Basic Electrical Engineering

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

According to KCL:

At any moment, the algebraic sum of flowing currents through a point (or
junction) in a network is Zero (0) or in any electrical network, the
algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is Zero (0).
This law is also known as Point Law or Current law.

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of incoming currents to a point and outgoing
currents from that point is Zero. Or the entering currents to a point are equal to the leaving
currents of that point.

In other words, the sum of the currents flowing towards a point is equal to the sum of
those flowing away from it. Or the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node equals
the algebraic sum of the currents leaving it.

Explanation of KCL:

Suppose some conductors are meeting at a point “A” as shown in fig 1.a. In some
conductors, currents are incoming to the point “A” while in other conductors, Currents are
leaving or outgoing from point “A”.

Consider the incoming or entering currents as “Positive (+) towards point “A” while the
leaving or outgoing currents from point “A” is “Negative (-)”.
then:

I1 + (–I2) + (–I3) + (–I4) + I5 = 0

OR

I1 + I5 – I2 – I3 – I4 = 0

OR

I1 + I5 = I2 + I3 + I4 = 0

i.e.
 Incoming or Entering Currents = Leaving or Outgoing Currents

Or

ΣI Entering = ΣI Leaving
For instance, 8A is coming towards a point and 5A plus 3A are leaving that point in fig
1.b, therefore,

8A = 5A + 3A

8A = 8A.

Demonstrating Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

The Kirchhoff’s second law or KVL stated that;

In any closed path (or circuit) in a network, the algebraic sum of the IR
product is equal to the EMF in that path.

In other words, in any closed loop (which is also known as Mesh), the algebraic sum of
the EMF applied is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in the elements.
Kirchhoff’s second law is also known as Voltage Law or Mesh law.

ΣIR= ΣE
Explanation of KVL:

A closed circuit is shown in fig which contains two connections of batteries E1 and E2. The
overall sum of E.M.F’s of the batteries is indicated by E 1-E2. The imaginary direction of
current is also shown in the fig.

E1 drives the current in such a direction which is supposed to be positive while E 2

interferes in the direction of current (i.e. it is in the opposite direction of the supposed
direction of current) hence, it is taken as negative. The voltage drop in this closed circuit
depends on the product of Voltage and Current.

The voltage drop occurs in the supposed direction of current is known as Positive voltage
drop while the other one is negative voltage drop.

In the above fig, I1R1 and I2R2 are positive voltage drops and I3R3 and I4R4 are negative
V.D.

If we go around the closed circuit (or each mesh), and multiply the resistance of the
conductor and the flowing current in it, then the sum of the IR is equal to the sum of the
applied EMF sources connected to the circuit.

The overall equation for the above circuit is:

E1 – E2 = i1R1 + i2R2 – i3R3 – i4R4

If we go in the supposed direction of the current as shown in the fig, then the product of
the IR is taken as positive otherwise negative.

Good to Know:

Direction of the Current:

It is very important to determine the direction of current whenever solving circuits via
Kirchhoff’s laws. Same like the case of election current and conventional current.

The direction of current can be assumed through clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

Once you select the custom direction of the current, you will have to apply and maintain
the same direction for the overall circuit until the final solution of the circuit.

If we got the final value as positive it means, the supposed direction of the current was
correct. In case of negative values, the current of the direction is reversed as compared
to the supposed one then.

Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff’s Laws

Solved Example on KCL and KVL (Kirchhoff’s Laws)

Example:

Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two batteries (of

negligible resistance) as shown. Find the current through each resistor.

Solution:
Assume currents to flow in directions indicated by arrows.

Apply KCL on Junctions C and A.

