BIOGEOGRAPHY

Lecture Notes

2016

Lecture One

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 04/05/2016

Course: BIOGEOGRAPHY

Lecturer: Mr PIKIRAI.T.

Topic:Introduction to biogeography

1.1 What is biogeography?

Biogeography is a term derived from Greek. It is a combination of two words namely biology
and geography. This gives the concept a double identity as a science of biology and as a
science of geography. In Greekbios means life while geo means the earth and graphein
means to study. Thus literally biogeography refers to the study of life on the earth. A bio
geographer therefore aims at studying life forms on the earth.

1.2 Definitions

The definitions of biogeography are either scientifically biased or geographically biased.

Lapedes (1976) defines biogeography as the science concerned with geographical distribution
of animal and plant life. This definition helps in explaining the general distribution of life on
the earth with much emphasis on the historical, current and future trends.

Simmons (1971) argues that biogeography is much concerned about the study of the
biosphere and man’s effect on the plants, animals as well as the ecological which are part of
it. This definitions looks at the biosphere which may also be termed the sphere of life as it is
the home of life. It also looks at man’s effect on to the plants and animals.
Neil (1969) asserts that biogeography entails the study of the patterns of distribution of living
things. Living things are not distributed disorderly, there are patterns of distribution which
can be explained with relation to biogeography

Tivy (1993) defines biogeography as the study of spatial variations and processes within the
biosphere. The biosphere varies from one point to the other and it is through biogeography
that these variations are verified and explained.

Cox and Moore (2000:1) saysbiogeography “..... Is the study of living things in space and
time” bio geographers study living things with much emphasis on the space they live in and
the changes that occur through time.

The definitions generally show that biogeography deals with the study of distribution pattern
of living organisms in space and time. Due to its complexity, biogeography draws extensive
range of information from other disciplines. To explain biodiversity for example this the
understanding of climate patterns of the earth, the latitudes and altitudes of the earth.

Biogeography aims at answering the following questions.

Where

 Where do organisms live?

 Where did these organisms used to live?
 Where might these organisms live in future?

Why

 Why organisms are found in areas where they are?

 Why organism used to live in areas where they used to live?
 Why organisms might live in certain areas and noother areas?

How

 How organisms are living in areas they live?

 How organisms used to live in areas they used to live?
 How organisms are going to live in areas they might live in future?

In addition to these questions bio geographers also try to answer these questions.

Why
  Why patterns change through time?
 Why some regions have more species and are highly diversified?
 Why some similar species exist on the different sides of the globe?
 Why some species exist in small congested areas?

How

 How do patterns change through time?

 How do regions become more diversified than others?
 How species do exists in different sides of the globe?

Different types of biogeography

Historical biogeography
1. Study is focused more on past organism distributions and the evolution of life. Where an
organism is distributed is a function of evolutionary change.
2. Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of species based on evolutionary ancestry.
Cladogramsare used to visualize evolutionary relationships. Evolutionary similarity and
difference can be determined by morphological or by molecular/genetic markers.
3. Variance biogeographyinvokes past geological events, typically driven by plate tectonics
that shape organisms distributions.
4. Congruenceimplies a similarly timed event spanning two locations that has the same
evolutionary outcome. Psuedocongruenceimplies a similar pattern of species emergence, but
at different times, suggesting that the same mechanism at different times, or different
mechanisms may be responsible. Pseudo-incongruenceindicates a similar timing, but
different outcomes of evolution, suggesting that a particular trigger may play out differently
depending upon context.

b. Ecological biogeography
1. Study of extant (modern or present-day) biogeographic relationships between organisms
and their environment and the biotic interactions among organisms.
2. Evolutionary controls may not be explicitly of interest, but they are still important for
understanding ecological interactions. History certainly matters, but whether this extends
back to deep time and evolutionary time scales is less relevant.
3. Boundary between ecological and historical biogeography is subjective. Ecological
biogeography as a discipline can extend back in time given the evidence available and the
tools and methods that can be used to reconstruct ecological interactions and environmental
controls.

a. Individual organisms- species

[Link]- potentially interbreeding individuals of same species in a prescribed area
c. Met population- population of species with discontinuous distribution.
d. Community- populations of organisms and their interactions within a given area.
e. Metcommunity- similar to a met population, except in this case there are multiple species
colonizing and immigrating from isolated patches.
f. Ecosystem 1. Collection of interacting species and their relationships with the physical
environment, 2. Boundaries for ecosystems are often subjectively determined or an
ecosystem could be a biome, such as tundra or the prairie.
g. Landscape1. Species and their interactions with the configuration of different landscape
elements. Landscape - level biogeography involves the classification and measurement of the
characteristics of land cover over large spatial extents and how these in turn influence
ecosystem, community

1.3 Factors affecting the distribution of plants and animals.

There are various factors which affect the distribution of organisms in the biosphere. Largely
these factors are natural though there are human factors that contribute towards the
distribution as well. These factors include:

Climate

Soil type

Vegetation

Plate tectonics

Human beings

Evolution

1.4 Approaches to biogeography

Spatial approach

This is a traditional and core approach where the study of biogeography is concerned with the
spatial distribution of living organism within the earth. Emphasis is on the distribution of
organism in space and time. Thus with this approach the bio geographer’s main aim is to
study organisms with relation to where these organisms are found.

Ecological approach

With this approach the studying of biogeography is through the study of the functions of the
ecosystem. With this approach emphasis is on the ecosystems and how these ecosystems
affect the way organisms survive.

Human approachthis approach is based on the way human beings interact affect and change
the biosphere. Emphasis is put on the role and effects of human beings in the ecosystems.
Lecture Two

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 06/05/2016

Course: BIOGEOGRAPHY

Lecturer: MR PIKIRAI.T.

Topic: The biosphere

2.1 The biosphere

This is the sphere of life. This is where life is centred on. This is the area of the earth where
life is found to be existing. The sphere extends to the area where life can be found
permanently. Life can be found on and within the land and this area is regarded as life found
on the lithosphere, while life can also exists in water and this area is regarded as the
hydrosphere. In addition life can be found in the air and this area is regarded as the
atmosphere. These three areas or spheres constitute what is called the biosphere.

2.2 The GAIA Hypothesis

The GAIA Hypothesis (postulated by a Greek philosopher John Lovelock 1970).The

conditions on Earth are comfortable for life because, by good fortune, the chemical
composition of our planet and its distance from the Sun are exactly right. If the Earth were
closer to the Sun, conditions on Earth would be too hot, and if the Sun were farther away, the
Earth would be too cold. Biologists since Charles Darwin’s day in the 19th century have
taught that living organisms adapt to Earth’s conditions, and Earth scientists have long taught
that geological forces alone determine conditions on the Earth. Gaia theory follows from
Lotka’s conjecture. The theory is based on an evolutionary science that is as much about the
rocks and oceans as about the living things that inhabit them. In this view, an Earth system
evolves gradually for long periods under an ever-warming Sun. But as the Earth system
evolves, sudden events punctuate the system’s gradual evolution. These events may be
internal, such as the appearance of oxygen, a glaciation, or a species like humans; or the
events may be external, such as the impact of planet’s animals, planet precursors that orbited
the Sun in the early solar system. Whether internally or externally driven, these events change
the whole Earth system, affecting both the physical environment and living organisms.

Gaia is Greek for earth’s goddess (earth mother).The theory is born from the deep ecologists
who believe that each organism is a small part of the whole system of interactions within the
biosphere. This alternative view of the Earth is Gaia theory, in which all of life, together with
the Earth's surface and atmosphere, evolve as a single entity. This single entity is able to
sustain habitable conditions and compensate for adverse changes in the Sun's output of heat
and in the Earth's surface composition.

They believe that every organism has the right to exist regardless of the needs of humans. –
Animals are equal to humans hence there should be co-existence. Animals should benefit
from human beings.

Assumptions: The physical and chemical conditions of the biosphere has been and is
actively made comfortable by life itself. – Opposite to the notion that life adapted to the
planetary conditions for survival.

The earth is a giant living organism and that it is the various forms of life themselves that
regulate and maintain conditions necessary to sustain life.

2.3 Environmentalism

This is a world view or a set of assumptions that a group of people hold regarding the nature
of the world. With environmentalism, the assumption is that what we generally view as
natural resources are products of the natural environment. These resources will be limited by
the regenerative capacities of the natural environment. The main or key issue is that our
survival literally depends on the suitable protection and stewardship of the natural
environment. This view is held mostly by the most developed countries such as American
and Europeans. Environmentalists argue that the continued exploitation of resources is not
sustainable and will directly affect the future generations. They cite current problems such as
ozone depletion, acid rain and pollution of waters which have killed a lot of aquatic life as
manifests of problems of cornucopianism.

2.4 Cornucopianism
This is a view which is very dominant with most developing countries. The assumption is that
all parts of the environment are natural resources to be exploited for the advantage of humans
either individually or as a society. Another assumption is that these resources are infinite, if
one is exhausted another is going to be found to replace it. The history of development of
countries in America is synonymous with the stripping of forests, slaughtering of wild
animals, mining of minerals to just say a few. To conserve resources is to underutilise them.
Lecture Three

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 11/05/2016

Course BIOGEOGRAPHY

Lecturer: MR PIPKIRAI.T.

Topic: Ecosystems
3.1 The Concept of Ecosystem

Ecosystem definition

Transley (1985) – a holistic concept of plants and animals usually associated with the
physical and chemical components of the immediate environment – the bio -geographer is
concerned about the taxa i.e. the units of life.

