year. They are very high dense forests with vertical stratification of vegetation comprising three
to four distinct layers. Adaptation of certain plants in the form of climbers like Vines are also present here.
Fauna: These forests are rich in tree-dwelling animals such as monkeys, flying squirrels, snails, centipedes,
and millipedes, and many insect species are common on the forest floor.

Tropical Deciduous Rainforests:

About: These are also known as monsoon forests found in South East Asia, India, Chile, in Central and South
America, Northern Australia, Western Africa, and the Pacific. It is also called a Tropical Monsoonal Type of
Climate.
Distribution: 10 to 30 degree North and South of the Equator
Climatic conditions: Rainfall is high, sometimes higher than tropical rain forests but seasonal. There are
pronounced wet and dry periods, and so are winter and summer seasons. The soils are brown in color and rich
in nutrients.
Three distinct seasons:
Hot Summer: Average temperature more than 40 degree centigrade
Rainy Season: Average temperature between 30-35 degree centigrade
Dry Winter: Average temperature between 20 to 25 degree centigrade
The average rainfall is 25 to 200 cm.
Flora and fauna: Vertical stratification in the vegetation is somewhat simple with a single understorey tree
layer. The trees lose leaves (defoliation) in one dry season but ground vegetation remains evergreen.
Trees are 20-30 m in height, sometimes reaching a height of over 40 m in this biome.
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Hardwood trees which yield valuable timber are present in this forest.
Common tree species are Teak, Sesum, Sal, Neem, Mahua, Deodar, Bamboo and Eucalyptus are good
examples of this type of biome.

Grassland Ecosystem:
About: Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses and nonwoody plants. Grasslands have few trees or no
trees. They occupy about 20% of the land on the earth's surface.
Distribution: Grasslands occur in both tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to
support the growth of trees. Grasslands are found in areas having well-defined hot and dry, warm and rainy
seasons. Tropical grasslands are commonly called Savannas. They occur in eastern Africa, South America,
Australia, and India. Savannas form a complex ecosystem with scattered medium-sized trees in grasslands.
This ecosystem has poor soil depth and poor soil quality.
Climatic Condition: While temperature and soil conditions do influence the type of plant in the grassland
ecosystem. Poor soil depth and poor soil quality is characteristic of grassland ecosystem. It's important to note
that grasslands can exist in various climatic conditions.
Flora and Fauna: Grasses (herbaceous non-woody plants) are the dominating plants with scattered drought-
resistant thorny trees in the tropical grasslands. Badgers, foxes, asses, zebra, and antelope are found grazing
on grasslands supporting the dairy and leather industries. Grasslands also support a large population of rodents,
reptiles, and insects.
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Types of Grasslands:
The Grassland Ecosystem can be categorised into two types -
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 08
Biomes (Part 02)
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Biomes (Part 02)

Various Names of Grasslands in Different Parts of the World:
Tropical Grassland (Evergreen) Ecosystem:
Also known as Evergreen Grassland Ecosystem. It is located between Tropical Rain forest & Tropical
Desert.
Example: Savanna (It has all year dry and wet seasons)
The average annual rainfall is 25 to 125cm.
Biotic components:
Flora: tall, elephant grass and short trees that have long roots and water storing devices (e.g: baobabs and
bottle trees).
Fauna: Grass-eating Herbivores and flesh-eating Carnivores.

Tropical Grasslands: Savanna Type

Region Grassland Name

Africa Savanna

Venezuela Llanos

Brazil Campos
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Economic Importance of Grassland Ecosystem:

Wheat, Maize, and Rice are grown in the grasslands all over the world.
It also provides grazing ground for cattle or animals.
Natural Grasslands are an efficient system for water absorption, high infiltration, and reduced erosion.
Grasslands are natural reserves of biodiversity with good visibility of animals (animals can be seen easily
compared to tropical grasslands) and thus are important tourist spots for tourists.

Temperate Grasslands of the World:

Rainfall is a differentiating factor between the Tropical Grassland and Temperate grassland.
In the Temperate Grassland, Rainfall is between 25 to 75 cm/year.
Examples: Pampas, Preries, Steppe, Veld & Down.
It is characterized by harsh weather Conditions. (Climate varies from very low temperature to very high
temperature).
Temperate Grasslands are of two major types:
Prairie: It is wetter in condition.
Steppe: It is drier in condition.
Biotic Components:
Flora: Short steppe type of grass, practically treeless (used for extensive wheat cultivation)
Fauna: Mainly domesticated animals- cattle, sheep, pigs are found.

Temperate Grassland

Regions Grasslands

Eurasia Steppes

North America Prairies

South america Pampas

South africa Veld

Australia Downs

Tundra Biome/ Tundra Ecosystem:

It is the World's coldest Ecosystem.
It is characterized by low rainfall.
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Distribution:
Found south of the Arctic Ice Cap.
It lies beyond the Arctic Circle in the Northern sphere.
It is characterized by the permafrost region of the Antarctica in Southern hemisphere and Greenland in
the Northern Hemisphere.
It covers Canada & Alaska.
At Peaks of North America, Europe & Siberia.

TUNDRA BIOME

Climatic Condition: The temperature here is as low as -40 to -50 degrees Celsius. This ecosystem has a
very short summer season and in summer few flowering and berry-bearing plants will grow. These regions
have long winters of up to 10 months with average winter temperatures of -30 to -40 degrees C, whereas
summer temperatures are 10 degrees C. Precipitation is in the form of Snow. Convectional rainfall is rare
(less than 25cm).
Biotic factors:
Flora: Simple vegetation like Mosses, Lichens, and Bushes are prominent in this region.
Fauna: Wolves, Foxes, Polar Bear, Arctic hare, Seal, Walrus, etc.
Threats to Tundra:
It is not threatened by development.
It is threatened by climate change. Climate change is leading to Ice melting.
Unsustainable exploitation of Oil and gases in the Tundra may lead to threats to the Tundra.
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Desert Ecosystem:
Distribution:
It covers 17% of the Earth's surface.
Every continent of the earth has a desert.
Rainfall: The average annual rainfall is less than 25 cm.
Characteristics:
It is the World's driest Terrestrial Ecosystem.
It has very low biodiversity.
Plants have green succulent stems covered with wax and long roots.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Types of Deserts:
Hot Desert: It is characterized by very low annual rainfall (< 50cm) and high temperatures. These are
called Tropical Deserts.
Cold Desert: It is characterized by very low rainfall (<50 cm) and low temperature. These are called
Temperate Deserts.
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Temperate Desert (Cold Desert) Region

Great Basin Desert North America

Atacama Desert South America

Patagonia Desert South America

Gobi Desert Eurasia

Iranian Desert Eurasia

Ladakh Asia

Tropical Desert (Hot Desert):

It has extremely little rainfall in that region.
Geographic Distribution: Latitudinal range is 20 to 30 degrees north and south of the equator.
Examples: Sahara desert in Africa (It is the largest single stretch of desert), Kalahari desert & Namib
desert (Africa) , Great Australian desert, Thar desert & Arabian desert (Asia) , etc.

Tropical Desert (Hot Desert) Location

Sahara Africa (largest single stretch of desert)

Kalahari Africa

Namib Africa

Great Australian Australia

Thar Asia

Arabian Asia

Adaptation Mechanism in Desert Ecosystem:

Plant Adaptations in the Desert Extensive Root System to Tap Underground Water:
Xerophytic adaptation of plants (e.g Cactus, Calotropis).
Succulent and fleshy stem for storing water.
Stems covered with waxy coating or hair
Leaves are reduced to a small scale and sometimes into
spikes/thorns to minimise transpiration.
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Waxy coatings on leaves and stems.

Sunken stomata to conserve water.

Phreatophyte Adaptation of Plants (e.g., Honey mesquite,

Welwitschia):
Phreatophytes are signs of groundwater which is drinkable.
Deep-rooted plants called phreatophytes get a large part of
the water they require from the phreatic zone.
Their roots reach more or less deep into the aquifer, allowing
them to maintain continual contact with moisture owing to
deep root systems.

Animal Adaptations in the Desert They are Nocturnal by habit to avoid the heat of the sun.
They can survive for months without eating due to the fat they store
in their humps.
To save water, they excrete concentrated urine.
The body may adjust its temperature to prevent perspiration and
water loss.
Presence of burrowing animals.
Animals have scaly skin to avoid water loss.
Camel also known as can travel several
days without water (drink gallons of water at one go)

Climatic Conditions of Dessert:

Precipitation is very low (Average rainfall is 15 cm/year)
The soil lacks organic matter. It is not suitable for trees.
Flora: Cactus, Shrubs, Succulents,/ and Grasses.
Fauna: Snake, Lizards, Desert Cat, Desert Fox, and Camel.
Aquatic Ecosystem:
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem formed by surrounding a body of water, in contrast to land-based
terrestrial ecosystems.
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Classification of Aquatic Ecosystems based on Salt Content (PPT-parts per thousand):

Freshwater Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems

Salt concentration: Less than 5 ppt Salt concentration: 35 ppt or above

E.g. Lakes, ponds, springs, rivers, wetlands. E.g., Seas, oceans

Freshwater Ecosystem:
In the freshwater ecosystem salt concentration is less than 5 PPT (Parts Per Thousand), which will be
considered low salt content.
Freshwater is home to around 41% of fish in freshwater ecosystems.
Around 20% of the earth's surface is covered by freshwater biomes.
It contains 0.8% of total water.
Types of Freshwater Ecosystem:
There are two types of freshwater ecosystems.
Lotic Ecosystem
Lentic Ecosystem
The lentic ecosystem refers to standing waters such as lakes and ponds while the lotic ecosystem refers to
running water.