Therefore, current in mesh ABC = i1

Current in Mesh CA = i2

Then current in Mesh CDA = i1 – i2

Now, Apply KVL on Mesh ABC, 20V are acting in clockwise direction. Equating the sum
of IR products, we get;

10i1 + 4i2 = 20 … (1)

In mesh ACD, 12 volts are acting in clockwise direction, then:

8(i1 – i2) – 4i2 = 12

8i1 – 8i2 – 4i2 = 12

8i1 – 12i2 = 12 … (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by 3;

30i1 + 12i2 = 60

Solving for i1

30i1 + 12i2 = 60

8i1 – 12i2 = 12

___________
38i1 = 72

The above equation can be also simplified by Elimination or Cramer’s Rule.

i1 = 72 ÷ 38 = 1.895 Amperes = Current in 10 Ohms resistor

Substituting this value in (1), we get:

10 (1.895) + 4i2 = 20
4i2 = 20 – 18.95

i2 = 0.263 Amperes = Current in 4 Ohms Resistors.

Now,

i1 – i2= 1.895 – 0.263 = 1.632 Amperes

Applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Kirchhoff’s laws can be used to determine the values of unknown
values like current and Voltage as well as the direction of the flowing
values of these quintets in the circuit.
• These laws can be applied on any circuit* (See the limitation of
Kirchhoff’s Laws at the end of the article), but useful to find the
unknown values in complex circuits and networks.
• Also used in Nodal and Mesh analysis to find the values of current and
voltage.
• Current through each independent loop is carried by applying KVL
(each loop) and current in any element of a circuit by counting all the
current (Applicable in Loop Current Method).
• Current through each branch is carried by applying KCL (each junction)
KVL in each loop of a circuit (Applicable in Loop Current Method).
• Kirchhoff’s Laws are useful in understanding the transfer of energy
through an electric circuit.

Thevenin’s Theorem in DC Circuit Analysis

A French engineer, M.L Thevenin, made one of these quantum leaps in
1893. Thevenin’s Theorem (also known as Helmholtz–Thévenin
Theorem) is not by itself an analysis tool, but the basis for a very useful
method of simplifying active circuits and complex networks. This theorem is
useful to quickly and easily solve complex linear circuits and networks,
especially electric circuits and electronic networks.
Thevenin’s Theorem may be stated below:

Any linear electric network or a complex circuit with current and voltage
sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single
independent voltage source VTH and a Series Resistance RTH.

• VTH = Thevenin’s Voltage

• RTH = Thevenin’s Resistance

Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit using Thevenin’s

Theorem
1. Open the load resistor.
2. Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3. Open current sources and short voltage sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance
(RTH).
5. Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as
voltage source and measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This
is the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You
have done it.
6. Now find the Total current flowing through the load resistor by using the Ohm’s
Law: IT = VTH / (RTH + RL).

Solved Example by Thevenin’s Theorem:

Example:
Find VTH, RTH and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage across the load
resistor in fig (1) by using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution:-

STEP 1.
Open the 5kΩ load resistor (Fig 2).

STEP 2.
Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). Fig (3).

We have already removed the load resistor in figure 1, so the circuit became an open
circuit as shown in fig 2. Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA
current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit and current will
not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.

This way, 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that
current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is an open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor
is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage i.e. 12V will appear across the 8kΩ
resistor as well as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. i.e,

VTH = 12V

STEP 3.
Open current sources and short voltage sources as shown below. Fig (4)

STEP 4.
Calculate / measure the open circuit resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)

We have removed the 48V DC source to zero as equivalent i.e. 48V DC source has been
replaced with a short in step 3 (as shown in figure 3). We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in
series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:

8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

 RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]

RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ

RTH = 11kΩ

STEP 5.
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor. This
is shown in fig (6) i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This the Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

STEP 6.
Now apply the last step i.e Ohm’s law . Calculate the total load current and load
voltage as shown in fig 6.
 IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)

IL = 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → = 12/16kΩ

IL = 0.75mA

And

VL = I L x RL

VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ

VL= 3.75V

Now compare this simple circuit with the original circuit shown in figure 1. Do you see
how much easier it will be to measure and calculate the load current in complex circuit
and network for different load resistors by Thevenin’s Theorem? Yes and only yes.
Good to know: Both Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems can be applied to both AC and
DC circuits containing difference components such as resistors, inductors and
capacitors etc. Keep in mind that the Thevenin’s voltage “VTH” in AC circuit is expressed
in complex number (polar form) whereas, the Thevenin’s resistance “RTH” is stated in
rectangular form.