Ecosystems help us understand how life support systems such as climate interact with living
things and how they adapt to changes in the conditions.

Ecosystem, generally refers to organisms living in a particular environment, such as a forest

or a coral reef, and the physical parts of the environment that affect them. The term
ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the British ecologist Sir Arthur George Tansley, who
described natural systems in “constant interchange” among their living and non-living parts.
A system is a collection of interdependent parts that function as a unit and involve inputs and
outputs. The major parts of an ecosystem are the producers (green plants), the consumers
(herbivores and carnivores), the decomposers (fungi and bacteria), and the non-living, or
abiotic, component, consisting of dead organic matter and nutrients in the soil and water.
Inputs into the ecosystem are solar energy, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and other
elements and compounds. Outputs from the ecosystem include water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrient losses, and the heat released in cellular respiration, or heat of respiration.
The major driving force is solar energy.

3.2 Why study ecosystems

There are various reasons why ecosystems are studied and they may include the following:
  To get the analysis and explanations on the patterns of distributions.
 To account for the changes in the patterns of distribution of living organisms.
 To get an insight on the life support systems.
 To understand the functions of the world with more thrust on living organisms.

The ecosystem concept fits into an ordered view of nature that was developed by
scientists to simplify the study of the relationships between organisms and their physical
environment, a field known as ecology. This is in form of a hierarchy of which at the top
of the hierarchy is the planet’s entire living environment, known as the biosphere. Within
this biosphere are several large categories of living communities known as biomes that
are usually characterized by their dominant vegetation, such as grasslands, tropical
forests, or deserts. The biomes are in turn made up of ecosystems. The living, or biotic,
parts of an ecosystem, such as the plants, animals, and are known as a community. The
physical surroundings or the non-living component of the environment or abiotic
components, such as the minerals found in the soil, are known as the environment or
habitat.

The whole world have several different ecosystems that vary in size and complexity. A
desert, for example, may have a dry barren ecosystem that covers hundreds of square
kilometres of land. No matter how the size or complexity of an ecosystem is
characterized, all ecosystems exhibit a continuous constant exchange of matter and
energy between the biotic and abiotic community. Ecosystem components have an
interconnection which results in that a change in any one component of an ecosystem will
cause subsequent changes throughout the system. Therefore any component of the
ecosystem plays an integral part towards the survival, enrichment and death of the living
organisms.

Food chain

It is a hierarchy of different living things, each of which feeds on the one below. A food
chain can be also defined as a hierarchy showing what eats what.
Fig 2 Showing a food chain

Grass cow lion vulture

Food Web

Food Web, set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate within
an ecosystem. These webs are made up of individual food chains. The materials typically
pass from plants to plant eaters (herbivores) to flesh eaters (carnivores).

Green plants, the primary producers of food in most terrestrial food webs, belong to the first
trophic level. Herbivores, consumers of green plants, belong to the second trophic level.
Carnivores, predators feeding upon the herbivores, belong to the third. Omnivores,
consumers of both plants and animals, belong to the second and third. Secondary carnivores,
which are predators that feed on predators, belong to the fourth trophic level. As the trophic
levels rise, the predators become fewer, larger, fiercer, and more agile. This can be easily be
shown using the pyramid of numbers where the organisms tend to decrease with the rise in
the trophic levels this is normal as it is practically impossible for a smaller number of
producers to support a larger number of herbivores.

Some or all of these trophic levels combine to form what is known as a food web, the
ecosystem’s mechanism for circulating and recycling energy and materials. For example,
in an aquatic ecosystem algae and other aquatic plants use sunlight to produce energy in
the form of carbohydrates. Primary consumers such as insects and small fish may feed on
some of this plant matter, and are in turn eaten by secondary consumers, such as salmon.
A brown bear may play the role of the tertiary consumer by catching and eating salmon.
Bacteria and fungi may then feed upon and decompose the salmon carcass left behind by
the bear, enabling the valuable non-living components of the ecosystem, such as chemical
nutrients, to leach back into the soil and water, where they can be absorbed by the roots of
plants. In this way nutrients and the energy that green plants derive from sunlight are
efficiently transferred and recycled throughout the ecosystem.

3.3 Bio-magnification

A phenomenon in which the concentration of certain compounds increase in each

organism with the rise in the food chain. This occurs with the chemicals that are non-
degradable. A typical example is of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane better known as
DDT. Each chemical has a certain level which it becomes toxic. Let us assume that DDT
has its toxic level as 60%. After spraying some crops with DDT, one crop may
accumulate about 5% of the chemical. Thus if aphidsfeeds on the crop, they are going to
acquire 5% each. If a bird is going to feed on ten aphids, it follows that the bird is going
to accumulate 5 x 10 = 50% of the chemical. Any organism which is going to feed on two
birds willaccumulate 50x 2 =100% which is far above the toxic level hence organisms
will suddenly die. This phenomenon is mostly common in commercial farming areas
where non degradable chemicals are mostly used. Evidence of this is usually seen by the
death of birds and fish in the commercial farming areas.

3.4 Nutrient cycling

Ecosystems are also characterized by several other cycles. The various inputs and outputs of
producers and consumers work interdependently. The wastes or by-products of each is the
food or essential nutrients for the other. Elements such as carbon and nitrogen travel
throughout the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem in processes known as nutrient
cycles. For example, nitrogen travelling in the air may be snatched by a tree-dwelling, or
epiphytic, lichen that converts it to a form useful to plants. When rain drips through the lichen
and falls to the ground, or the lichen itself falls to the forest floor, the nitrogen from the
raindrops or the lichen is leached into the soil to be used by plants and trees. Another process
important to ecosystems is the water cycle, the movement of water from ocean to atmosphere
to land and eventually back to the ocean. An ecosystem such as a forest or wetland plays a
significant role in this cycle by storing, releasing, or filtering the water as it passes through
the system.

Every ecosystem is also characterized by a disturbance cycle, a regular cycle of events

such as fires, storms, floods, and landslides that keeps the ecosystem in a constant state of
change and adaptation. Some species even depend on the disturbance cycle for survival or
reproduction. For example, longleaf pine forests depend on frequent low-intensity fires
for reproduction. The cones of the trees, which contain the reproductive structures, are
sealed shut with a resin that melts away to release the seeds only under high heat. In
addition human beings play an integral part on the disturbances when they practise their
day to day activities such as farming, mining and industrialisation just to mention a few.
Within an ecosystem nutrients are cycled internally. But there are leakages or outputs, and
these must be balanced by inputs, or the ecosystem will fail to function. Nutrient inputs to the
system come from weathering of rocks, from windblown dust, and from precipitation, which
can carry material great distances. Varying quantities of nutrients are carried from terrestrial
ecosystems by the movement of water and deposited in aquatic ecosystems and associated
lowlands. Erosion and the harvesting of timber and crops remove considerable quantities of
nutrients that must be replaced. The failure to do so results in an impoverishment of the
ecosystem but on the other hand it will be enrichment of the other. This is why agricultural
lands must be fertilized.

3.5 Eco regulation

Refers to the means and ways through which ecosystems regulates or adjust itself to in
response to both internal and external forces. Ecosystems normally changes due to
interactions which exists between biotic and abiotic components. It can also change in
response to the environmental changes or conditions.

3.6 Modifications of ecosystems

An ecosystem can be modified by various factors, however ecosystems always attempts

to readjust itself to maintain stability. Stability usually takes the following forms.

 Inertia / persistence

Refers to the ability of an ecosystem to resist being disturbed or altered.

 Constancy

Refers to the ability of a community such as population to maintain its certain size
regardless of the disturbances.

 resilience

Refers to the ability of an ecosystem to revert or restore itself to its original state
following a disturbance.
Lecture Four

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: 12/05/2016

Date: PA/2016/241

Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic:Ecology

4.1 The concept of ecology

Ecology can be defined as the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical
and biological environment. The physical environment includes light and heat or solar
radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere.
The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and
animals.

The term ecology was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel in 1866; it
is derived from the Greek oikos (“household”), while in Greek logos refers to the study of
something. Therefore ecology is the study of the households and in this case it is the study of
households of organisms. Modern ecology, in part, began with Charles Darwin. In developing
his theory of evolution, Darwin stressed the adaptation of organisms to their environment
through natural selection. Also making important contributions were plant geographers, such
as Alexander von Humboldt, who were deeply interested in the “how” and “why” of
vegetation distribution around the world.

4.2 Levels in ecology

There are various levels in ecology. These are the level with which ecology can be studied
through. These levels range from the biosphere to the individual.

Biosphere

A group of ecosystems in a large area. These are identified and classified according to the
vegetation dominant vegetation.

Ecosystem

A self-nourishing,self-sustaining and self-regulating community of organisms which interact

within a specified area.

Fig 4 showing an ecosystem

Community

A group of populations of species that live and interact in a geographical area at a particular
time.

Population
A defined group of individuals of species who live and breed and interact in the same
geographical area.

Individual

Species of organisms which include individual offspring which are capable of reproducing.

4.3 The earth's biosphere

The thin mantle of life that covers the earth is called the biosphere. Several approaches are
used to classify its regions. It is the sphere where life is found. Its depth and height extends as
far as any area where life exists permanently.

Biomes

A group of ecosystems in a large area. These are identified and classified according to the
vegetation dominant vegetation. Biomes can be classified under two categories namely,
aquatic and terrestrial biomes. The aquatic can be further subdivided into:

A) Freshwater

Which includes flowing water bodies such as Streams Rivers and lakes. It has less nutrients.
The dormant flora is phytoplankton. Some fresh water are ephemeral that is they are dry for
part of the year such as pools and the Kalahari pans.