Lotic Ecosystem Lentic Ecosystem

It means static freshwater. It is a fast-moving freshwater ecosystem.

Examples: lakes and ponds. Examples: Springs, rivers, and riverine ecosystems.
It is also known as the Riverine ecosystem

Significance of Freshwater Ecosystem:

Fresh water is essential for humans and wildlife, it is crucial for the survival of our planet.
It stores and purifies water for humans and wildlife.
It provides water for drinking, agriculture, industry, electricity, transportation, and food (Fish).
It helps in the prevention of erosion, natural floods.
It also helps in trash disposal.
Threats to Freshwater Ecosystem
Overexploitation of Freshwater:
This occurs when humans extract water from freshwater sources at a rate that exceeds the natural
replenishment of the ecosystem.
Water Pollution:
Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal contribute to water pollution,
negatively impacting the health of aquatic organisms and the overall ecosystem.
 9

Habitat Destruction:
Human activities, like urbanisation, dam construction, and deforestation, can result in the loss and
degradation of freshwater habitats.
Invasion by Foreign Species:
Introduction of non-native species can have devastating effects on freshwater ecosystems.
Acidification:
Acidification of freshwater occurs when acidic substances, often from industrial emissions and air
pollution, enter water bodies. This can harm aquatic life, especially organisms with shells or skeletons, as
acidic conditions make it difficult for them to maintain their structures.
Eutrophication:
Eutrophication is the excessive nutrient enrichment of freshwater ecosystems, often due to runoff from
agricultural fertilizers and sewage. This leads to an overgrowth of algae, which depletes oxygen levels in
the water when they decompose, negatively impacting other aquatic organisms.
Loads of Sewage and Chemicals:
Discharging untreated sewage and chemicals into freshwater bodies introduces harmful substances that
can disrupt the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem:
In marine water, the concentration of salts is equal to or more than 35 PPT.
The marine ecosystem covers 70% of the earth's surface.
The marine ecosystem is 97% of the total water supply on the earth's surface.
The marine ecosystem covers 90% of habitable space on planet Earth.
The average temperature of the marine ecosystem is 4 degrees Celsius.
Zones of Marine Ecosystem based on Sunlight:

Euphotic Zone The top layer of the marine ecosystem is the euphotic zone, which receives lots
of sunlight. It starts at the ocean's surface and goes down to about 200 metres
on average. It witnesses photosynthesis. Due to the abundance of sunlight, the
food chain functions efficiently. Most marine organisms' life is present in this
zone.

Disphotic Zone The second layer is the disphotic zone, which receives some sunlight (diffused
sunlight), but not enough for plants to survive (allow low photosynthesis). It goes
down from 200 to 1000 meters on average. Marine life will gradually decrease
in depth.

Aphotic Zone The third layer is the aphotic zone, which gets no sunlight at all, so no
photosynthesis. Not only is the aphotic zone completely dark, but it is also
extremely cold and few marine animals can survive here. It goes beyond 1000
metres on average. This layer has very little marine life.
 10

Marine Food Chain:

The marine food chain starts with phytoplankton. Phytoplanktons are microscopic floating algae. These are
eaten by Zooplanktons (marine floating insects). Zooplankton are eaten by small fishes, small fishes are eaten
by intermediate fishes. Intermediate fishes are eaten by Big fishes such as sharks.

Significance of Marine Ecosystem:

The world's biggest cities are located in the coastal areas because they provide food, energy (tidal energy,
wave energy, ocean thermal energy, etc), and transportation to the cities.
Example: Offshore Oil & gas, Minerals
 11

It is very important for sustaining biodiversity.

The marine routes are used for shipping.
It is also an important ground for fisheries, aquaculture, etc.
It has a greater impact on global climate.
It is an important component of the Water cycle.
It is also important for tourism and recreation.
Threats to Marine Ecosystem:
Overfishing: Intensive fishing is a major threat because it depletes resources and destabilizes ecosystems.
Habitable Destruction: As dredging is to remove the deposits submerged underwater, the activity alters the
pre-disposed composition of the soil, leading to the destruction of the habitat of creatures and organisms.
Invasion of Exotic Species: Invasive species are primarily spread by human activities, often unintentionally.
It threatens the local species.
Ocean Acidification: Ocean acidification is the continuing decrease of seawater pH caused by the absorption
of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Ocean acidification has the power to greatly endanger the lives
of marine organisms and also humans who depend on fish and fish products for their daily sustenance.
Ocean Warming: Climate change arguably presents the greatest threat to ocean health. It is making oceans
hotter, promoting acidification, and making it harder to breathe in them by reducing dissolved oxygen levels.
Ocean Pollution: It is estimated that around 8 million tonnes of plastic waste enters our oceans every year,
and by 2050, at this rate, we will witness more plastic than fish in the water bodies across the world.
 1

Environment

Lecture 09
 2

Problems Related to Aquatic Ecosystem || Wetland Ecosystem

Classification of Aquatic Organisms:
Neuston: Neustons are those which live at the air-water surface. These are floating insects such as beetles,
and mosquitoes. Neuston refers to a unique ecological niche in aquatic environments, specifically the surface
film of water bodies, including oceans, lakes, and rivers.
Periphyton: Periphyton are those who are aquatic but they remain attached to the stems and leaves of the
rooted plants. Periphyton is a complex community of microscopic and macroscopic algae, cyanobacteria, and
other microorganisms that grow attached to submerged surfaces in aquatic environments.
Planktons: Plankton is a diverse group of microscopic floating plants and animals that drift or float
passively in aquatic ecosystems, primarily in the ocean but also in freshwater bodies such as lakes and rivers.
These are not swimmers, their movement is controlled by the ocean currents. Examples: Algae, Jellyfish,
insects, etc.
Nectons: They are a group of aquatic animals that are capable of swimming and controlling their
movements within a body of water. Unlike plankton, which are drifters carried by water currents, and benthos,
which are bottom-dwelling organisms, necton are active swimmers and can move independently through the
water column. Examples: Fish, Octopus, Squids, etc.
Benthos: Benthos refers to the community of organisms that inhabit the bottom of aquatic ecosystems,
including oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water. Benthic organisms are adapted to life on or within
the sediment, substrate, or other materials at the bottom of these environments. Examples: Starfish, Scabs,
Sea Snell, etc.
Problems Related to Aquatic Ecosystem:
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
The amount of oxygen required by bacteria for its own
respiration and biological oxidation of organic
material in water is known as Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD).
It is measured in milligrams of oxygen per liter of water.
It is a measure of the amount of organic waste that
pollutes water.
BOD should not be high, a greater BOD value suggests
that the water has a low Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
concentration in the aquatic ecosystem. This will
hamper the decomposition or oxidation of organic matter in the ecosystem, so the accumulation of organic
matter increases which leads to water pollution in the ecosystem.
However, BOD is not an accurate way to measure water pollution since it only accounts for biodegradable
materials.
When sewage is mixed with river water, the BOD level will increase which leads to water pollution.
 3

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

Chemical Oxygen Demand is the amount of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of both organic and
inorganic substances present in the water body.
The capacity of water to consume oxygen during the breakdown of organic matter and the oxidation of
inorganic compounds like ammonia and nitrite is known as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).
Measurements of COD are typically done on wastewater samples from natural waterways that have been
polluted by home or industrial waste.
There is no use of living organisms in COD.
Chemical oxidation by an oxidizing agent like Potassium Per Magnate and Potassium Dichromate.
Difference Between BOD and COD:
COD is always higher than the BOD.
While BOD measures the quantity of oxygen needed by bacteria to break down the organic materials in water,
COD or Chemical Oxygen Demand measures all chemicals (both organic and inorganic) in the water as a
whole.
Characteristic BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Definition A measure of the amount of dissolved A measure of the amount of oxygen required to
oxygen required by microorganisms to chemically oxidize both organic and inorganic
decompose organic matter in water substances in water

Duration of Typically measured over 5 days Typically measured in a short time (a few hours)
Measurement (BOD5) and expressed in mg/L and expressed in mg/L

Biological vs. Reflects the oxygen consumption by Involves a chemical reaction (often using strong
Chemical microorganisms during the natural oxidizing agents) to oxidize both organic and
decomposition of organic matter inorganic substances

Environmental High BOD levels indicate the presence High COD levels suggest the presence of various
Impact of organic pollution, which may deplete pollutants, including both organic and inorganic
oxygen levels and harm aquatic life substances, which can have a broader range of
environmental impacts

Application Commonly used in environmental Widely used in environmental assessments,

monitoring, especially in wastewater industrial process control, and assessing overall
treatment and assessment of organic water quality
pollution

Eutrophication:
Eutrophication is a process in which there is an overabundance of nutrients in the waterbody resulting in
excessive growth of simple plant life. This process is indicated by the excessive growth of algae known as
Algal Bloom in the waterbody.
 4