Superposition Theorem – Circuit Analysis with

Solved Example
Superposition Theorem – Step by Step Guide with Solved Example

Table of Contents

• What is Superposition Theorem?

• When to Use the Superposition Theorem?
• Steps to Follow for Superposition Theorem
• Superposition Theorem Solved Example
• Superposition Theorem Experiment
• Application of Superposition theorem
o Drawback of Superposition Theorem

What is Superposition Theorem?

The Superposition Theorem is used to solve complex networks with a number of energy
sources. It is an important concept to determine voltage and current across the elements
by calculating the effect of each source individually. And combine the effect of all sources
to get the actual voltage and current of the circuit element.

Superposition theorem states that;

“In any linear bilateral network having a greater number of sources, the
response (voltage and current) in any element is equal to the summation of
all responses caused by individual source acting alone. While other sources
are eliminated from the circuit.”

In other words, we will consider only one independent source acting at a time. So, we
need to remove other sources. The voltage sources are short-circuited and the current
sources are open-circuited for ideal sources. If the internal resistance of sources is given,
you need to consider the circuit.
The superposition theorem is only applied to the circuit which follows Ohm’s law.

• Related Post: Thevenin’s Theorem. Step by Step Guide with Solved Example

When to Use the Superposition Theorem?

The network must follow the below requirements to apply the superposition theorem.

• The components used in the circuit must be linear. It means, for resistors, the flow of
current is proportional to the voltage; for inductors, the flux linkage is proportional to
current. Therefore, the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are linear elements. But the diode,
transistor is not a linear element.
• The circuit components must be bilateral elements. It means, the magnitude of the current
is independent of the polarity of energy sources.
• With the help of the superposition theorem, we can find the current passes through an
element, voltage-drop of resistance, and node voltage. But we cannot find the power
dissipated from the element.

Steps to Follow for Superposition Theorem

Step-1 Find out a number of independent sources available in the network.

Step-2 Choose any one source and eliminate all other sources. If the network consists of
any dependent source, you cannot eliminate it. It remains as it is throughout the
calculation.

If you have considered all energy sources are ideal sources, you need not consider
internal resistance. And directly short-circuit voltage source and open-circuit current
source. But in case, if internal resistance of sources is given, you have to replace internal
resistance.

Step-3 Now, in a circuit, only one independent energy source is present. You need to find
a response with only one energy source in the circuit.

Step-4 Repeat step-2 and 3 for all energy sources available in the network. If there are
three independent sources, you need to repeat these steps three times. And every time
you get some value of the response.

Step-5 Now, combine all responses by algebraic summation obtained by individual

sources. And you will get a final value of response for a particular element of a network.
If you need to find a response for other elements, you need to follows these steps again
for that element.
Superposition Theorem Solved Example

Example:

Let’s understand the working of the superposition theorem by example. Find the current
(IL) passes through the 8Ω resister in the given network using the superposition theorem.

Solution:

Step-1 As shown in the above network, one voltage source, and one current source is
given. Therefore, we need to repeat the procedure two times.

Step-2 First we consider 28V voltage source is present in the network. So, you need to
remove the current source by open-circuited terminals. As here, we consider the current
source as an ideal current source. So, we need not connect the internal resistance.

The remaining circuit is as shown in the below figure.

Step-3 Find the current (IL1) passes through 8Ω resister. It gives the effect only of a
voltage source.
Due to the open circuit of a current source, no current passes through the 10Ω resister.
So, the network consists of only one loop.

