40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 41

Fig. 3.18 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 3.18(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 3.18(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 3.18a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 3.18 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
 ∆v  ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v  a =  , the =
 ∆t  v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 3.18(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 3.18(c), ∆t Ž 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆r ≅ v∆t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = ∆t → 0 ∆t
lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit ∆tŽ0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.

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42 PHYSICS

v 2 2
ω R
2
ac =   v = v2/R (3.43) ac =
v
=
2
=ω R
R 
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (3.46)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (3.47)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (3.48)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. ⊳
Example 3.9 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 3.18) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(3.44) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (3.45) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 ⊳

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