Eutrophication is a severe environmental concern because

it leads to water quality degradation and an increase in
biological oxygen demand.
Eutrophication can eventually turn waterbody into a dead
zone, that cannot sustain life.
Eutrophication is caused by the addition of nutrients such
as nitrates and phosphates, either naturally or artificially
to the aquatic ecosystem via fertilizers, sewage, etc. Such
nutrients are known as problem nutrients.
Under this process, the aquatic ecosystem is fertilized by
adding nutrients like Phytoplankton (algae and blue-
green bacteria). Their population growth almost
completely covers the top layer, and they thrive on the
surplus nutrients. The term "algal bloom" refers to this
situation.
Steps involved in Eutrophication:
Initially, the nutrients load up in the water body.
The water body provides excess nutrients to plants which
leads to their overpopulation and results in the Algal
Bloom.
Algal bloom will cause intense competition for oxygen
causing the depletion of oxygen.
The decomposition of organic matter will lead to depletion of the oxygen.
The final result will be the death of the Ecosystem.
Mitigation of Eutrophication:
Wastewater Treatment: Treatment of wastewater should be done to remove nutrients effectively before
discharging wastewater into water bodies.
Optimal Use of Fertilizers in Agriculture: It is crucial for maximizing crop yields while minimizing negative
environmental impacts. Harvesting can be done by monitoring the nutrient recycling. Place fertilizers where
they are most beneficial for root uptake. This may involve banding fertilizers below the soil surface or placing
them in proximity to the seed.
Control Algae Growth: Algae growth can be controlled by chemicals such as Copper Sulphate and Sodium
Arsenite, which will kill algae. Algal Bloom should be cleared from time to time. Preventing the accumulation
of excessive nutrients in the water helps to reduce the frequency and intensity of algal blooms.
Related Terms to Eutrophication:
Eutrophic Water Body / Lake: A water body that is under eutrophication, means that the water body is with
excessive nutrients. It has high nutrient levels, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to excessive
plant and algae growth.
 5

Oligotrophic Water Body / Lake: Oligotrophic lake is a type of aquatic environment characterised by low
nutrient levels/ nutrient deficiency, particularly low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. These lakes
are typically clear, deep, and have relatively low biological productivity.
Dead Zone/Hypoxia: A dead zone refers to an area in a waterbody, typically a marine or estuarine
environment, where oxygen levels are extremely low, often approaching zero. In these hypoxic or anoxic
conditions, the concentration of dissolved oxygen is insufficient to support most marine life, leading to a
significant decline in biodiversity.
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Harmful Algal
Blooms (HABs) are occurrences of rapid and
hypergrowth of algae in aquatic environments due to
the addition of problem nutrients, often leading to
the production of toxins that can be harmful to marine
life, animals, and humans. HABs may sometimes lead
to Red Tide. Red Tide is the process of hypergrowth
of red algae in a very large quantity.
Wetland Ecosystem:
What is a Wetland Ecosystem?
Wetland ecosystems are
transitional zones between
terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. It can be considered
an ecotone.
Wetlands are unique ecosystems
with open standing water that
is water at surface level and
vegetation is adapted to soil
saturation conditions.
Wetlands can be temporary or permanent, natural or artificial.
It can include freshwater, brackish water, or salt water.
The depth or height of the water in a wetland should not exceed 6 meters.
Examples: Ponds, lakes, creeks, reservoirs, estuaries, mangroves, etc.
Various Types of Wetlands:
Coastal Wetlands Coastal wetlands are dynamic ecosystems
located at the interface between land and water,
where the water table is usually at or near the
surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
For example, Mangroves.
 6

Riverine or Riparian Wetlands Wetlands associated with rivers are often

referred to as riverine or riparian wetlands.
These wetlands are located in the transition
zone between terrestrial and aquatic
environments along the banks of rivers and
streams.
Lacustrine wetlands Wetlands associated with lakes are often
referred to as lacustrine wetlands. These
wetlands develop in the vicinity of lakes and are
influenced by the hydrological, geological, and
ecological conditions specific to lakeshores.

Swamp Wetlands Swamp wetlands are characterized by poorly

drained and dominated by woody vegetation like
trees. Swamps differ from marshes, which are
dominated by herbaceous plants, in that swamps
have trees and shrubs as the dominant vegetation.

Marsh Wetlands Marsh wetlands are poorly

drained and dominated by
nonwoody vegetation like
grasses. Marshes are wetland
ecosystems characterized by
the presence of shallow water, emergent herbaceous vegetation, and
waterlogged soils.
Bogs Wetlands Bogs wetlands are rich in peat and poor
in nutrients (Oligotrophic). They are a
specific type of wetland characterized by
their unique hydrological and ecological
conditions. They are often isolated and
have distinctive vegetation, including
sphagnum mosses and other specialized plant species.
Fens Wetlands Fens wetlands have less peat and more nutrients. Fens are wetland
ecosystems similar to bogs in that they are peat-forming and have
waterlogged conditions.
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 10
Wetland || Mangroves
 2

Wetland || Mangroves
Significance of Wetlands:
Biodiversity Hotspots: Wetlands support an incredible diversity of plant and animal species. They serve as
breeding, feeding, and nesting grounds for numerous species, including migratory birds, fish, amphibians, and
invertebrates. Many rare and endangered species are dependent on wetland habitats.
Helps in Nutrient Cycle: Wetlands play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, contributing to the overall health
and balance of ecosystems.
Carbon Sink: Wetlands, especially peat-forming ones like bogs and fens, store large amounts of carbon. They
contribute to climate regulation by sequestering carbon and helping mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Wetland preservation is essential for global carbon balance.
Water Recharge: Wetlands contribute to the maintenance of water supply by storing and releasing water
gradually. They also play a role in groundwater recharge, replenishing underground aquifers, and supporting
the sustainability of water resources.
Bioshield Against Urban Flooding: Wetlands help regulate water flow by absorbing and slowing down
floodwaters. They act as natural buffers, reducing the impact of storms and mitigating flooding in urban areas.
Natural Shock Absorber: Wetlands act as a natural shock absorber or natural buffer zone during extreme
weather events, also helpful in reducing flooding, and delaying droughts.

Wetland Products:
Plants, Animals, and Minerals: Wetlands can provide a wide range of plants, animals, and minerals if they
are well managed.
Fish: 2/3rd of fish are present in coastal wetlands. Fish is a source of protein.
Rice Production:
Honey: Many swamps and mangroves provide a good amount of products like honey.

Threats to Wetland Ecosystem:

Encroachment: The conversion of wetlands for urban development, infrastructure projects, and agriculture
leads to habitat loss and fragmentation due to unplanned urbanization. Drainage and filling of wetlands reduce
their size and alter their hydrological characteristics.
Over Exploitation of Wetland Water: Altering natural water flow through activities like water abstraction
for agriculture, industry, or municipal use can disrupt wetland hydrology of wetlands. Changes in water levels
can negatively affect the plants, animals, and overall ecological balance of wetlands.
Pollution from Different Sources: Solid waste Disposal, runoff from agricultural areas, industrial effluent
discharges, domestic sewage, and urban areas can introduce pollutants such as nutrients, pesticides, heavy
metals, and contaminants into wetlands. This pollution can degrade water quality and harm aquatic life. These
pollutants lead to the Eutrophication process.
Invasion by Exotic Species: The introduction of invasive plant and animal species can outcompete or prey on
native species, disrupting the natural balance of wetland ecosystems. Invasive species can alter habitat
structure, nutrient cycling, and community dynamics, leading to biodiversity loss.
 3

Mangroves:
Mangroves denote the entire Environment as well as trees, plants, and shrubs growing in particular areas i.e.,
in the coastal intertidal zone.
Mangroves are small trees or shrubs that grow alongside coastal areas where the roots of the plant are in
saline soil typically underwater.
Mangroves are littoral plants found along tropical and
subtropical coastal lines.
Mangroves are salt-resistant and heat-resistant
plants, they grow in an area with high rainfall and high
temperature.
Mangrove species have a variety of adaptations in
their morphology, anatomy, and physiology to
enable them to live in wet soil, high salinity, stones,
and tide surges.
Mangroves are flowering trees that are members of the
Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae, and Arecaceae families.
Mangroves, also known as halophytes, are salt-tolerant trees that have evolved to survive in challenging
coastal environments.

Characteristics of the Mangroves:

Geographical Location: It is part of the Littoral Forest Ecosystem.
They grow in brackish waters of protected low-lying beaches, mudflats,
tidal creeks, backwaters, marshes, and lagoons mostly found primarily
between latitudes 25° N and 25° S in the tropics and subtropics. This
is because mangroves require good sunlight to filter the saline water
through their root system.
 4

Forest Types: They are part of the littoral forest system. The
trees are 8 to 20 m high and they are an Evergreen forest. It is
a highly productive ecosystem.
Survival in Extreme Conditions: With their roots submerged in
water, mangrove trees thrive in hot, muddy, salty, less oxygen,
and submerged conditions that would quickly kill most plants.
They are heat-resistant and salt-resistant trees.
Complex Root System: Root systems have complex salt
filtering systems.
Challenges to the root system
Root gets saline water.
The root gets less oxygen.
Enabling Provisions to tackle these Challenges:
Saline water: Filtration of saline water is done with
the help of Sunlight.
Less oxygen: They have pneumatic roots (breathing
roots) to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere.
Stilt Roots: Adventitious roots that spread out from a tree's main
trunk above ground.
Pneumatic Roots: Pneumatophores are specialized root
structures that grow out from the water surface and facilitate the
aeration necessary for root respiration in hydrophytic trees.
(e.g., Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia raecemosa).