Fig 5 The Amazon River showing flowing fresh water and flora.
 B) Marine

These refers to the biomes of the oceans. It is salty hence richer in nutrients.

Phytoplankton is also present and provides food for fish

Fig 6 Showing aquatic ecosystem

The Indian ocean with its salty waters

C) Estuaries
Located in between fresh water and marine water. These include marshes,mangrove,
lagoons and river mouths.

4.4 Populations and communities

The functional units of an ecosystem are the populations of organisms through which energy
and nutrients move. A population is a group of interbreeding organisms of the same kind
living in the same place at the same time (see Species and Speciation). Groups of populations
within an ecosystem interact in various ways. These interdependent populations of plants and
animals make up the community, which encompasses the biotic portion of the ecosystem.

The community has certain attributes, among them dominance and species diversity.
Dominance results when one or several species control the environmental conditions that
influence associated species. In a forest, for example, the dominant species may be one or
more species of trees, such as oak or spruce; in a marine community the dominant organisms
frequently are animals such as mussels or oysters. Dominance can influence diversity of
species in a community because diversity involves not only the number of species in a
community, but also how numbers of individual species are apportioned.

The physical nature of a community is evidenced by layering, or stratification. In terrestrial

communities, stratification is influenced by the growth form of the plants. Simple
communities such as grasslands, with little vertical stratification, usually consist of two
layers, the ground layer and the herbaceous layer. A forest has up to six layers: ground,
herbaceous, low shrub, low tree and high shrub, lower canopy, and upper canopy. These
strata influence the physical environment and diversity of habitats for wildlife. Vertical
stratification of life in aquatic communities, by contrast, is influenced mostly by physical
conditions: depth, light, temperature, pressure, salinity, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.

Habitat
The community provides the habitat which refers to the place where particular plants or
animals live. Within the habitat, organisms occupy different niches.

A Niche

A niche is the functional role of a species in a community. This refers to its occupation, or
how it earns its living. For example, the lion lives in the grassland savannah habitat. Its niche,
in part, is hunting the bucks, impalas and zebras in the grasslands. The more a community is
stratified, the more finely the habitat is divided into additional niches.

Population

Population refers to the group of individuals in an ecosystem. Populations have a birth rate
(the number of young produced per unit of population per unit of time), a death rate (the
number of deaths per unit of time), and a growth rate. The major agent of population growth
is births, and the major agent of population loss is deaths. When births exceed deaths, a
population increases; and when deaths exceed additions to a population, it decreases. When
births equal deaths in a given population, its size remains the same, and it is said to have zero
population growth.

Population have an effect on carrying capacity of an area. When introduced into a favourable
environment with an abundance of resources, a small population may undergo geometric, or
exponential growth, in the manner of compound interest. Many populations experience
exponential growth in the early stages of colonizing a habitat because they take over an
underexploited niche or drive other populations out of a profitable one. Those populations
that continue to grow exponentially, however, eventually reach the upper limits of the
resources; they then decline sharply because of some catastrophic event such as starvation,
disease, or competition from other species. In a general way, populations of plants and
animals that characteristically experience cycles of exponential growth are species that
produce numerous young, provide little in the way of parental care, or produce an abundance
of seeds having little food reserves. These species, usually short-lived, disperse rapidly and
are able to colonize harsh or disturbed environments. Such organisms are often called
opportunistic species.
Other populations tend to grow exponentially at first, and then logistically that is, their
growth slows as the population increases, then levels off as the limits of their environment or
carrying capacity are reached. Through various regulatory mechanisms, such populations
maintain something of an equilibrium between their numbers and available resources.
Animals exhibiting such population growth tend to produce fewer young but do provide them
with parental care; the plants produce large seeds with considerable food reserves. These
organisms are long-lived, have low dispersal rates, and are poor colonizers of disturbed
habitats. They tend to respond to changes in population density (the number of organisms per
unit area) through changes in birth and death rates rather than through dispersal. As the
population approaches the limit of resources, birth rates decline, and mortality of young and
adults increases.

4.5 Ecosystems interactions and interrelationship

There are various interactions and interrelationships that take in ecosystems

Major influences on population growth involve various population interactions that tie the
community together. These include competition, both within a species and among species;
predation, including parasitism; and coevolution, or adaptation..

Keystone species

These are species with significant roles in the community structure due to the impacts they
have on other species. The interactions helps to maintain equilibrium

Resilient

Refers to an ecosystem which is able to return to some state of dynamic equilibrium after
stress e.g. after a veld fire or drought.

Interaction can be intra-specific where species of the same family or group will be interacting
while it can be inter-specific where species of different groups or communities will be
interacting.
 Competition

This can be intra-specific or inter-specific occurs when a shared resource is in short supply,
hence organisms compete, and those that are more successful survive. Those with fittest gene
group survive. Usually the fittest gene group will be passed on to the next gene group. Within
some plant and animal populations, all individuals may share the resources in such a way that
none obtains sufficient quantities to survive as adults or to reproduce. Among other plant and
animal populations, dominant individuals claim access to the scarce resources and others are
excluded. Individual plants tend to claim and hold onto a site until they lose vigour or die.
These prevent other individuals from surviving by controlling light, moisture, and nutrients in
their immediate areas.

Many animals have a highly developed social organization through which resources such as
space, food, and mates are apportioned among dominant members of the population. Such
competitive interactions may involve social dominance, in which the dominant individuals
exclude subdominant individuals from the resource; or they may involve territoriality, in
which the dominant individuals divide space into exclusive areas, which they defend.
Subdominant or excluded individuals are forced to live in poorer habitats, do without the
resource, or leave the area. Many of these animals succumb to starvation, exposure, and
predation.

Competition among members of different species results in the division of resources in a

community. Certain plants, for example, have roots that grow to different depths in the soil.
Some have shallow roots that permit them to use moisture and nutrients near the surface.
Others growing in the same place have deep roots that are able to exploit moisture and
nutrients not available to surface-rooted plants. At the end competition sometimes results in
co-existence at manageable densities.

Co-operation

This is usually intra-specific. It happens between members of the same species as

communities. It ensures the survival of the entire group. Groups such as termites and herds of
impalas and zebras usually work as a group protecting each other.

Predation
One of the fundamental interactions is predation, or the consumption of one living organism,
plant or animal, by another. The one that eats is called the predator while the one that is eaten
is called the prey. Their relationship is called the predator prey relationship. While it serves to
move energy and nutrients through the ecosystem, predation may also regulate population
and promote natural selection by weeding the unfit from a population. Thus, a rabbit is a
predator on grass, just as the fox is a predator on the rabbit. Predation on plants involves
defoliation by grazers and the consumption of seeds and fruits. The abundance of plant
predators, or herbivores, directly influences the growth and survival of the carnivores. Thus,
predator-prey interactions at one feeding level influence the predator-prey relations at the
next feeding level. In some communities, predators may so reduce populations of prey
species that a number of competing species can coexist in the same area because none is
abundant enough to control the resource. When predators are reduced or removed, however,
the dominant species tend to crowd out other competitors, thereby reducing species diversity.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis (Greek symbioun, “to live together”), in biology, the term for the interdependence
of different species (Sym) means together while bio means living. Thus symbiosis means
living together. This is a relationship based on living together with some organism benefiting
from the association or both benefitting. There are three main types of symbiosis, based upon
the specific relationship between the species involved: mutualism, parasitism, and
commensalism.

Mutualism

Symbiosis that results in mutual benefit to the interdependent organisms is commonly known
as mutualism. A relationship between two organisms of different species that benefits both
and harms neither. With this relationship both organisms benefit without harming each other.
There is a sort of agreement. An example is of the flowers and bees where bees get nectar
from the flowers for the production of honey, while the flower benefits through pollination
by the bees. . Another example of mutualism is the coexistence of certain species of algae
and fungi that together compose lichens. The fungus provides a protective structure, and the
alga produces a carbohydrate as food for the fungus. Their close association enables them to
live in extreme environments, nourished only by light, air, and minerals. Living separately,
the alga and fungus would not survive in such conditions.

Commensalism

The type of symbiosis known as commensalism is an association between two different kinds
of non-parasitic animals, called commensals that is harmless to both and in which one of the
organism benefits. Many commensals are free to separate. Other commensals function
together so completely that they cannot separate. They are not considered parasitic, however,
because they do not harm each other. An example is that of the inhabitants of the termite
mound which takes shelter without harming the termites.

Parasitism

In parasitism, also known as antagonistic symbiosis, one organism receives no benefits and is
often injured while supplying nutrients or shelter for the other organism. Parasites include
viruses and bacteria that cause many diseases; certain protozoans that can infect plants and
animals; tapeworms and flukes that infest the intestinal tracks and internal organs of animals;
and external parasites such as lice and ticks. Parasites, which are smaller than their hosts,
include many viruses and bacteria. Because of this dependency relationship, parasites
normally do not kill their hosts the way predators do. As a result, hosts and parasites
generally co-exist with their hosts although parasites may regulate some host populations,
lower their reproductive success, and modify behaviour.

