Algebraic Structures
Algebraic systems Examples and general
properties
Semi groups
Monoids
Groups
Sub groups
Algebraic systems
N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.
Z = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b A for all a, b A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
Properties
Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a A.
Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
Semi group
Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.
Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Monoid
Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b N
Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c N
3. Identity : We have, 1 N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a N.
Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is
called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of positive
integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.
Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T
be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation * and e T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of
(S, * ).
Group
Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if
the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.
Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is
said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a*b =b*a a, b G.
Algebraic systems
Abelian groups
Groups
Monoids
Semi groups
Algebraic systems
Theorem
In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.
Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is called order
of the group.
Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a
finite group.
Ex. Show that, the set of all integers is a group with
respect to addition.
Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an
integer.
i.e., a + b Z for all a,b Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c Z.
3. Identity : We have 0 Z and a + 0 = a for all a Z .
Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a Z , we have – a Z such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
Contd.,
5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.
i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
Homomorphism.
Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )
A function f : G G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a) f (b)
Example
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a
group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that
the mapping f : R R+ defined by f(x) = 2x for all x R is an
isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b R .
Now, f(a+b) = 2a+b
= 2a 2b
= f(a).f(b)
f is an homomorphism.
Example
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a
group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that
the mapping f : R+ R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x R is
an isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b R+ .
Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
= log10 a + log10 b
= f(a) + f(b)
f is an homomorphism.
Problems on Groups and Monids
Ex. Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect
to multiplication .
Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real
numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b R* for all a,b R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c R* .
3. Identity : We have 1 R* and a .1 = a for all a R* .
Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a R* , we have 1/a R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.
Contd.,
[Link]: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.
Ex: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect
to multiplication.
Solution: We have 0 R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
Example
Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) Z for all a,b Z
Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)
(Z, *) is a semi group.
Identity : There is no integer x such that
a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a Z
Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
Example
Ex. Show that the set of all strings ‘S’ is a monoid under the
operation ‘concatenation of strings’.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
Solution: Let us denote the operation
‘concatenation of strings’ by + .
Let s1, s2, s3 are three arbitrary strings in S.
Closure property: Concatenation of two strings is again a string.
i.e., s1+s2 S
:
Associativity Concatenation of strings is associative.
(s1+ s2 ) + s3 = s1+ (s2 + s3 )
Contd.,
Identity: We have null string , S such that s1 + = S.
S is a monoid.
Note: S is not a group, because the inverse of a non empty string
does not exist under concatenation of strings.
Example
Ex. Let S be a finite set, and let F(S) be the collection of all functions
f: S S under the operation of composition of functions, then
show that F(S) is a monoid.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
Solution:
Let f1, f2, f3 are three arbitrary functions on S.
Closure property: Composition of two functions on S is again a function
on S.
i.e., f1o f2 F(S)
Associativity: Composition of functions is associative.
i.e., (f1 o f2 ) o f3 = f1 o (f2 o f3 )
Contd.,
Identity: We have identity function I : SS
such that f1 o I = f1.
F(S) is a monoid.
Note: F(S) is not a group, because the inverse of a non bijective
function on S does not exist.
Ex. If M is set of all non singular matrices of order ‘n x n’.
then show that M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
Is (M, *) an abelian group?. Justify your answer.
Solution: Let A,B,C M.
[Link] property : Product of two non singular matrices is again a non
singular matrix, because
AB = A . B 0 ( Since, A and B are nonsingular)
i.e., AB M for all A,B M .
2. Associativity: Marix multiplication is associative.
i.e., (AB)C = A(BC) for all A,B,C M .
3. Identity : We have In M and A In = A for all A M .
Identity element exists, and ‘In’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each A M, we have A-1 M such that
A A-1 = In i.e., Each element in M has an inverse.
Contd.,
M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
We know that, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Hence, M is not an abelian group.
Ex. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian
group under the composition * defined by
a * b = (ab)/2 .
Solution: Let A = set of all positive rational numbers.
Let a,b,c be any three elements of A.
1. Closure property: We know that, Product of two positive rational
numbers is again a rational number.
i.e., a *b A for all a,b A .
2. Associativity: (a*b)*c = (ab/2) * c = (abc) / 4
a*(b*c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc) / 4
3. Identity : Let e be the identity element.
We have a*e = (a e)/2 …(1) , By the definition of *
again, a*e = a …..(2) , Since e is the identity.
From (1)and (2), (a e)/2 = a e = 2 and 2 A .
Identity element exists, and ‘2’ is the identity element in A.
Contd.,
4. Inverse: Let a A
let us suppose b is inverse of a.
Now, a * b = (a b)/2 ….(1) (By definition of inverse.)
Again, a * b = e = 2 …..(2) (By definition of inverse)
From (1) and (2), it follows that
(a b)/2 = 2
b = (4 / a) A
(A ,*) is a group.
Commutativity: a * b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b * a
Hence, (A,*) is an abelian group.
Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is
unique.
Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
Identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is
unique.
Proof:
Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
From (1) and (2), we have
a*b=a*c
b = c (By left cancellation law)
In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that
(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
Proof :
Consider,
(a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
= (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
= (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
= ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
= e ( By inverse property)
Similarly, we can show that
(b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .
Ex. If (G, *) is a group and a G such that a * a = a ,
then show that a = e , where e is identity element in G.
Proof: Given that, a * a = a
a * a = a * e ( Since, e is identity in G)
a = e ( By left cancellation law)
Hence, the result follows.
Ex. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that
the group must be abelian .
Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.
Let a and b are any two elements of G.
Consider the identity,
(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
(a * b ) = b * a ( Since each element of G is its own
inverse)
Hence, G is abelian.
Note: a2 = a * a
a3 = a * a * a etc.
Ex. In a group (G, *), if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2 a,b G
then show that G is abelian group.
Proof: Given that (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a )* (b * b)
a *( b * a )* b = a * (a * b) * b ( By associative law)
( b * a )* b = (a * b) * b ( By left cancellation law)
( b * a ) = (a * b) ( By right cancellation law)
Hence, G is abelian group.
Finite groups
Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1
1 1 –1
–1 –1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that
multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements
of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively.
Contd.,
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
Ex. Show that G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 2
1 1 2
2 1
2 2 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2, respectively.
Contd.,
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under
multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1 i -i
1 1 -1 i - i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
Contd.,
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.