Viviparous Germination: Mangroves have a Viviparity mode of germination where,

Their seeds germinate within the tree before falling to the ground.
After germination, the seedling develops into a propagule.
 5

The propagule gets detached from the parent tree and falls into water.
Once in the water, the mature propagule is then carried to a new location where it eventually takes
root in the ground.
Succulent Leaves: The thick succulent leaves of mangroves, like plants in the desert, store fresh water and
minimize evapotranspiration.
Significance of Mangroves:

Buffer Zone: Mangroves act as buffers between marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
Natural Barrier: Mangroves protect beaches from storms, waves, tides, and flooding and help prevent
coastal erosion.
Helps in Filtering Water: They play an important role in improving water quality by filtering pollutants
and trapping sediments from the land.
Rich in Biodiversity: Mangroves are rich in biodiversity (Transitional zone -> Ecotone).
Economic Benefit: Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and they provide locals with wood,
firewood, medicinal plants, edible plants, food, etc.
 6

Breeding Habitat: Mangroves provide habitat and breeding grounds for fish and birds.
Source of Income: Mangroves are a source of income for the coastal population in the way of honey, wax,
fishing, wood, etc.
Blue Carbon Storage: They contribute to blue carbon storage. Mangroves are less than 2% of marine
ecosystems but it accounts for 10 to 15% of carbon sink. Due to a waterlogged soil environment, mangroves
are estimated to hold up to four times the amount of carbon as some other forested ecosystems (e.g. temperate
and boreal forests)
Tourism and Research: Tourists are attracted to the unique flora and fauna of mangroves, making them
popular destinations for ecotourism. Mangroves support diverse ecosystems, making them valuable for
researchers studying marine biology, ecology, and biodiversity.
Threats to Mangrove:
Overexploitation: These forests are in danger because of the increase in land acquisition for agriculture
and industry near the coast, exploited for wood, fodder, and food, as well as the discharge of untreated
domestic sewage, industrial effluents, and pesticide and fertilizer residues from agricultural fields.
Aquaculture (Shrimp Farming) Expansion: Shrimp farming is currently responsible for the majority of
mangrove cultivation, endangering the mangrove environment. The expansion of shrimp and fish farming
often involves the conversion of mangrove areas into ponds. This can lead to habitat destruction, increased
salinity in surrounding areas, and the release
of pollutants.
Oil Spill and Pollution: Pollution from
industrial discharges, oil spills, plastic waste,
and other contaminants can have detrimental
effects on mangroves. Pollutants can disrupt
the ecological balance, harm wildlife, and
degrade water quality.
Climate Change: Rising sea levels and
changes in temperature and precipitation
patterns associated with climate change
can impact mangroves. Increased
temperatures may affect the distribution of mangrove species, and rising sea levels can lead to habitat loss.
Cyclone and Tsunami: Strong cyclones and tsunamis can cause physical damage to mangrove trees. High-
speed winds can break branches, uproot trees, and even topple entire mangrove stands. This damage weakens
the structural integrity of the mangrove ecosystem.
Coastal Erosion: The powerful waves and storm surges associated with cyclones can contribute to erosion
along coastal areas. This erosion can impact the stability of mangrove habitats and alter sedimentation
patterns, affecting the ability of mangroves to trap and accumulate sediment.
Pollution from Rivers: Rivers may carry pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals.
When these pollutants reach mangrove ecosystems, they can accumulate in sediments and affect the health
of mangrove vegetation, as well as the animals that depend on the mangroves for habitat.
 7

Mangrove in the World:

According to the Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020, 113 countries have a mangrove cover of 14.8
million hectares.
More than 40% of mangroves are present in 4 countries, they are Indonesia (19%), Brazil (9%), Nigeria
(7%), and Mexico (6%).
In continents, Asia has the largest mangrove area in the world, followed by Africa.
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 11
Wetland || Mangroves (Part 02)
 2

Wetland || Mangroves (Part 02)

Mangroves in India:
As per the Indian state report, IFSR ( , the mangrove cover in India is
4992 square kilometers, which is 0.15 percent of the total geographical area (India).
Top 5 states that contain mangroves: West Bengal (40% of India's mangroves), Gujarat, Andaman and
Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha
The Sunderbans (West Bengal) are the largest mangrove forest in the world. and it is listed as a World
Heritage site.
The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna Godavari, and Kaveri rivers contain mangrove forests.
In India, mangroves are protected by the Environmental Protection Act of 1986.

Sundarbans (West Bengal):

Sundarbans is home to the world's largest single block of Tidal Halophytic (Saline) mangrove forests.
Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, viz. Sundarbans
West (Bangladesh), Sundarbans South (Bangladesh), Sundarbans East (Bangladesh) and Sundarbans
National Park (India).
It is spread over 10000 sq. km in India and Bangladesh.
The most abundant tree species are sundri (Heritiera fomes) and Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha).
 3

It is a Ramsar site.
The Sundarbans delta, which spans Bangladesh and India, is the only mangrove forest in the world where
tigers can be found.
According to Tiger Census (2018): Sundarbans are home to more than 400 tigers, 88 of which are found in
the Indian part of Sundarbans.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) Study suggests the number of tigers in the Sundarbans may have exceeded the
mangrove forests' capacity to support them.
It has three Key Species: Royal Bengal tiger (EN), Gangetic dolphin, and Estuarine crocodile (saltwater
crocodile).
Major fauna: Royal Bengal tiger (EN), Saltwater crocodile (LC), River terrapin (CE), Olive ridley turtle
(VU), Gangetic river dolphin (EN), Hawksbill turtle (CR), Mangrove horseshoe crab, etc.
The tidal influence is completely reliant on the eco-geography of this region.
As a result of the tidal movement, the channels' bed is raised and new islands and creeks are created.
Threat: Mangrove areas here are being cleared for agricultural use
Bhitarkanika (Odisha):
The Bhitarkanika mangroves in Odisha are the second-largest mangrove forest in the Indian sub-continent.
It is created by two river deltas of Brahmani and Baitarani.
It is a Ramsar Wetland site.
It is situated near the Baitarani and Brahmani river deltas, the mangrove extends to the Mahanadi delta.
In India, it serves as the natural habitat of the saltwater crocodile.
It is the largest nesting site of Olive Ridley sea turtles.
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands:
Ramsar Convention is a convention on wetlands that was signed in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar with
the aim of conservation and wise use of wetlands through local and national actions and international
cooperation.
Convention Includes wetlands like Lakes, rivers, estuaries, swamps, mangroves, coral reefs, oasis, peatlands,
wetlands, deltas, tidal flats, fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
The twin objectives the conservation and sustainable use Ramsar
sites (wetlands).
At the center of the Ramsar philosophy is the of wetlands.
World Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on 2nd February, the day on which the convention was
adopted in 1971.
This convention was signed in 1971 and came into effect in 1975.
India is a signatory to the convention and ratified the convention in 1982.
Current number of Contracting Parties: 172 countries
It is not part of the UN (Multilateral Environmental Agreement), but closely works with it.
Number of Wetlands of International Importance recognized: 2,400+
Total surface of designated sites: 255,635,519 ha.
 4

The Ramsar Convention was created with three pillars as its foundation, the Contracting Parties commit to:
Work towards the wise use of all wetlands to appropriate policies and legislation, management action, and
public education for sustainable use of wetlands.
Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance
ensure their effective management.
Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and common species.
Ramsar Sites Criteria for Recognition:
The following two major parameters are used by the Ramsar Convention for the declaration of wetlands of
International importance.
1. Wetlands supporting rich biodiversity:
20,000 or more aquatic birds should be there.
A large percentage of native fish subspecies
It should have 1 percent of the individuals of an aquatic bird population.
2. A rare or unique wetlands:
It should support threatened species.
It should provide a habitat for plants and animals vital to the ecosystem of that area.
It should provide nesting,sparrowing, migration, and food.