Apply KVL to the loop;

28 = 6IL1 + 8IL1

28 = 14IL1

IL1 = 28/14

IL1 = 2A

Step-4 Now, we repeat the same procedure for the current source. In this condition, we
remove the voltage source by short-circuiting. A remaining circuit is as shown in the below
figure.

Here, we have to consider two loops. I1 and I2 are loop current. And find the current IL2.

Apply KVL to the loop-1;

0 = 6I1 + 8I1 – 8I2

14I1 – 8I2 = 0

The current passes through the loop-2 is calculated from the current source. And it will
be;

I2 = 28A

Put this value in the above equation;

14I1 – 8 (28) = 0
 I1 = 16A

Now, the 8Ω resister branch is common in both loops. So, we need to find the resultant
current (IL2) passes through the 8Ω resister.

IL2 = I1 – I2

IL2 = 16 – 28

IL2 = -12A

Step-5 Now, we combine the effect of both sources by algebraic summation of current.
So, the total current passes through the 8Ω resister are I L. Here, the direction of the
current is most important. Current IL2 has a minus sign. It means during the 28A source,
the current flows in opposite direction. And we cannot change the direction. That’s the
reason while combining all sources, we are doing algebraic summation.

IL = IL1 – IL2

IL = 2 + (-12)

IL = -10A

Here, we have assumed that the current passes through the 8Ω resister are in the
direction of the arrow shown in the figure. Minus sign shows the opposite direction. And
the amount of current is 8A.

• Related Post: SUPERNODE Circuit Analysis – Step by Step with Solved

Example

Superposition Theorem Experiment

The superposition theorem experiment can be done by following the below steps.

Aim

Determine the current flowing through the resistors and verify the superposition theorem.

Components Required

DC source, Resistors, DC multimeters, Connecting Wires, Breadboard, etc.

Theory
Superposition theorem is used in circuit analysis to find the current and voltage across
the elements in a given circuit. This theorem is useful when the number of sources is
more.

According to the superposition theorem, the response of elements is an algebraic

summation of response from the individual energy sources.

First, we will calculate the current passes through resistors in a given network. When all
sources are connected. After that, we remove sources and find currents for individual
sources. At last, the summation of current measured from the individual sources is similar
to the current measures with all sources connected.

Procedure

We consider the linear bilateral circuit given in the below figure.

Connect all elements on the breadboard as given in the above circuit using connecting
wires. Connect ammeter with all resisters to find the current passes through the resistors.
Here, we have two voltage sources.

In the first case, measure the current that passes through all resisters when both voltage
sources are present in the circuit. The current flowing through the resistor R1, R2, and R3
is I1, I2, and I3 respectively.
Now remove the 12V voltage source from the circuit. Short the terminals A’ and B’ as
shown in the above figure. Here we have assumed that the voltage sources are ideal. So,
no need to connect internal resistance. Now, measure the current I1′, I2′ and I3′ which is
the current that passes through the resistor R1, R2, and R3 respectively.

Similarly, remove the 9V voltage source and the remaining circuit is as shown in the above
figure. Again, measure the current flowing through all resisters and name it I1“, I2“, and
I3“.

• Related Post: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC & DC Circuits

Put all values in below observation table.

Observation Table

Source Connection R1 R2 R3
Both sources are connected I1 I2 I3
Only 12V is connected I1′ I2′ I3′
Only 9V is connected I1″ I2″ I3″

Calculation:

I1 = I1′ + I1″

I2 = I2′ + I2″

I3 = I3′ + I3″

To verify the superposition theorem, we compare the algebraic summation of current

passes through resisters when an individual source is connected with the current
measured when both sources are connected in a circuit.

If the above calculation satisfies, we can prove the superposition theorem.

Conclusion

In this experiment, we can prove that the current that passes through the resistance is an
algebraic summation of current when an individual energy source is connected. And it
proves the superposition theorem.