1
REFRIGERATION & AIR
CONDITIONING
Cooling of Buildings
Class Teacher :Samiullah Qureshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mehran University Of Engineering And Technology
Jamshoro Pakistan
• Energy consumed by building sector worldwide?
• 30% of the energy in year 2017
• Major Portion of Building Energy Consumption?
• HVAC system (40%)
• Thermal Comfort
• Studies indicate that occupant's performance decreases by 2
percent per degree of temperature increase between the range of
25°C-30°C (Seppanen et al., 2003, Seppänen and Fisk, 2006).
Introduction
Thermal Comfort
• Thermal comfort is “that
condition of mind that expresses
satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by
subjective evaluation”(ASHRAE,
2017).
• Metabolism refers to the burning of foods such as
carbohydrates, fat, and protein.
Thermal Comfort • The body is converting chemical energy of the food into
heat , which is then dissipated to the surroundings.
and Human Body (Metabolic Rate)
Clothing serves as Latent • Moisture in Air
insulation and reduces
both the sensible and
latent forms of heat
Heat Loss
loss.
Sensible
Heat Loss
• Air Temperature
• Surface’s Temperature
• Air velocity
• The conditions under which the body feels comfortable in an
Thermal Comfort environment.
• ASHRAE thermal sensation scale
Zone
• "clo" is a unit of measurement that quantifies the thermal
insulation provided by clothing.
• 1.0 clo is equivalent to 0.155 (m2·K)/W.
• A unit used to express the metabolic rate per unit area is the
met
• 1 met is equivalent to 58.1 W/m2
𝑸ሶ 𝒓
𝑸ሶ 𝒓
Mean Radiant Temperature
Prediction of Thermal Comfort :
• PMV-PPD model (Fanger (1970)) is widely used and accepted for design and assessment
of comfort conditions.
• Predicted mean vote (PMV) index predicts the mean response of a large group of people
according to the ASHRAE thermal sensation scale.
• Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) : predicts the percentage of people which are
dissatisfied means %age of people not voting -1, +1, or 0
• Thermal comfort conditions are to be determine from ASHRAE Standard 55 – 2017
(Compliance achieved if -0.5 <PMV<0.5 with PPD<=10%.
• CBE Thermal Comfort Tool for ASHRAE-55 ([Link])
• Read-Only Versions of ASHRAE Standards
Typical Values of Thermal comfort zone.
• According to research,
• It has been observed that most normally clothed people resting or
doing light work feel comfortable in the range of 23 to 27°C
temperature.
• The desirable level of relative humidity is the broad range of 30 to 70
percent, with 50 percent being the most desirable level.
• The air velocity should be kept below 9 m/min (30 ft/min) in winter and
15 m/min (50 ft/min) in summer to minimize discomfort by draft
DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR COOLING/HEATING
• The size of a heating or cooling system for a building is
determined on the basis of the desired indoor conditions
that must be maintained based on the outdoor conditions
that exist at that location
DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR COOLING/HEATING
• Indoor design conditions (Thermal Comfort Zone)
• Outdoor design conditions
• The set of extreme outdoor conditions under which a heating or cooling
system must be able to maintain a building at the indoor design conditions
• What is a good compromise between economics and comfort?
• Outdoor design condition are selected based on their frequency of occurrence
in the past
ASHRAE climatic design conditions 2009/2013/2017/2021 ([Link])
Design Condition
No. of hours during Summer (March to October) = 244*24 = 5,856 hrs
> 42. 5°𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 23.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (0.4 % 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 ቊ
< 42.5℃ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5832.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (0.4 % 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
No. of hours during winter (Nov to Feb) = 120*24 = 2880 hrs
> 9.7°𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2868.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (99.6% ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 ቊ
< 9.7℃ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 11.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 99.6% ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
COOLING AND
HEATING LOAD
• The heating or cooling loads
of a building represent the
heat that must be supplied to
or removed from the interior
of a building to maintain it at
the desired conditions.
• Design Load and Actual Load
Space load and Coil load
COOLING LOAD COMPONENTS
Internal
heat gains
Cooling Load Calculation Methods (ASHRAE)
• Heat Balance Method
• Transfer Function Method (TFM),
• The total equivalent temperature difference/time averaging (TETD/TA) Method.
• The cooling load temperature difference/cooling load factor (CLTD/CLF) Method
• The Radiant Time Series (RTS) Method
HEAT Gain Through WALLS AND ROOFS
𝐴𝑠 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑄ሶ = 𝑈𝐴𝑆 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 =
𝑅
• EXAMPLE : Determine the heat
gain through West-facing wall, 12 ft
high × 45 ft long [3.7 m × 13.7 m],
constructed of 8 in. [203.2 mm]
lightweight concrete block with steel
siding on the outside, 3.5 in. [88.9
mm] of insulation, and ½ in. [12.7
mm] gypsum board on the inside .
When indoor and outdoor design
temperatures are 25 C and 35 C
respectively.
• Building components often involve trapped air
spaces between various layers.
• Thermal resistances of such air spaces
• Thickness of the layer
• the temperature difference across the layer
• the mean air temperature
• the emissivity of each surface
• he orientation of the air layer
• the direction of heat transfer
HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS
• Important considerations in the selection of windows are thermal comfort and energy conservation.
HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS
𝐴𝑠 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑄ሶ = 𝑈𝐴𝑆 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 =
𝑅
• Determine the U-factor for the center-of-glass section of a double-pane window
with a 6-mm air space for winter design conditions . The glazing's are made of
clear glass that has an emissivity of 0.84. Take the average air space temperature
at design conditions to be 0 °C.
• A fixed aluminium-framed window with glass glazing is being considered for an
opening that is 4 ft high and 6 ft wide in the wall of a house that is maintained at
15 F (Fig. 16–47). Determine the rate of heat gain through the window when the
outdoor air temperature is 72 F if the window is selected to be (a) 1/8-in single
glazing, (b) double glazing with an air space of ½ in, and (c) low-e-coated triple
glazing with an air space of ½ in
Solar HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS
The sum of the transmitted solar radiation and the portion of the
absorbed radiation that flows indoors constitutes the solar heat
gain of the building.
The fraction of incident solar radiation that enters through the
glazing is called the solar heat gain coefficient SHGC and is
expressed as
• Another way of characterizing the solar transmission characteristics of
different kinds of glazing and shading devices is to compare them to a
well known glazing material that can serve as a base case.
• This is done by taking the standard 3-mm- (1/8 -in) thick double-
strength clear window glass sheet whose SHGC is 0.87 as the
reference glazing and defining a shading coefficient SC as
➢ Determine solar heat gain Eight clear, double-pane (¼ in. [6.4 mm]) windows
mounted in aluminium frames. Each window is 4 ft wide × 5 ft high [1.2 m ×
1.5 m].