Additional Information: The Ramsar Sites Criteria

The nine criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance
Group A of the Criteria. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types
1. Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare,
or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate
biogeographic region.
Group B of the Criteria. Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity
Criteria based on species and ecological communities
2. Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable,
endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
3. Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant
and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic
region.
4. Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal
species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
Specific criteria based on waterbirds
5. Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or
more waterbirds.
6. Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the
individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
 5

Specific criteria based on fish

7. Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion
of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions, and/or
populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global
biological diversity.
8. Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food
for fishes, spawning ground, nursery, and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the
wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Specific criteria based on other taxa
9. Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the
individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent nonavian animal species
Source: Ramsar Site

Ramsar Wetlands in India:

In 1982, India became a party to the Ramsar Convention for Wetlands or Ramsar Convention, and at
present, there are 80 Ramsar sites present in India.
First Ramsar Sites of India were Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajastha)
The largest Ramsar site in India is Sundarban.
Smallest Ramsar site in India is Renuka Wetland (Himachal Pradesh).
Maximum number of Ramsar sites in state: Tamil Nadu (16).
In terms of the number of authorized sites, India is ranked 1 in South Asia and third in Asia.
 6

Ramsar Sites in India: total 80

In January 2024: 5 new Ramsar Sites in India
Anakasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve: Karnataka
Aghanashini Estuary: Karnataka
Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve: Karnataka
Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary: Tamil Nadu
Longwood Shola Reserve Forest:Tamil Nadu

Montreux Record:
Montreux Record is maintained as a part of Ramsar List to register Wetland Sites undergoing ecological
changes due to technological progress or human interference.
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan)
Loktak Lake (Manipur)
Chilika Lake (Odisha): Now removed from the Montreux Record.
Initiatives to Protect Wetlands:
Amrit Dharohar Scheme (2023-24): This scheme identifies the importance of the wetland and aims to
promote their optimal use. This scheme will focus on enhancing the biodiversity in the Wetlands and enabling
the local communities to optimally use the wetland for employment generation.
 7

MISHTI Scheme (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitat and Tangible Income): Under this scheme,
mangrove plantations will be increased in the country along the coastlines. It will also provide employment to
the people around the coastline.
Wetland City Accreditation: By Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
submitted three nominations from India for Wetland City Accreditation to Ramsar Convention:
Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)
Indore (Madhya Pradesh)
*NOTE: If accepted under Wetland City Accreditation, it will be valid for six years.
Coral Reef:
Coral reefs are marine ecosystems that are found in the warm tropical seawater of the world.
Geographical distribution covers less than 1 percent of the entire marine area.
It provides habitat for more than 25% of marine species.
Because of this huge diversity, they are known as the tropical rainforests of the ocean.
Formation of Coral Reefs:
Coral reefs are formed by the gradual accumulation of
calcareous skeleton remains of coral polyps over a
long duration of time. Corals are invertebrate animals
(come under Phylum Coelenterata).
After millions of years of calcium carbonate deposition
by coral polygeneration, a calcareous rock will form,
which will create land for an ecosystem known as the
coral reef.
Corals are in a symbiotic relationship with
microscopic algae, Zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae live
on coral. Zooxanthellae algae (brightly coloured)
assists the coral in nutrient production, whereas coral
polyp (colourless) in return provides a protected
environment for Zooxanthellae algae to live.
Coral polyps create a thin layer of calcium carbonate as a skeleton along brightly coloured zooxanthellae.
Zooxanthellae algae live in the tissues of coral polyps.
Coral is a living creature whereas coral reef is a non living creature.
This coral reef ecosystem provides a habitat for rich biodiversity, and it also provides many ecosystem services.
Coral plays a remarkable role in the in situ conservation of marine biodiversity.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Reef:
Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems that can only survive in a narrow range of environmental conditions.
The temperature range should be 25 to 27 degrees Celsius in the tropical warm seawater.
Corals thrive in tropical waters at 30°N and 30°S latitudes.
Ocean water salinity should be around 32 to 35 parts per thousand.
The ocean's water depth should be 60 to 80 metres.
There should be the presence of clean water without pollution, oil spills, etc.
 8

Coral Bleaching:
Whenever environmental conditions degrade, coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae algae from their tissue.
This causes discoloration of the coral reefs and it is known as coral bleaching. Therefore, coral bleaching
indicates degrading marine environmental conditions.

Corals are Indicator Species:

Indicator species the ones that are the first to indicate degradation of their ecosystem.
Other examples of indicator species:
Lichens: Indicators of air pollution (if air pollution is high, then lichens will decrease)
Gangetic dolphins are an indicator of the freshwater ecosystem of the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system.
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 12
Coral Reef || Ozone Depletion
 2

Coral Reef || Ozone Depletion

Major Reasons for Coral Bleaching:

Climate Change: An increase in ocean water temperature will lead to heat stress for corals. So, there will be
an increase in tropical cyclones. There will be fluctuations in ocean water salinity. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC), more than 70% of coral reef ecosystems will be
degraded by the end of the century if the temperature rises to 1.5 degrees Celsius and if the temperature rises
to 2 degrees Celsius, then 90% of the coral reef will be degraded.
Increase in Tropical Cyclones: Tropical cyclones can physically damage coral reef ecosystems.
Fluctuation in Ocean Water Salinity: Ocean water salinity fluctuations are mainly due to global warming.
Global warming raises the temperature of ocean water, which increases the rate of evaporation and leads to
higher salinity levels. Also, global warming melts the glaciers at a higher rate, which leads to more influx of
greater volume of fresh water into the ocean and leads to decreases in the salinity of ocean water.
Ocean Acidification: Oceans absorb more carbon dioxide due to a rise in CO2 levels. This increases the
acidity of ocean water. This inhibits the coral's ability to create calcareous skeletons that are essential for their
survival. The decline in PH of ocean water will impact the calcification rate of coral reefs.
Marine Pollution: Oil spills, plastic pollutants, microplastics, agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and
sewage discharge are the major threats to marine pollution. These can block sunlight, which will prevent algae
or Zooxanthellae from Photosynthesis and lead to the smoothening of coral reefs.
Destructive Fishing Practice:
Cyanide fishing: To catch the fish live, sodium cyanide is used. This will also block the photosynthesis
process.
Ocean bottom trawling: It is a method of fishing that involves dragging heavy, weighted nets across the
sea floor in an effort to catch fish. It is a favored method by commercial fishing companies as it can catch
large quantities of product in one go.
Mining: Mining activities, particularly those involving dredging and excavation, can lead to increased
sedimentation in nearby water bodies. Sedimentation can smother coral reefs, reducing the amount of sunlight
reaching the corals and hindering their ability to photosynthesize.
Shipping: Ballast water discharged from ships can contain non-native species, leading to the introduction of
invasive species to new areas. Invasive species can outcompete native coral species for resources and
contribute to the degradation of coral reef ecosystems.
Ecosystem Services of Coral Reefs:
Fisheries Productivity: Coral reefs support fisheries by serving as nurseries for many commercially important
fish species. The reefs provide a safe environment for fish larvae to grow and develop before they move to
other areas of the ocean. Many coastal communities depend on coral reef fisheries for their livelihoods and as
a crucial food source.
 3

Tourism: Coral reefs are major attractions for tourism and recreational activities such as snorkeling, scuba
diving, and ecotourism. The beauty and biodiversity of coral reefs draw millions of tourists each year,
generating significant economic benefits for local communities and countries.
Medicinal Resources: Coral reefs are a potential source of pharmaceutical compounds and biomedical
substances. Many marine organisms found in coral reef ecosystems produce unique chemical compounds that
may have applications in medicine, including the development of new drugs and treatments.
Storm Protection: Coral reefs serve as natural storm protectors by providing coastal protection against the
impacts of storms, hurricanes, and other extreme weather events.
Coastal Protection: Coral reefs act as natural barriers that help protect coastlines from the impact of waves
and storms. The complex structure of coral reefs absorbs and dissipates wave energy, reducing the risk of
coastal erosion and damage to infrastructure in coastal communities.
Habitat to Flora and Fauna: Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, providing
a habitat for a vast array of marine species. The complex structure of coral reefs offers shelter, breeding
grounds, and food sources for numerous fish, invertebrates, and other marine organisms.
Nutrient Capturing: Coral reefs play a role in nutrient cycling by absorbing and recycling nutrients from the
water. This helps maintain nutrient balance in the surrounding ecosystem, supporting the health of marine life
and contributing to overall ecological stability.
Major Initiative for Coral Reef Conservation:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Paris Agreement, and CBD
(Convention for Biodiversity) are indirectly helpful for coral reef conservation.
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): It is an informal and voluntary partnership between countries to
conserve coral reefs around the world.
Coral Triangle Initiative: The Coral Triangle is a marine area located in the western Pacific Ocean, and it is
spread across six countries known as CT6: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, and Timor Leste (the "CT6" countries). It was signed in 2006 by these countries. These all
countries conserve coral reefs with the highest biodiversity.
Global Fund for Coral Reef: The GFCR is a blended finance instrument to mobilise action and resources to
protect and restore coral reef ecosystems.
Technological Initiative:
Bio Rock Technology or Mineral Accretion Technology: In this technology, electrodes emerge in ocean
water and low voltage current passes through them, this causes minerals to crystalize and form biorock. This
biorock serves as a habitat for coral polyps and it can grow the coral polyps at a faster rate. A Bio Rock
experiment was done by scientists at the coast of the Gulf of Kutch recently.
Cryomesh Technology: In this technology Coral larva is collected and it is preserved at -196 degree Celcius
so that it can be reintroduced in the wild.
 4

Ozone Layer Depletion:

What is Ozone?
Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive molecule containing three oxygen (Allotropes of oxygen) atoms.
It is a natural gas present at two atmospheric levels:
Tropospheric Ozone (Known as Bad Ozone):
Ground-level ozone can form through chemical reactions between local air pollutants such as
nitrous oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and sunlight.
These air pollutants are emitted from motor vehicle exhausts, industrial processes, electric
utilities, and chemical solvents.
Concentrations of ozone can be higher very close to the surface at local levels; there it forms as an
air pollutant and can negatively impact human health.
It causes the formation of smog.
Stratospheric ozone (known as Good Ozone):
The Ozone layer in the stratosphere plays (acts as shield) a crucial role in absorbing potentially
dangerous ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation from the sun. (If the amount of UV-B increases in solar
radiation then it may cause damage to plant animals and ecosystems.)
.
Stratospheric ozone is depleting and this poses a threat related to ultraviolet radiations.
 5