Co-evolution

Co-evolution is the joint evolution of two unrelated species that have a close ecological
relationship that is, the evolution of one species depends in part on the evolution of the other.
Co-evolution is also involved in predator-prey relations. Over time, as predators evolve more
efficient ways of capturing or consuming prey, the prey evolves ways to escape predation.
Plants have acquired such defensive mechanisms as thorns, spines, hard seed-coats, and
poisonous or ill-tasting sap that deter would-be consumers. Some herbivores are able to
breach these defences and attack the plant. Certain insects, such as the monarch butterfly, can
incorporate poisonous substances found in food plants into their own tissues and use them as
a defence against predators. Other animals avoid predators by assuming an appearance that
blends them into the background or makes them appear part of the surroundings. The
chameleon is a well-known example of this interaction. Some animals possessing obnoxious
odours or poisons as a defence also have warning colorations, usually bright colours or
patterns, that act as further warning signals to potential predators.

Another co-evolutionary relationship is mutualism, in which two or more species depend on

one another and cannot live outside such an association. An example of mutualism is
mycorrhizae, an obligatory relationship between fungi and certain plant roots. In one group,
called ectomycorrhizal, the fungi form a cap or mantle about the rootlets. The fungal hyphae
(threads) invade the rootlet and grow between the cell walls as well as extending outward into
the soil from the rootlet. The fungi, which include several common woodland mushrooms,
depend on the tree for their energy source. In return the fungi aid the tree in obtaining
nutrients from the soil and protect the rootlets of the tree from certain diseases. Without the
mycorrhizae some groups of trees, such as conifers and oaks, cannot survive and grow.
Conversely, the fungi cannot exist without the trees.

4.6 Succession and Climax Communities

According to Revelle and Revelle (1998) ecological succession refers to “a natural process in
which the species found in a given area change conditions to make an area less suitable for
themselves and more suitable for other species.”

Wright (1994) views succession as “the gradual or sometimes rapid change in species that
occupy a given area with some species invading and becoming more numerous while others
decline in population and eventually disappear.”

Ecosystems are dynamic, in that the populations constituting them do not remain the same. It
begins with the colonization of a disturbed area, such as an abandoned crop field or a newly
exposed lava flow, by species able to reach and to tolerate the environmental conditions
present. Mostly these are opportunistic species that hold on to the site for a variable length of
time. Being short-lived and poor competitors, they are eventually replaced by more
competitive, longer-lived species such as shrubs, and then trees. In aquatic habitats,
successional changes of this kind result largely from changes in the physical environment,
such as the build-up of silt at the bottom of a pond. As the pond becomes shallower, it
encourages the invasion of floating plants such as pond lilies and emergent plants such as
cattails. The pace at which succession proceeds depends on the competitive abilities of the
species involved; tolerance to the environmental conditions brought about by changes in
vegetation; the interaction with animals, particularly the grazing herbivores; and fire.
Eventually the ecosystem arrives at a point called the climax, where further changes take
place very slowly, and the site is dominated by long-lived, highly competitive species. As
succession proceeds, however, the community becomes more stratified, enabling more
species of animals to occupy the area. In time, animals characteristic of later stages of
succession replace those found in earlier stages.

Types of succession

Primary succession

Primary succession refers to the gradual establishment through aseries ofstages of a climax
ecosystem in an area that has not been occupied before e.g. bare rock.

Types of primary succession

Xeroseres

 Succession which occurs in dry habitats.

Lithoseres

 Forms of xeroseres which occur on bare rock surfaces such as recently erupted
volcanoes.

Psamoseres

 Form of xeroseres which takes place on a sand surface like beaches and sand dunes.

Hydroseres

 Succession that occurs in fresh water.

Haloseres
  Succession that takes place on saline water.

Secondary succession

The establishment through a series of stages a climax ecosystem in an area from which it was
previously cleared.

Natural Selection

The process whereby the natural factors of the environmental resistance tend to eliminate
those members of a population that are least well adapted to cope and thus in effect select
those best adapted for survival and reproduction. It is the process by which environmental
effects lead to varying degrees of reproductive success among individuals of a population of
organisms with different hereditary characters, or traits. The characters that inhibit
reproductive success decrease in frequency from generation to generation. The resulting
increase in the proportion of reproductively successful individuals usually enhances the
adaptation of the population to its environment. Natural selection thus tends to promote
adaptation by maintaining favourable adaptations in a constant environment (stabilizing
selection) or improving adaptation in a direction appropriate to environmental changes
(directional According to Charles Darwin, this is called the survival of the fittest which
means the survival of the individual with the best traits that best enable them to cope with the
biotic and abiotic state of the environment selection).

4.7 Selective Breeding

It is the selective control of mating in plants and animals to produce organisms that better
serve human needs for food, work, sport, or aesthetics. Breeders first identify the desired
traits they would like to appear on the intended species. The history of breeding can be
divided into two periods: before and after the rediscovery in 1900 of Mendel's concepts of
heredity (see Mendel's Laws). Before 1900, breeders worked primarily by selecting from
each generation the animals or plants that displayed desired characteristics and then breeding
these individuals to produce the next generation. Although this simple method, known as
mass selection, produced some favourable results, it was often a slow and unpredictable
process. After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, breeding became more predictable and
scientific. Mendel's principles showed that many traits are transmitted as discrete units, and
over successive generations these traits do not blend with or become corrupted by other traits.
Most importantly, Mendel's work showed that by analysing breeding results it is possible to
predict which traits will occur, and in what proportions, in the next generation. Thus, analysis
of breeding results gives the breeder knowledge about genotype (genetic makeup) of an
organism based on observation of its phenotype (visual characteristics), and it provides a
knowledge of genetic variation for specific traits. Genetic variation is the source for
modification from which the breeder draws when selecting for a particular trait. Through
these methods modern Mendelian breeding has produced remarkable improvements in a large
variety of agriculturally useful organisms.

Fig 7 Showing different breeds of dogs

Darling kindersley (1992)

Chihuahua and the German shepherd

The above dogs , the german sherpherd and chihuahua can beinterbred to produce a

dog with traits from both parents.

Animal and plant breeding has been responsible for vastly improving agricultural yields over
the past several hundred years, and thus for improving the world's food supply (see Food
Supply, World). Systematic breeding programs emerged in Europe and the United States on
an increasingly large scale during the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, partly in
response to the demand for more food to feed an increasingly urban, non-
agriculturalworkforce. In the 20th century, growing world populations have also brought
increased pressure to improve agricultural yields.
Lecture Five

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 13/05/2016

Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic:Biodiversity
5.1 The concept of biodiversity

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity, refers to the sum of all the different species of animals,
plants, fungi, and microbial organisms living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which
they live. Each species is adapted to its unique niche in the environment, from the peaks of
mountains to the depths of deep-sea.

All organisms are very vital in the biosphere and in the ecosystem in which they live.
Ecosystems, in turn, depend on the continued health and vitality of the individual organisms
that compose them. Removing just one species from an ecosystem can prevent the ecosystem
from operating optimally.

The distribution of living organisms in the biosphere is not by accident or by coincidence. It

is due to the ranges of tolerance of organisms. Range is defined by Miller (1994) as the
geographical limit of an area with which a particular population of organisms occur. Each
organism has a range of tolerance of each abiotic conditions. Mukwada (1998) says that each
species of organisms does not spread everywhere but has a particular range of tolerance to
variations in the physical and chemical factors of the environment such as soil,water,
nutrients and light. Animals vary widely in their tolerance of environmental conditions. Some
can survive in a variety of habitats, whereas others perish when removed from their natural
surroundings. No animals other than humans can create sufficient artificial changes to enable
them to exist in a totally strange environment without evolving through many generations of
adaptation. The specific interactions of animals with their environments are the subject matter
of ecology. The factors affecting animal distribution range from global geological events to
local weather conditions.

5.2 Ranges of tolerance

Distribution, patterns that characterize where animals are found around the globe. When
scientists study the distribution of animals, they investigate why reindeer, for instance, are
found only in certain parts of the arctic tundra, or why malaria-bearing mosquitoes proliferate
in damp subtropical areas. Scientists study animal distribution to understand the spread of
animal-borne diseases, to acquire knowledge about the preservation of rare species that may
have special needs, and to become informed about the changing geography of the world, and
our place in its history and its future. To understand these issues, scientists need to identify
the specific climates, foods, and geographic features different animals require, and what areas
best provide them. The study of animal distribution is called zoogeography.

There are three types of ranges within which organisms can fall under. These are:

Cosmopolitan

 Is a wide range and organism in this group are found everywhere in the biosphere. These
have a wide range of tolerance to most of the abiotic factors. An example is that of weeds
and human beings.
 Human beings are homoeothermic, that is to say they have a wide range of tolerance.

Endemic

 Is a range that is very local or restricted? This is usually as a result of physical barriers
such as islands.

Disjunct

 Is also called discontinuous range. It is found where two species of the same types are
found far apart that they could not have been dispersed.

5.3 Distribution of living organisms

Everywhere there is life, there is more than one distinct type of organism. Even a drop of
seawater offers a multitude of different microscopic plants, animals, and less complex life
forms. The rich diversity of the living world is connected in two distinct ways. First, different
types of organisms live side by side in complex ecological networks of interdependency, each
relying on the others that share its habitat for nutrients and energy. Second, all life on Earth is
connected in an evolutionary tree of life. At the bottom of the tree is the common ancestor
from which all living things descended

The distribution of living organisms can be attributed to generally three aspects namely:

a) Evolution

Tivy (1993) describes evolution as changes in genetic composition of a population exposed to

new environmental composition. Evolution can lead to split of species into two different
species. New species are from pre-existing species ones which change over along period of
time. Species is defined by Miller (1994) as members of same gene group with common
ancestry closely resembling each other structurally and physiologically and are capable of
interbreeding producing fertile offspring.