Note:
Ultra violet (UV) radiation, with wavelengths shorter than visible spectrum, has high energy.
UV radiations can be divided into three forms:
UV-A (Wavelength between 320-400 nm)- Least harmful.
UV-B (wavelength lesser than 280 nm)- Harmful.
UV-C (wavelength lesser than 280 nm)- Very harmful. UV-C is most damaging to biological systems.
Ozone Depletion:
Thinning of Ozone at the stratosphere is called Ozone depletion.
Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are halogen gases containing chlorine and/or bromine which have the
potential to break down ozone in the stratosphere.
Ozone depleting substances include:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs are used in refrigerators, cleaning agents etc.
Nitrogen Oxides: Nitrogen Oxides come from agriculture fertilisers, Industrial waste and hydrogen
bomb explosion. Oxides of Nitrogen reach the stratosphere and destroy ozone.
Other ODS:
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydro bromofluoro carbons (HBFCs)
Halons (Were used in fire extinguishers)
*They all are used in refrigerators, ACs and fire extinguishers
Methyl bromide (Was used as fumigant. Fumigation is a method of pest control by suffocating pests with
poison)
Carbon Tetrachloride (formerly, widely used in fire extinguishers, refrigerant and as a cleaning agent)
Methyl chloroform (solvent for organic compounds; used for cleaning metal parts and circuit boards).
Particles of sulphuric acid.
*NOTE: Due to emission of ODS, ozone depletion was first reported over Antarctica and the Arctic region.
Conditions Which Promote Chemical Reaction Causing Ozone Depletion In Stratosphere:
Very low temperature of < 78 degree centigrade (found over polar stratospheric cloud).
Availability of sunlight (in late winter and early spring)
Due to Polar stratospheric clouds during winter and spring seasons: The cloud particles in the
stratosphere convert chlorine into reacting chlorine which catalyzes ozone depletion. Polar stratospheric
clouds act as a catalyst and convert less dangerous chlorine into active free radicals which is more harmful.
Extremely low temperature at polar areas allows polar stratospheric cloud formation below 20 km.
Polar Vortex: Due to less temperature, the polar vortex, which is a ring of rapidly circulating air, keeps the
stratospheric cloud for a longer period that adds to ozone depletion.
 6

*NOTE:
Ozone depletion is occurring both at the south pole and north pole.
At South pole ozone depletion is more severe because:
South pole is older than north pole, hence -78 degree Centigrade is easily achieved).
Polar vortex longevity.
Formation of polar stratospheric clouds due to low temperature.

Impacts of Ozone Depletion:

Due to ozone depletion, more and more UV
rays are able to reach the earth. This
harmful rays can cause following effects:
On humans: Ozone is a potent
carcinogenic agent that can cause skin
cancer, eye disease, cataract cornea
defect, fast aging and also leads to
weakening of the immune system.
On plants: Ultraviolet B rays directly
impact the growth of the plant that will
bring smaller leaf size, destruction of
chlorophylls, low photosynthesis, low
biomass production or crop. UV rays
damage crops such as soybeans,
which can impact food supply.
Aquatic ecosystem: Marine phytoplanktons which are the basis of ocean food chain are harmed by UV
radiations and it may lead to decreased productivity of marine ecosystems. They may affect fish, shrimps,
crabs and food. They also affect other Marine animals including amphibians.
Biogeochemical cycle: Increase in ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) also affects the biogeochemical cycle
because it interferes with plants and animals.
UV-B radiations have a negative impact on synthetic polymers, bio-polymers and other commercially
important materials.
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 13
Initiatives To Tackle Ozone
Depletion || Acid Rain ||
Biodiversity
 2

Initiatives To Tackle Ozone Depletion || Acid Rain || Biodiversity

Measurement of Ozone Layer:

Ozone is measured by an instrument and technique known as Dopson spectrophotometer and it is measured
in Dobson units.
Initiative to Tackle Ozone Depletion:
Vienna Convention of 1985:
The Vienna Convention for protection of the ozone layer was an international agreement in which United
Nations members recognised the criticality of stratospheric ozone damage.
India signed the Vienna convention in 1991.
Montreal Protocol of 1987:
The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987.
It aims to check anthropogenic ODS. The scientist has estimated that 80% of chlorine and bromine coming
in the stratosphere is man made.
India became part of Montreal protocol in 1992.
It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid decline in atmospheric concentrations of ozone.
It aims at phasing out ozone depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
It aims to phase out HCFCs by 2030.
It is a highly successful international arrangement, as it has phased-out more than 95% of the ODS so far
as per its main mandate in less than 30 years of its existence.
*NOTE:
ChloroFluoroCarbon (CFC) and HydrochloroFluorocarbon (HCFC) are ozone depleting substances so
they are banned.
These gases were replaced by hydro fluoro carbon (HFC). HFC causes no ozone depletion but it is a strong
global warming agent.
Kigali Amendment:
It was adopted in 2016.
The Kigali Agreement or amended Montreal Protocol for HFCs reduction is to be binding on countries
from 2019.
It also has provisions for penalties for non-compliance.
The parties are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of HFCs by roughly 80-85% from their
respective baselines, till 2045.
This move will help to prevent a potential 0.5 degree Celsius rise in global temperature by the end
of the century.
 3

In India the cabinet has approved the Kigali agreement and India has set to faze down HSC after
consultation with all the industrial stakeholders by 2023.
HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons) are not Ozone Depleting Substances but still they are included in
Montreal Protocol via Kigali Agreement because they are potent global warming substances.
*NOTE:
Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR):
The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) is a fundamental concept in
international environmental law, particularly in the context of global efforts to address climate
change.
CBDR recognizes that all nations share a common responsibility to address environmental challenges,
but their responsibilities should be differentiated based on their respective capabilities and levels of
development.
Common Responsibility: All countries, regardless of their level of development, are recognized as
having a shared responsibility for addressing global environmental issues.
Differentiated Responsibilities: Acknowledges that different countries have different capacities to
address environmental challenges based on factors such as economic development, technological
capabilities, and historical contributions to environmental issues.
Some countries with their targets:
India and the Gulf
China: by 2045.
USA: more than 30%
EU by 2034.
Acid Rain:
It is the precipitation of acid in the form of rain due to air pollution.
There are two types of acid deposition:
Wet deposition: When the acid is falling to the ground in the form
of rainwater, it is called wet deposition.
Dry deposition: When Acidic compounds or particles settle down
on surfaces like water bodies, vegetations and buildings, it is called
dry deposition. It usually occurs in dry weather conditions.
Causes of Acid rain:
The reason behind acid rain is air pollution.
The two important components responsible for acid rain are oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx) and Sulphur (SO2).
Sources of Sulphur dioxide:
Man made sources: The coal and petroleum are the major
sources of Sulphur dioxide. Other sources are smelting of metals and use of fertilizers.
 4

Natural Source: Volcanic eruptions are the source of sulphur dioxide.

Sources of Nitrogen oxide:
Natural source: Lightning, volcanic eruptions, biological process (Denitrification).
Man made sources: Forest fire, combustion of coal, gas and petrol.
Air Pollution:
1. SO2 + O2 + H2O -I)
2. NO2 + O2 + H2O -II)

NOTE:
Normal Rain: The pH value of normal rain is below 5.5. Normal rain is slighlty acidic in nature. It is
because carbon dioxide gets mixed with water and it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Acid Rain: Acid rain is precipitation of acid in the form of rain leading to acid deposition.
pH of acid rain is below 5 and generally it is 4. It forms due to pollution of Nitrogen and sulfur.
Main Contributors of Acid rain:
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen oxide
Formic acid
Impact of Acid Rain:
Impact on Soil / Ground:
Due to acid rain, nutrient Leaching occurs and results in to
Infertile soil.
Microscopic flora (Bateria) will decrease and that will decrease
fertility of soil.
Acid rain has a lower impact on soil in India because Indian soil
is alkaline in nature and has good buffering capacity.
Impact on Wildlife :
Acid rain impacts on Skin & Fur of animals.
It causes leaching of heavy metals from the soil & rocks.
It may enter into the aquatic ecosystem and eventually enter in the food chain.
Impact on Human:
Acid rain causes Skin Problems, Eye Problems, Respiratory Problems in humans.
It causes Bronchitis (It is a disease of bronchi or lung tubes).
Acid rain Causes Emphysema (It is a disease of the Lung surface or Alveoli).
Acid rain Causes Cancer.
Acid rain can create dense acidic fog in the atmosphere that can abstract visibility.
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Environment

Lecture - 16
Climate Change
 2

Climate Change

Climate Change:
It is the long-term change in the temperature and weather patterns.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change ( IPCC), Climate change is real and
anthropogenic factors are its main cause.
Climate change refers to all types of climatic variability in temperature, precipitation, wind, etc. on
timescales longer than 10 years.

Causes of Climate Change:

Natural Causes of Climate Change:
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics: For example, the collision of continents can create mountain ranges
that influence weather patterns and the formation of glaciers.
Volcanic Activities: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of gases and particles into the atmosphere,
including sulfur dioxide, ash, and aerosols.
Change in Ocean Current: Variations in ocean currents, such as El Niño and La Niña events, can have
significant impacts on regional and global climate patterns.
Variation in Earth Orbit: Over long time scales, changes in the Earth's orbit and axial tilt (Milankovitch
cycles) can alter the amount and distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These variations
in solar insolation can drive changes in climate, leading to ice ages or periods of warmer temperatures.
Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change:
Generation of power due to the burning of fossil fuels: Burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural
gas for electricity generation releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Transportation: The combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles is a significant source of greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily carbon dioxide and methane. These emissions contribute to climate change and air
pollution.
Manufacturing activities: Industrial processes, such as cement production, steel manufacturing, and
chemical production, release greenhouse gases and other pollutants into the atmosphere.
Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, and urban development releases carbon
stored in trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Emission of GHG and Aerosols: These emissions contribute to global warming and climate change by
trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere.

Fundamental Reasons Behind Climate Change:

Increasing concentrations of Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
This will lead to another phenomenon, i.e., an increased greenhouse effect.
This will further lead to more heat energy trapped in the atmosphere.
Hence, global warming is caused.
 3

Global Warming:
Global Warming is the
gradual heating of the
earth's surface, oceans and
atmosphere.
The increase in temperature
is the result of the greenhouse
gas effect caused by
increased level of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere such
as:
Water vapour
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Ozone
Due to the greenhouse effect, the balance between the incoming heat absorbed by the earth and the outgoing
heat skipping in the form of radiation is disturbed (in other words, heat budget of the earth gets disturbed).
Greenhouse Gases:
Gases that absorb infrared radiation reflected by the earth are known as greenhouse gases. For example:

Greenhouse gases are important to keep the Earth warm enough to support life on Earth.
Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of the earth's surface would be around -18 degree
centigrade, rather than the current average of 15 degrees centigrade.
However, anthropogenic activities are increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases, and it is resulting in
the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Water vapour is the most significant contributor to the greenhouse effect.

It is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, both in terms of weight and volume. But humans
are not directly responsible for emitting this gas.

This is considered to be a significant heat-trapping gas.

Natural sources: respiration, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, etc.
 4

Anthropogenic: fossil fuel burning, industry, thermal power plants, etc.

Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods. Global warming potential (GWP) is the
amount of energy or heat trapped by gases.
Life span: 50 to 100 years.

It is a very potent greenhouse gas.

Human activities are responsible for roughly 60% of methane emission
It has some natural sources: wetlands, the ocean, and volcanic eruptions.
Anthropogenic Sources: The oil and gas industry, agriculture (rice cultivation-paddy fields), landfills, animal
husbandry (cattle waste), wastewater treatment, coal mines etc. are primary sources of methane emission.
Methane is a much more harmful gas than carbon dioxide
Global warming potential (GWP): It traps 25 per cent more heat and energy than carbon dioxide
Life span: 10 to 25 years.

It is naturally present in the atmosphere as a part of the nitrogen cycle, while human-induced factors include
agriculture, transportation, industries, fertilisers, etc.
Nitrous oxide's GWP is approximately meaning it has a much stronger
warming effect per unit mass over a 100-year period.
Lifespan: Its life span is about 100 to 120 years.

Tropospheric ozone is the third most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and
methane.
Tropospheric ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but it is created by reactions between different pollutants
like volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxide.
Other Gases Contributing to Global Warming:
Black Carbon:
Solid particles or aerosol are produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass.
Brown Carbon:
It is a brown smoke produced by the combustion of organic matter, and it coexists with black carbon.
Fluorinated Gases: (HFC, CFC, PFC, SF6):
It consists of HFC, PFC, and SF6.
Hydrofluorocarbons: Global Warming Potential (GWP) - its range is 11000 and its life span is around 14 to
200 years.
Perfluorocarbons: Global warming potential -its in range of 7000 and life span is in the range of 50000 years
Sulphur hexafluoride: Global warming potential- it is 25000 and life span is 32000 years.
Fluorinated gases are considered to be the most potent and long-lasting.
 5

These are used in semiconductors, aerosols, propellants, and fire retardants.

Fluorinated gas is entirely anthropogenic.
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC):
It is entirely produced by humans.
Anthropogenic sources are refrigeration, air conditioners, aerosols.
Global Warming Potential (GWP): It's very high, in the range of 5000 to 8000.
Lifespan: 50 to 500 years
Carbon Emission Before Pre-Industrial Revolution and Post-Industrial Revolution:
Before the Industrial Revolution, carbon emissions were minimal.
However, the post-Industrial Revolution era witnessed a surge in greenhouse gas emissions, particularly from
the extensive burning of fossil fuels.
This increase in emissions coincided with a reduction in the size of carbon sinks, which store carbon in the
lithosphere and hydrosphere.

Terms Related to Climate Change:

Black Carbon: It is almost pure carbon generated due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass.
Brown Carbon: It is generated due to burning of organic material.
Carbon Sequestration: It is the carbon capture and storage process. It can be natural (absorption of CO2
by plants) or artificially generated (pumping CO2 in deep down land).
Carbon Sink: A reservoir that stores carbon for a very long time is known as a carbon sink. For example:
forests, mangroves, oceans, and wetlands.
Blue Carbon: A carbon that is stored in coastal and marine ecosystems.
Green Carbon: The carbon captured into land and soil.
Carbon Credit: It is a part of carbon trading.
It is a tradable certificate that gives the power to emit CO2 to the holder.
The concept of carbon credit was introduced in the Kyoto Protocol to reduce overall carbon emissions.
Red Carbon: It includes all living particles on snow and ice that reduce albedo.
Carbon Tax: It is a type of pollution tax that is levied on the use of carbon-based fuel. [In India, carbon tax
on 1 tonne coal is Rs 400/-

Consequences of Climate Change:

Impact on Natural Systems Impact on Human Systems
Frequency and intensity of climatic disaster Loss of lives and assets.
will increase. Environmental / climatic migration.
Rise in sea level. Adverse impact on agriculture.
Loss of Biodiversity. Adverse impact on human health by rise of vector
Ecological degradation. borne disease.
Water and food scarcity.
 6

Environmental Migration:
Environmental Migration is defined as the displacement of people under adverse conditions due to
environmental stress like prolonged drought, sea level rise, etc.
The class of people migrating is commonly referred to as environmental refugees or climatic refugees.
It can become a major factor in driving people below the poverty line in future.
Climate Change Strategies:
Mitigation
Adaptation
Mitigation:
The objective of mitigation is to reduce the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases.
It can be done through following ways:
Afforestation (Biological Sequestration):
Planting trees absorbs carbon dioxide, acting as a natural carbon sink.
Enhances biodiversity, contributing to ecosystem resilience.
Renewable Energy:
Shifts reliance from fossil fuels to sustainable sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.
Reduces carbon emissions, fostering a cleaner energy landscape.
Geological sequestration (also known as carbon capture and storage (CCS)): In this method,
greenhouse gas or carbon dioxide is artificially captured and then stored in geological reservoirs like
sedimentary rocks.
Adaptation:
Adaptation strategies focus on adjusting human practices to minimize the adverse effects of climate change.
Effective Disaster Management:
Develops robust early warning systems and evacuation plans.
Enhances community resilience in the face of increasing climate-induced disasters.
Micro Irrigation in Agriculture:
Improves water efficiency in farming, crucial in the face of changing precipitation patterns.
Mitigates water scarcity impacts on crops, ensuring food security.
Public Transport and Electric Vehicles:
Reduces reliance on fossil fuel-based transportation and use of mass transport electric vehicles.
International Efforts for Climate Action:
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth
Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992.
It adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which came into
force in 1994.
The objective of the UNFCCC was to stabilise the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases.
Under UNFCCC, annual conferences of parties (COP) are held.
Environment

Lecture - 17
 2

Climate Change (Part - 2)