Speciation iswhen groups with a population become isolated in some way or when the gene
pool of two populations are caused to diverge. . In this process, called speciation, the
members of each group become so different that they can no longer successfully interbreed.
At this point, a new species has formed. An example is of finches which according to Darwin
where original concentrated in tropics but are now found in deserts. In some cases geographic
barriers isolate populations, leading to the formation of entirely new species in a process
called allopatric speciation. Less frequently, mutations or subtle changes in behaviour
prevent individuals living in close proximity from reproducing. This may lead to sympatric
speciation, in which two distinct subgroups of a population cease exchanging genetic
material and evolve into two or more distinct species. Interbreeding normally continues if
there is nothing to stop it. Anything that hinders interbreeding is called an isolating
mechanism.

b) Migration
Migration is the, seasonal or periodic movement of animals in response to changes in climate
or food availability, or to ensure reproduction. Due to this, most organisms have since
changed to become new organisms that may resemble the old ones or may be very different
from the original ones. Migration most commonly involves movement from one area to
another and then back again. This round-trip, or return migration, may be of a seasonal
nature, as in the spring and autumn migrations of many birds. Or it may require a lifetime to
complete, as in various species of Pacific salmon that are born in freshwater streams, travel to
ocean waters, and then return to the stream where they were born to breed before dying.

After migration the organisms will extend their ranges and may develop or undergo adaptive
radiation. Migration occurs in a wide range of animals, from microorganisms in freshwater
lakes, which shift seasonally from deep to shallow water as a result of temperature changes;
to whales, which move in autumn from sub-polar to subtropical seas to have their young and
then return in late spring to the colder, food-rich waters. Humans migrate as well: The Kung
Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert, for example, follow migrating game animals that they rely
upon for food. They also leave drought-ridden areas to find other water sources.

Another type of migration, or one-way migration to new sites is exhibited by migratory

locusts of Africa and Asia. These locusts are well known for their enormous mass movements
when their populations has reached peak and food becomes scarce. They move to new areas,
almost blackening the sky as they pass overhead. Rarely do they return to their place of
origin.

c) Abiotic environmental change

The physical world was and is undergoing changes. These changes affect the land, climate
and seas. This is caused by various factors. These factors may be other living organisms
(biotic factors) or non-living variables (abiotic factors), such as temperature, rainfall, day
length, wind, and ocean currents. The interactions of organisms with biotic and abiotic factors
form an ecosystem. Even minute changes in any one factor in an ecosystem can influence
whether or not a particular plant or animal species will be successful in its environment.

Organisms and their environment constantly interact, and both are changed by this
interaction. Like all other living creatures, humans have clearly changed their environment,
but they have done so generally on a grander scale than have all other species. Some of these
human-induced change include the destruction of the world’s tropical rain forests to create
farms and industrialisation have altered climate patterns (Global Warming). In turn, altered
climate patterns have changed the way animals and plants are distributed in different
ecosystems.

5.4 Extinction of organisms

Extinction refers to the end of existence of a group of organisms, caused by their inability to
adapt to changing environmental conditions. Extinction affects individual species that is,
groups of interbreeding organisms as well as collections of related species, such as members
of the same family, order, or class. There evidence that some organisms once existed in some
areas where they can hardly be found

Fossils, the remains of prehistoric plants and animals buried and preserved in sedimentary
rock or trapped in amber or other deposits of ancient organic matter, provide a record of the
history of life on Earth. Scientists who study this fossil record, called palaeontologists, have
learnt that extinction is a natural and ongoing phenomenon. In fact, of the hundreds of
millions of species that have lived on Earth over the past 3.8 billion years, more than 99
percent are already extinct. Some of this happens as the natural result of competition between
species and is known as natural selection. According to natural selection, living things must
compete for food and space. They must evade the ravages of predators and disease while
dealing with unpredictable shifts in their environment. Those species incapable of adapting
are faced with imminent extinction. This constant rate of extinction, sometimes called
background extinction, is like a slowly ticking clock. First one species, then another becomes
extinct, and new species appear almost at random as geological time goes by. Normal rates of
background extinction are usually about five families of organisms lost per million years.

More recently, palaeontologists have discovered that not all extinction is slow and gradual.
At various times in the fossil record, many different, unrelated species became extinct at
nearly the same time. The cause of these large-scale extinctions is always dramatic
environmental change that produces conditions too severe for organisms to endure.
Environmental changes of this calibre result from extreme climatic change, such as the global
cooling observed during the ice ages, or from catastrophic events, such as meteorite impacts
or widespread volcanic activity. Whatever their causes, these events dramatically alter the
composition of life on Earth, as entire groups of organisms disappear and entirely new groups
rise to take their place.

5.5 Causes of Extinction

This extraordinary rate of extinction has occurred only five times before in the history of
complex life on Earth. Mass extinctions of the geological past were caused by catastrophic
physical disasters, such as climate changes or meteorite impacts, which destroyed and
disrupted ecosystems around the globe. In the fifth mass extinction, which occurred more
than 65 million years ago, the Earth was shrouded in a cloud of atmospheric dust—the result
of meteorite impact or widespread volcanic activity. The resulting environmental disruption
caused the demise of 76 percent of all species alive at the time, including the dinosaurs.
Today’s sixth extinction is likewise primarily caused by ecosystem disturbance—but this
time the destroying force is not the physical environment, but rather humankind. The human
transformation of the Earth's surface threatens to be every bit as destructive as any of the past
cataclysmic physical disasters.

Generally there are various causes of extinction. These include:

 competition
 predator prey relationship
 natural disasters
 Human interference
 Evolution
 Migration
 Environmental changes
 Introduction of alien species

The extinction of organisms can largely be attributed to human beings. This is because the
human being have the capacity to alter the environment to suit their own needs at the expense
of the other organisms. The underlying cause of biodiversity loss is the explosion in human
population, now at 6 billion, but expected to double again by the year 2050. The human
population already consumes nearly half of all the food, crops, medicines, and other useful
items produced by the Earth’s organisms, and more than 1 billion people on Earth lack
adequate supplies of fresh water. But the problem is not sheer numbers of people alone: The
unequal distribution and consumption of resources and other forms of wealth on the planet
must also be considered. The world population is increasing at a rate which in way the
growth of resources can be equated to. According to some estimates, the average middle-
class American consumes an amazing 30 times what a person living in a developing nation
consumes. Thus the impact of the 270 million American people must be multiplied by 30 to
derive an accurate comparative estimate of the impact such industrialized nations have on the
world's ecosystems.

The single greatest threat to global biodiversity is the human destruction of natural habitats.
Since the invention of agriculture about, the human population has increased from
approximately 5 million to a full 6 billion people. During that time, but especially in the past
several centuries, humans have radically transformed the face of planet Earth. The conversion
of forests, grasslands, and wetlands for agricultural purposes, coupled with the multiplication
and growth of urban centres and the building of dams and canals, highways, and railways, has
physically altered ecosystems to the point that extinction of species has reached its current
alarming pace.

In addition, overexploitation of the world's natural resources, such as fisheries and forests,
has greatly outstripped the rate at which these systems can recover.
As human populations have grown, people have spread out to all corners of the Earth. In the
process, whether on purpose or by accident, they have introduced alien species that have
created ecological nightmares, disrupting local ecosystems and, in many cases, directly
driving native species extinct. For example, the introduction of the water hyacinth water
weed in Lake Chivero of Zimbabwe resulted in death of a lot of aquatic organisms such as
fish.
Lecture Six

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 17/05/2016

Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic:Island biogeography

6.1 Historical background

Cox and Moore (1998) defines an island as an isolated area separated from mainland by sea
or fresh water. Few terrestrial organisms can survive on islands. The inaccessibility of islands
affects their flora and fauna as most organisms do not have special adaptation and dispersal
methods. Islands can be classified as high and low islands. High islands are further classified
as either continental or oceanic. The continental high islands were once part of the eastern
edge of the Australian and Asian continents and are composed of substances similar to their
former continents: ancient metamorphic rocks and sediments as well as rocks such as schist,
gneiss, clay, and sandstone. Continental islands include New Guinea and most islands of
Melanesia, which together account for more than three-fourths of Oceania’s land area.

Archipelago, a chain or group of islands. The term archipelago can also refer to the region of
water that contains the islands. Some familiar archipelagos are the islands of Hawaii, the
Bahamas, and the Aegean Sea, between Greece and Asia Minor. The word archipelago
comes from the Italian words for “chief sea.” Archipelagos, refers to, dusters of tens or
hundreds of individuals isolated microcosm. Not all islands are in the seas some are in lakes.
Islands have a common factor of a barrier provided by surrounding water. Sea water is
hypertonic (due to its saltiness ) so organisms attempts to cross it experiences desiccation
which is drying up of organisms as their body fluids have lower concentration of salt. Islands
have lower temperature range due to sea climate. Islands can be oceanic for example, Hawaii
and Galapagos. These however been connected to the mainland as are from Volcanic
eruptions due to plate tectonic. Continental Islands are detached pieces adjacent to land
masses to which they were connected to, they are surrounded by shallow waters. Examples
are Sumatra- Java, Borneo-Asia, British Isles-Ireland separated from Great Britain.

The oceanic high islands, sometimes called volcanic islands, are divided from the continental
high islands by a north-south boundary of rock formations beneath the sea called the Andesite
line. The oceanic islands are composed of volcanic materials that were forced upward
through cracks, or fissures, in the ocean floor and from newly deposited sediments. The
islands, then, are merely the tops of undersea mountains.

Like the high islands, low islands are also further classified into two subgroups: eroded
volcanic islands and atolls. The eroded volcanic islands are much like the oceanic, or
volcanic, high islands, only they have been eroded to such a point that they are barely above
sea level. Examples of these islands include the smaller, lower islands of Hawaii.

Because most of the Pacific Islands are relatively distant from major land areas, they have
little animal life except for birds and insects. Many seabirds, including albatrosses, terns,
gulls, and cormorants, nest on the islands, while other seabirds reside briefly on them during
migration. Land birds, such as parrots and birds-of-paradise, inhabit the larger islands of the
western Pacific. The only native mammals on most of the islands are bats, but there are
several native species of land reptiles, including lizards and, in Fiji, iguanas. Many animals,
including cattle, goats, pigs, rats, myna birds, and mongoose, have been introduced by
people. The large continental islands, such as New Guinea and New Zealand, have a much
greater variety of native animals. Mammals in New Guinea, for example, are the same as or
similar to those found in Australia.
6.2 Differences in islands

All islands share a common factor of isolation. However they differ in:

 Degree of isolation
 Size of the island
 Location of the island occur in what are called archipelagos,
 Type of the environment.

The nearer the Island are to mainland, the greater the number of species due to easy access.
The opposite is true. Large Islands are likely to have more habitats compared to small ones.
Most organisms found are birds as they can fly. Plants can be found on Islands due to
dispersal by wind and rain.

Generally it is easier for plants to travel to Islands than it is for animals because

1) plants seeds have long periods for lying dormant

2) plants seeds have spores or dispersal methods which maintain a distance for parents
and offspring

3) Plants require single fertile spore for further reproduction.

4) Some seeds can float and survive in the sea over long periods for example, coconut.

6.3 The Equilibrium theory of Island

Postulated by [Link] and E.O. Wilson (1967). The theory was born basing on
three patterns which they observed.

a) Species area Relationship

b) Effort of location
c) Species turnover

a) Species area relationship

States that the bigger the area the more the organism whilst the smaller the area the fewer
the organism. So the number of species increase with increase in size. This is because the
larger the area the more the habitats hence the more the organisms that can be supported.
This can be explained using graphs as shown below.

Species Area Relationship

Species In Thousands

Size of Island

b) Effect of isolation

The further the area from mainland the fewer the organism and the nearer the area to the
mainland the more the species so the number of species decreases with distance from
nearest land mass.
 Effect of isolation
Number of species in thousands

Distance from mainland

c) Species turnover

The effect of immigration and disasters does not much affect the number of species
turnover in an area. Extinction of covered up by new organism.
 Species turnover
number of species in thousands

size and area

NB-At the point where two lines meet in the graph the population of species in not
determined by either area or isolation of the island.

6.4 Causes of extinction of organisms in islands

Extinction

Extinction refers to the end of existence of a group of organisms, caused by their inability to
adapt to changing environmental conditions. These changes might be natural or artificial.
Extinction affects individual species—that is, groups of interbreeding organisms—as well as
collections of related species, such as members of the same family, order, or class. The dodo,
for example, a species of flightless pigeon formerly living on the island of Mauritius, became
extinct in 1665. About 245 million years ago at the end of the Paleozoic Era, an entire class
of primitive marine animals called trilobites disappeared forever.

Major causes of extinction of organisms

 Environmental changes
 Natural disasters
 Competition
 Human interference
 Predator –prey relationship
 Migration
 Evolution
  Introduction of unfamiliar species

6.5 The current extinction crisis

Most scientists agree that life on Earth is now faced with the most severe extinction episode.
No one knows exactly how many species are being lost because no one knows exactly how
many species exist on Earth. Estimates vary, but according to Revelle and Revelle (1994)the
most widely accepted figure lies between 10 and 13 million species. Of these, biologists
estimate that as many as 27,000 species are becoming extinct each year. This translates into
an astounding 3 species every hour.

Instead of global climate change, humans are the chief causeof extinction. With the invention
of agriculture and industrialisation, humans began destroying the world's terrestrial
ecosystems to produce farmland and industries. Today pollution destroys ecosystems even in
remote deserts and in the world’s deepest ocean. Human beings have harvested the fish and
shellfish of the world's largest lakes and oceans in volumes that make it impossible for
populations to recover fast enough to meet our harvesting needs. And everywhere human
beings go, whether on purpose or by accident, they have brought along and also taken away
species that disrupt or makes up the local ecosystems and, in many cases, drive native species
extinct.

There are various ways in which species become extinct. Extinction can be categorised as
follows:

Extinct (EX): No reasonable doubt that the last individual of the species has died.

Extinct in the Wild (EW): Species only survives in cultivation, captivity, or as a

naturalized population well outside of its native range.
 Critically Endangered (CR): Species faces extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild in the immediate future.

Endangered (EN): Species faces very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near
future.

Vulnerable (VU): Species faces high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-
term future.

Lower Risk (LR): Species does not satisfy criteria for above categories, but may be
near threatened or dependent on conservation activities for survival.

Source:2004 World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened species

Lecture Seven

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date : 19/05/2016

Course : Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic : Soil
7.1 The Concept Of Soil

Manjengwa and Stles 1990) defines soils as a complete substance made up of minerals,
water, air, organic matter and living organisms.

Lavelle (1997) say soil is a synthesis of the biotic and abiotic components- living organism,
organic matter and minerals.

Soil is the loose material that covers the land surfaces of Earth and supports the growth of
plants. In general, soil is an unconsolidated, or loose, combination of inorganic and organic
materials. The inorganic components of soil are principally the products of rocks and
minerals that have been gradually broken down by weather, chemical action, and other
natural processes. The organic materials are composed of debris from plants and from the
decomposition of the many tiny life forms that inhabit the soil.

Fig 7 showing the parent rock which is the source of soil.

 a) b)

From the pictures above one can note that soil that is going to be formed from picture a) will
be greyish whilst soil that is going to be formed from picture b) will be reddish type of soil.
Therefore soil colour, texture and structure can be attributed to, the parent rock.

Soils vary widely from place to place. Many factors determine the chemical composition and
physical structure of the soil at any given location. The different kinds of rocks, minerals,
and other geologic materials from which the soil originally formed play a role. The kinds of
plants or other vegetation that grow in the soil are also important. Topography—that is,
whether the terrain is steep, flat, or some combination—is another factor. In some cases,
human activity such as farming or building has caused disruption. Soils also differ in colour,
texture, chemical makeup, and the kinds of plants they can support.

Soil actually constitutes a living system, combining with air, water, and sunlight to sustain
plant life. The essential process of photosynthesis, in which plants convert sunlight into
energy, depends on exchanges that take place within the soil. Plants, in turn, serve as a vital
part of the food chain for living things, including humans. Without soil there would be no
vegetation—no crops for food, no forests, flowers, or grasslands. To a great extent, life on
Earth depends on soil.

The study of different soil types and their properties is called soil science or pedology. Soil
science plays a key role in agriculture, helping farmers to select and support the crops on
their land and to maintain fertile, healthy ground for planting. Understanding soil is also
important in engineering and construction. Soil engineers carry out detailed analysis of the
soil prior to building roads, houses, industrial and retail complexes, and other structures.

Soil takes a great deal of time to develop—thousands or even millions of years. As such, it is
effectively a non-renewable resource. Yet even now, in many areas of the world, soil is under
siege. Deforestation, over-development, and pollution from human made chemicals are just a
few of the consequences of human activity and carelessness. As the human population grows,
its demand for food from crops increases, making soil conservation crucial.

7.2 Composition of soils

Soils comprise a mixture of inorganic and organic components: minerals, air, water, and
plant and animal material. Mineral and organic particles generally compose roughly 50
percent of a soil's volume. The other 50 percent consists of pores—open areas of various
shapes and sizes. Networks of pores hold water within the soil and also provide a means of
water transport. Oxygen and other gases move through pore spaces in soil. Pores also serve
as passageways for small animals and provide room for the growth of plant roots.

The amount of water in the soil has an impact on what can grow there. Not all water in the
soil is available to the plants. There are three types of water in the soil, these are :

Gravitational water

This is water that drains through larger pores in the soil to the underlying water table. Sand
drains more gravitational water due to the large size of particles. This water is of little use to
the plants as it drains past soil quickly.

Capillary water

Capillary action is a property of water that enables it to adhere to and move through small
diameter tubes. Capillarity is opposite to gravitational process. This water moves from the
lower to the upper zone (root zone). Therefore this water is available to the plants.

Hygroscopic water

This water is attracted to particles in the soil. Water hangs soil even if gravitational water
passes through. This water has an adhesive property of hanging on to the soil. Some water in
the soil is used by plants but some hangs in its soil.
Water content in soil

Water content can be related to the soil in three terms:

Saturation – occurs when all pores are filled with water .This is what occurs in the water
table. Most plants cannot grow in water saturated soils except for water loving plants such as
rice.

Field capacity-is the water that remains in soil after gravitational water has drained off. Field
capacity is greatest in clay soil.

Permanent wilting point-a point which plants white because there is no more available
water in the soil. Although there may be water in the soil it will not be available to plants.
Sandy soil have high wilting points.