Major Conference of Parties:
In 1997: Third session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 3)
Under the Kyoto Protocol, they have set legally binding targets for developed nations to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
The aim was a cumulative emission reduction of
5% of greenhouse gases compared to the 1990s
level in a five-year implementation period from
2008 to 2012.
1n 2012 : COP - 18
The Doha Amendment was adopted at this
conference of parties.
It was an 8-year extension period of the Kyoto
Protocol from 2013 to 2020. But it never came into
force.
In 2015: COP - 21
In 2015, a Paris Agreement was adopted.
The target of the Paris Agreement is to limit the global average temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius
compared to pre-industrial areas.
To make it even more workable, we promised to put in more effort to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius by
the end of the century.
The Paris Agreement was for both developed and developing countries to reduce their carbon emission.
In this agreement, there were self-determined commitments (voluntary) by countries to reduce
greenhouse gases. It was called a Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC).
The problem with the Paris Agreement was:
All countries have to submit nationally determined
contributions (NDC), irrespective of their historical
contribution.
Even after meeting NDC, the temperature would
rise by 3 degrees Celsius.
The initial NDC submitted by the countries was
found to be inadequate to meet the target as per the
UN emission gap report.
Way forward:
As per the IPCC special report, the target of 1.5
degrees Celsius can be met by the following ways:
By a global emission reduction of 45% (compared to the 2010 level) by 2030.
Net zero emissions by 2050.
India announced at COP 26 that it will achieve net zero emissions by 2070.
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The emission will be compensated by absorption through carbon capture and storage technology or a carbon
sink like a forest.
In 2022: COP 27
A limit of 1.5 degree Celsius is in focus currently.
In 2023: COP 28
Held at Dubai, Expocity
Important Terms Related To Climate Actions:
Climate Finance:
It refers to money (either as debt or equity) given by developed countries to developing countries and least
developed countries for their climate action.
It was formally adopted in 2009 in Copenhagen at COP 15.
It is based on the principles of climate justice and equity.
Loss and Damage fund:
It was the outcome of COP 27 at Sharm El Sheikh.
Countries have agreed to set up a loss and damage fund to provide financial assistance to poor nations
stricken by climate disasters.
The loss and damage fund was approved in COP 28 with an initial funding of 475 million dollars.
CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities):
It implies that both developed and developing countries have collective responsibilities towards climate
action, but the efforts of the countries should be proportionate to the damage caused by them.
Therefore, the efforts of developed countries should be greater than those of developing countries.
It is based on the principles of climate equity and justice.
Carbon Market Waste Mechanism:
This originated under the Kyoto Protocol to facilitate the developed countries in meeting their target of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
There are three types of it:
Emission trading
Clean Development Mechanism
Joint implementation

Additional Information: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
also known as the 'Earth Summit'.
The 'Earth Summit' had many great achievements: the Rio Declaration and its 27 universal principles,
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on
Biological Diversity; and the Declaration on the principles of forest management.
The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development, the holding
of the first world conference on the sustainable development of small island developing States in 1994, and
negotiations for the establishment of the agreement on straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks.
 4

Carbon Market Waste Mechanism:

Carbon Credit/ Unit can be traded in three ways:
Emission Trading (ET)
Clean development mechanisms (CDM)
Joint implementation (JI)

1 tonne of carbon dioxide = 1 carbon credit

Emission Trading (ET):

Let's say the target for developed countries is to
reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 10 units
and developing countries have a target of 8
units.
Developed countries could achieve 8, and
developing countries could achieve 10. It
means the +2 unit of developing countries can
be sold to developed countries. so that it can
meet the target, and after selling it, both
countries are at the actual target.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Let's say a developed country has a target to meet, and there is no target to meet in a developing country.
A developing country sets up a carbon sequestration project, and with this, they get 10 units of carbon credit
per year. These 10 units can be sold to developed countries, which will help the developed country achieve its
target.
Here, the developed country will first pay the money.
Developing countries will use this money to set up a carbon sequestration project, and then the carbon credit
it has earned will be sold to developed countries, and
the money will be compensated.
Joint Implementation (JI):
Developed and developing countries will jointly set
up a carbon sequestration project; let's say 5 units of
carbon credit are there, and now the carbon credit
earned will be divided between the two countries in
the decided ratio.
This project will be set up in developing countries.
India and Climate Change:

2 3 tonnes
approximately.
In absolute terms, India is the third largest emitter
in the world. The largest emitter is China whereas
the second largest is the USA.
 5

many developed and developed countries.

India is one of the climate change vulnerable countries of the world. But being a developing country, a large
population of India is land and water based economy i.e. dependent upon agriculture, aquaculture and
forestry which put them at high risk of climate change.
Although India is the third largest emitter in absolute terms, its per capita emission is below global average.
The number of initiatives has been undertaken from time to time for climate action in India.
Important Initiative of India for Climate Action:
At COP 26 in 2021 in Glasgow, India presented Panchamrit, or 5 Nectar Elements, to deal with the
challenges of climate change.
The 5 Nectar elements are:
Net zero emissions by 2070.
500 gigawatts of renewable energy (non fossil energy) by 2030.
50% of the energy requirement will come from renewable energy by 2030.
Reduction of 1 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions by 2030.
Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% in 2030.
Carbon intensity is not clearly defined, but basically it means a carbon based economy.
/5 Nectar Elements Supported By:
International Solar Alliance
National Hydrogen Mission
Ethanol Blending Programme
International Solar Alliance:
The ISA was conceived as a joint effort by India and France to mobilize efforts against climate change
through deployment of solar energy solutions.
By 2030, total global installed solar capacity should be 1000GW
It was conceptualized on the sidelines of the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris in 2015.
With the amendment of its Framework Agreement in 2020, all member states of the United Nations are now
eligible to join the ISA.
At present, 116 countries are signatories to the ISA Framework Agreement, of which 94 have become full
members.
Its headquarters is located in Gurugram, India.
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an action-oriented, member-driven, collaborative platform for
increased deployment of solar energy technologies.
It aims to bring energy access, ensuring energy security, and driving energy transition in its member countries.
Green Grid Initiative: COP 26:
Jointly launched by India and the UK.
It is an interconnected transnational grid system in which countries with solar energies can be connected to
resolve the demand- supply mismatch.
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Environment

Lecture - 18
 2

Environmental Impact Assessment

National Hydrogen Mission:
It was announced by the Finance Minister in Budget 2021- 22.
Under this mission, the Government of India aims the development of green hydrogen production capacity of
at least 5 MMT (Million Metric Tonne) per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition
of about 125 GW in the country by 2030.
Hydrogen is an efficient and clean fuel but needs to be extracted from water. While extracting, these can be
of three types:
Brown / Grey Hydrogen: burning of fossil fuel that will lead to carbon emission.
Blue Hydrogen: burning of fossil fuel that will lead to carbon emission, but carbon will be sequestered.
Green Hydrogen: use of renewable energy for hydrogen extraction for zero emission.
Other countries are focusing on brown/grey hydrogen, whereas, India is focussing on Green Hydrogen.
Ethanol Blending Programme:
The current blending ratio is 5 percent.
The target is to achieve 20% ethanol blending by 2025.
Effects:
Carbon emissions will go down.
Air pollution will go down
National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC)
It is an umbrella programme launched in 2008.
Its various components are:
National Solar Mission (for solar energy)
National Water Mission (for reservoirs, etc.)
National Mission for Green India (for forestation and afforestation)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (for agriculture without much carbon dioxide emission)
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (to minimise greenhouse gas emissions)
National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (for sustaining glaciers, etc.)
National Mission for Sustainable Habitat
National Mission for Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
EIA is a study to predict the potential impact of a proposed project on the environment. It is a decision-
making tool that compares various alternatives for the project and identifies the one that has the best
combination of socio-environmental cost and economic benefit.
EIA came into existence in 1994 when the first EIA notification was issued under the Environmental
Protection Act of 1986.
This notification was later replaced by 2006 EIA notification.
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EIA Notification 2006:

Under the existing EIA notification 2006, projects are categorised into two categories:
Category A: environmental clearance by the Central Government after conducting EIA.
Category B: environmental clearance by the State Government after conducting EIA.
Category B projects are further divided into:
Category B1: project will get environmental clearance after conducting EIA.
Category B2: project does not require EIA and directly gets environmental clearance.
As per the 2006 EIA notification, certain categories of projects require a prior environmental clearance
such as :
mining,
river valley project,
thermal power plant,
infrastructural projects like road (railways is exempted), etc,
chemical fertilisers industry,
nuclear project,
oil and gas exploration,
metallurgical industry
EIA Assessment Process in India:
STEP I: Screening
It is done to determine whether the project requires EIA or not.
Projects are categorised as A and B based upon their scope and size.
Category A projects are under the Central Government and Category B projects are under the State
Government.
STEP II: Scoping (Impact Prediction and Mitigation)
In Scoping, Terms of Reference (ToR) of EIA are decided.
The ToR are the key issues of the project that need to be investigated.
After finalisation of ToR, a draft EIA Report is prepared by an expert environmental consultant.
STEP III: Public Consultation
Public hearing is organised by the State Pollution Control Board to understand the concerns of local
people.
Based upon public consultation, EIA reports are finalised and an Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) is prepared.
EMP is a list of commitments by the project proponents for more responsible environment management.
STEP IV: Appraisal
In this stage, critical scrutiny of the final EIA report and EMP is done.
 4

Category A projects are scrutinised by the Expert Appraisal Committee, constituted by the Central
Government.
Category B1 projects are scrutinised by the State Expert Appraisal Committee, constituted by the
Central Government in consultation with the State Government.
STEP V: Decision Making
The final decision in Category A will be made by the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate
Change, whereas in Category B1, the State EIA Authority will make the decision.
After the grant of environmental clearance, monitoring is carried out to determine if the project
proponent is complying with Environmental rules and regulations and commitments made by project
proponents under the environmental management plan. For this, the project proponent has to submit a
half-yearly compliance report to the decision-making bodies.
All Category A and B1 projects shall undergo public consultation except the following:
Modernisation of irrigation projects.
All projects and activities are located within industrial estates and industrial parks.
Expansion of roads and highways that do not require any further acquisition of land.
All building, construction, area development projects, and townships
Project related to national defence.
Issues Related to the EIA Process:

non transparent in its present form.

In many cases, many EIA reports were prepared by non accredited consultants, which compromises the
quality of EIA reports.

There are no provisions for the project proponents to fulfil their commitments in a time bound manner.
Post-implementation monitoring is also found to be weak in many areas.