7.6 Soil formation

Soil formation is an ongoing process that proceeds through the combined effects of five soil-
forming factors: parent material, climate, living organisms, topography, and time. Each
combination of the five factors produces a unique type of soil that can be identified by its
characteristic layers, called horizons. Soil formation is also known as paedogenesis (from the
Greek words pedon, for “ground,” and genesis, meaning “birth” or “origin”).

7.7 Soil formation processes

Soil is formed through various processes in a very slow way over a long period of time.
There are various processes which include :

Weathering

Soil is formed through the breakdown or alteration of rocks when exposed to the atmosphere.
It takes place in three forms which are chemical, physical and biological weathering.

Organic Matter Accumulation

This is soil formed from dead leaves, plant and animals which decays and accumulate on the
soil.

Leaching
Takes place when water percolates down through the soil layers and dissolves and carry with
it the various soil components in solutions form from the upper layers to lower layers.

Podsolization

The addition of iron and organic matter to subsoil making it dark and richer in nutrients.
These are carried down as complex substance.

Ferallitisation

This involves leaching and weathering which occurs in humid tropics. The soil horizons are
depleted of silica and the soil becomes silica poor clay soils. This forms horizons called
plinthite and when the soil doves it hardens Irreversibly and is called laterite.

Clay Translocation

The washing out of discrete clay particles in acid conditions and their deposition on the lower
parts in the profile. Such soil are described as argillic.

Salinization

Occurs in semi-arid regions. Water from deep down below the surface moves up with
dissolved salts. These are deposited just below or on the soil surface. This causes the soil to
be salty. The process is opposite of leaching.

Gleying

Occurs in area of temporary or permanent water logging. Anaerobic conditions causes

reduction of iron oxides. The oxides migrate through the soil. The re-oxidation in less
anaerobic parts of the soil gives rise to reddish iron enriched segregations.

7.9 Soil Management

To prevent exposure of bare soil, farmers can use techniques such as leaving crop residue in
the soil after harvesting or planting temporary growths, such as grasses, to protect the soil
from rain between crop-growing seasons. Farmers can also control water runoff by planting
crops along the slope of a hill (on the contour) instead of in rows that go up and down.

Soil faces many threats throughout the world. Deforestation, overgrazing by livestock, and
agricultural practices that fail to conserve soil are three main causes of accelerated soil loss.
Other acts of human carelessness also damage soil. These include pollution from agricultural
pesticides, chemical spills, liquid and solid wastes, and acidification from the fall of acid
rain. Loss of green spaces, such as grassland and forested areas, in favour of impermeable
surfaces, such as pavement, buildings, and developed land, reduces the amount of soil and
increases pressure on what soil remains. Soil is also compacted by heavy machinery and off-
road vehicles. Compaction rearranges soil particles, increasing the density of the soil and
reducing porosity. Crusts form on compacted soils, preventing water movement into the soil
and increasing runoff and erosion.

With the world's population now numbering upwards of 6 billion people—a figure that may
rise to 10 billion or more within three decades—humans will depend more than ever on soil
for the growth of food crops. Yet the rapidly increasing population, the intensity of
agriculture, and the replacement of soil with concrete and buildings all reduce the capacity of
the soil to fulfil this need.

As a result of an increased awareness of soil's importance, many changes are being made to
protect soil. Recent interest in soil conservation holds the promise that humanity will take
better care of this precious resource.

Lecture Eight

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 21/05/2016
Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic: Genetic Engineering

8.1 The concept

Genetic Engineering, alteration of an organism's genetic, or hereditary, material to eliminate

undesirable characteristics or to produce desirable new ones. Genetic engineering is used to
increase plant and animal food production; to help dispose of industrial wastes; and to
diagnose disease, improve medical treatment, and produce vaccines and other useful drugs.
Included in genetic engineering techniques are the selective breeding of plants and animals,
hybridization (reproduction between different strains or species), and recombinant
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

8.2 Selective breeding

Selective breeding, refers to the choosing of those plants or animals with desirable
characteristics for further breeding. For example the breeding of the indigenous cows or bulls
(hard mashona/ hard mandebele) with a Brahman toproduce a breed which is resistant to
drought and has a big stature. The first-known genetic engineering technique, still used
today, was the selective breeding of plants and animals, usually for increased food
production. Corn has been selectively bred for increased kernel size and number and for
nutritional content for about 7,000 years. More recently, selective breeding of wheat and rice
to produce higher yields has helped supply the world's ever-increasing need for food.

Dogs and horses have been selectively bred for thousands of years for work and recreational
purposes, resulting in more than 150 dog breeds and 100 horse breeds.

8.3 Hybridization

Another method of genetic engineering is that of a process called

hybridization (crossbreeding). This may involve combining different strains of a species (that
is, members of the same species with different characteristics) or members of different
species in an effort to combine the most desirable characteristics of both. For at least 3,000
years, female horses have been bred with male donkeys to produce mules, and male horses
have been bred with female donkeys to produce hinnies, for use as work animals.

8.4 Recombinant DNA

In recent decades, genetic engineering has been revolutionized by a technique known as gene
splicing, which scientists use to directly alter genetic material to form recombinant DNA.
Genes consist of segments of the molecule DNA. In gene splicing, one or more genes of an
organism are introduced to a second organism. If the second organism incorporates the new
DNA into its own genetic material, recombined DNA results. Specific genes direct an
organism's characteristics through the formation of proteins such as enzymes and hormones.
Proteins perform vital functions—for example, enzymes initiate many of the chemical
reactions that take place within an organism, and hormones regulate various processes, such
as growth, metabolism, and reproduction. The introduction of new genes into an organism
essentially alters the characteristics of the organism by changing its protein makeup which in
turn changes the whole organism.

In gene splicing, DNA the original organism is called the donor. The DNA cannot be
transferred directly from its original organism to the recipient organism, which is also known
as the host. Instead, the donor DNA must be cut and pasted, or recombined, into a compatible
fragment of DNA from a vector—an organism that can carry the donor DNA into the host.
The host organism is often a rapidly multiplying microorganism such as a harmless
bacterium, which serves as a factory where the recombined DNA can be duplicated in large
quantities. The subsequently produced protein can then be removed from the host and used as
a genetically engineered product in humans, other animals, plants, bacteria, or viruses. The
donor DNA can be introduced directly into an organism by techniques such as injection
through the cell walls of plants or into the fertilized egg of an animal. Plants and animals that
develop from a cell into which new DNA has been introduced are called transgenic
organisms.

Another technique that produces recombinant DNA is known as cloning. In one cloning
method, scientists remove the DNA-containing nucleus from a female’s egg and replace it
with a nucleus from an animal of a similar species. The scientists then place the egg in the
uterus of a third animal, known as the surrogate mother. The result, first demonstrated by the
birth of a cloned sheep named Dolly in 1996, is the birth of an animal that is nearly
genetically identical to the animal from which the nucleus was obtained. Such an animal is
genetically unrelated to the surrogate mother. Cloning is still in its infancy, but it may pave
the way for improved farm animals and medical products.

Scientists also apply gene-splicing techniques to animal food production. Scientists have
transferred the growth hormone gene of rainbow trout directly into carp eggs. The resultant
transgenic carp produce both carp and rainbow trout growth hormones and grow to be one-
third larger than normal carp. Other fish that have been genetically engineered include
salmon, which have been modified for faster growth, and trout, which have been altered so
that they are more resistant to infection by a blood virus.

Scientists also have employed recombinant DNA to produce medically useful human proteins
in animal milk. In this procedure, the human gene responsible for the desired protein is first
linked to specific genes of the animal that are active only in its mammary (milk-producing)
glands. The egg of the animal is then injected with the linked genes. The resulting transgenic
animals will have these linked genes in every cell of their body but will produce the human
protein only in their milk. The human protein is finally extracted from the animal's milk for
use as medicine. In this way, sheep's milk is used to produce alpha-1-antitrypsin, an enzyme
used in the treatment of emphysema; cow's milk is used to produce lactoferrin, a protein that
combats bacterial infections; and goat's milk is used as yet another way to produce PA, the
blood-clot-dissolving enzyme also cloned in hamster cell cultures.

Recombinant DNA also is used in the production of vaccines against disease. A vaccine
contains a portion of an infectious organism that does not cause severe disease but does cause
the body's immune system to form protective antibodies against the organism. When a person
is vaccinated against a viral disease, the production of antibodies is actually a reaction to the
surface proteins of the coat of the virus. With recombinant DNA technology, scientists have
been able to transfer the genes for some viral-coat proteins to the cowpox virus, which was
used against smallpox in the first efforts at vaccination in the late 18th century. Vaccination
with genetically altered cowpox is now being used against hepatitis, influenza, and herpes
simplex viruses. Genetically engineered cowpox is considered safer than using the disease-
causing virus itself and is equally as effective.

Public reaction to the use of recombinant DNA in genetic engineering has been mixed. The
production of medicines through the use of genetically altered organisms has generally been
welcomed. However, critics of recombinant DNA fear that the pathogenic, or disease-
producing, organisms used in some recombinant DNA experiments might develop extremely
infectious forms that could cause worldwide epidemics. In an effort to prevent such an
occurrence, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States has established
regulations restricting the types of recombinant DNA experiments that can be performed
using such pathogens. In Canada, recombinant DNA products are regulated by various
government departments, including Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Health Canada,
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Environment Canada.

Animal rights groups have argued that the production of transgenic animals is harmful to
other animals. Genetically engineered fish raise problems if they interbreed with other fish
that have not been genetically altered. Some experts fear that this process may change the
characteristics of wild fish in unpredictable and possibly undesirable ways. A related concern
is that engineered fish may compete with wild fish for food and replace wild fish in some
areas.

Environmentalists fear that the transgenic plants may interbreed with weeds, producing
weeds with unwanted characteristics, such as resistance to herbicides. An example of such
interbreeding has been demonstrated in experiments involving transgenic oilseed rape.
Environmentalists also argue that, due to natural selection, insects quickly develop resistance
to plants that have been engineered to incorporate biological pesticides.

Opponents of genetic engineering warn that the use of genetically modified food crops could
result in unforeseen problems. They point to a 1999 study that found that genetically
modified corn produced pollen that killed monarch butterfly caterpillars in the laboratory.
Although the study results were preliminary, as a precaution the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) established new regulations in January 2000 to reduce potential risks posed by
the corn crop. Among the new rules, the EPA has asked farmers to plant unmodified corn
crops around the edges of genetically engineered corn fields in order to create a buffer that
may prevent toxic pollen from blowing into butterfly habitats.

Some critics object to the patenting of genetically altered organisms because it makes the
organisms the property of particular companies. For example, Costa Rica has enacted laws to
prohibit the patenting of genes of native Costa Rican species by drug companies in other
countries. To date, no laws are in place in the United States and Canada regulating the use of
cloning technology, and some people fear the prospect of human cloning. If this technology
remains unregulated, critics fear that it will provide the ability to create an “improved”
human being with characteristics predetermined according to a scientist’s particular bias.

8.5 Benefits and dangers of biotechnology

Genetic engineering (GN) has a lot of benefits. The benefits may be to an

individual,company, nation or continent at large. Generally with the increase in
technological, advancement, one can realise that ignoring such a thing like technological
advancement will be to the detriment of such an individual. Everything that has a benefit will
always have a disadvantage. GE has a lot of benefits which some countries has benefited for
a long time. However the first benefiters of this are the first to now view this as a bad practise
yet it is the same technology which has made them what they are today. Some of the benefits
include that of increase in yields. It also helps solve the problem of world hunger by creating
varieties which will make more efficient utilisation of scarce land and give higher yields
because of better pest resistance, nutrient utilisation etc.

Less tillage needed, especially with crops containing herbicide tolerance trans-genes,
therefore conserves fertility through minimising soil damage through compression.

GE is a very precise way of introducing desirable traits into economically useful organisms.
With the discovery of DNA and unravelling the genetic code it contains, molecular biologists
have finally come close to understanding what determines the form and function of
organisms and can use this to design organisms at will. This new technology will have more
benefits for human existence than all the past technologies put together.

Ever since agriculture and the domestication of animals and plants began man has been
modifying their genetic make-up by selective breeding. The technique of grafting different
plants/trees onto each other is ancient. All technology is unnatural (unless we hold that man
and all his creations are part of the totality of nature).

We have consciously interfered with evolution through breeding, habitat management and
even selection of our own spouses for millennia without any noticeable dire consequences.
Even in the holy bible GE is also blessed from a verse in the book of.(Genesis1:26)
“And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over
all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth Human beings are
themselves part of nature, creatures within creation.” Human discovery and invention can be
thought of as resulting from the exercise of God-given powers of mind and reason.

Molecular biologists acknowledge that they are only modifying one aspect of an organism's
totality. However, they examine the organisms produced in great detail, sometimes taking
them through breeding programmes for years to be sure that they are behaving in the way that
other normal members of the same species behave which have not had the genetic
modification.

Enzymes can be produced from GM microorganisms for use in industrial processes including
food manufacture. No popular technology is without risk, e.g. the motor car which kills tens
of thousands each year.

GE is essential in that where there are problems and shortcomings of systems, the systems
will being put in place, through verification by DNA analysis, to ensure that GM and non-
GM supplies are kept separate.

GE is a very fast efficient,cheap, quicker and more precise than traditional breeding. New
varieties are tested for toxicity more than any crop plants have ever been in the past, therefore
they are likely to be safer. The increased choice of modern high-yielding cultivars to farmers
allows diversification to keep ahead of economic, climatic and plant disease trends.

More profit for the farmer, seed producer and biotech company shareholder. The vitamin
content of plants can be enhanced by GM. Plants which previously did not contain a
particular vitamin can now be made to produce large amounts of it (e.g. Vitamin A 'golden'
rice)

8.6 Problems of genetic engineering

GE is out of context. GMOs often behave very differently when taken from the laboratory,
greenhouse or field trial situation into the real-life context where they will be used, e.g. a
gene for red flowers was inserted into a white petunia. The petunia turned red but also
produced more leaves and shoots, had lower fertility and was more resistant to fungi. None of
these additional effects was predicted.

Over 90% of transgenic plants are discarded during the development process, most even
before the plants leave the laboratory. The reason for so many rejects is because they do not
express the desired gene or they are made unhealthy by the genetic engineering.

Traditional biotechnology uses natural organisms in contexts to which they are adapted
whereas GE creates completely new genetic make-ups that could never have come about by
natural processes.

GE is unnatural. GE disrupts the integrity of the recipient genome with unpredictable side
effects including 'gene silencing' both of the inserted gene and other unrelated genes in the
organism. Inserted genes can disrupt the function of existing genes in ways which may not
show up until later generations.

GE makes use of pathogenic organisms such as viruses and bacteria as vectors of the gene
that is being transferred. In other words, the target organism has to be made ill just to get the
gene in, sometimes with tragic consequences.

GE is dominated by the reductionist thinking of genetic determinism which believes that the
genetic make-up is what makes the organism what it is. An organism is as much an
expression of its environment as it is of its genes. Concentrating on the genes, therefore, is
one-sided. Furthermore the organisation within a cell and its interaction with other cells is
also inherited along with the genes

The reality is that society is left with a legacy of nuclear waste the cost of dealing with which
will place an immeasurable burden on future generations.

GE exposes people to the increased dangers of horizontal gene transfer, a process whereby
genes are passed not 'vertically' down the generations in the usual way but 'horizontally' from
organism to organism and from species to species.

Industrial enzymes used in anything from washing powders to food processing are already a
major source of allergies.
GE is potentially dangerous and therefore involves taking risks. The consequences could be
devastating and irreversible. Furthermore, the adverse consequences could take years to show
and the company liable for any damages may have long since ceased trading.

Genetic pollution from trans-genes spreads into other organisms through pollen, seeds and
microbial processes. It is fundamentally different from other forms of pollution because once
the genes are out, they cannot be recalled.

Sustainable organic agriculture creates much needed jobs in depressed rural economies.

Promotes "agribusiness", therefore more herbicide use. Herbicides are responsible for much
illness in farm workers and contaminate drinking water. The total herbicides used with
herbicide tolerant crops kill all weeds thus reducing biodiversity in the field.

With GE it is a method where one is getting rid of one problem by simply creating another
an unknown one for that matter. The problem might be worse one than the old one as
indicated by the old adage that better to deal with the devil that you know. In fact GM plants
are an unnecessary technical solution to a problem which does not exist.

World hunger will not be solved by technological means. It is a problem of inequitable

distribution of wealth and corrupt governments. GE is unsustainable,is based on greed not
need. It helps chemical agriculture to proliferate. The only sustainable agriculture for the
future is organic (including biodynamic & permaculture.

Breeding takes place outside the proper context, i.e. in the laboratory, therefore the crops are
so weakened that they need to have the environment of the laboratory (soil sterilisation,
artificial fertilisers and pesticides) brought to them in the field.

No seed-saving by the farmer is permitted. The farmer has to pay royalties to the biotech
company. This undermines a traditional agricultural practice and particularly threatens
peasant farming in developing countries.

Cloned animals have chromosomes which show structural modifications equivalent to adult
animals. Thus they are old before their time.

Saving endangered species or salvaging extinct ones is merely science fiction. It tends to
divert attention away from the real challenges to biodiversity, namely the continuing
destruction of habitats by human activity.
Genetic engineering and human beings
The positives

Gene therapy is being used, as yet experimentally, to treat cancer. Most of the gene therapy
clinical protocols are centred on this major class of diseases in the population. The advantage
is that the treatment targets only the cancerous cells thus avoiding the 'collateral damage' that
is done to other tissues by current radiation or chemical therapies.

Recombinant DNA technology can be applied to speed up working out the sequences of all
the genes in the human genome. Once these sequences are known together with the mutations
which cause or predispose to disease cures can be sought by designing appropriate molecules
for use as pharmaceuticals.

Recombinant DNA technology can be used in genetic screening or testing, i.e. testing
people's genomes for gene sequences which might later give rise to genetic disorders. This
can also be done in the unborn, e.g. testing for trisomy 21 (Down's syndrome), gender etc.
Any unwanted foetuses could be aborted thus gradually ridding the population of undesirable
traits. These tests are becoming less invasive, for instance by testing foetal cells which 'leak'
into maternal blood circulation.

Gene screening can also be carried out on embryos produced for in vitro fertilisation prior to
implantation in the mother. This will save implanting embryos with undesired characteristics,
e.g. one or other gender.

Cloning might one day be combined with GM to create babies designed to meet the wishes of
the parents. People could clone themselves or even lost loved ones from their DNA.

Sperm and eggs from attractive and intelligent people are already offered for sale, including
on the Internet. Cloning would be merely a small extension of this to ensure that the product
meets the customer's wishes.

Recombinant DNA techniques can be used for 'DNA fingerprinting'. This forensic technique
allows the precise identification from samples of hair, blood, semen or skin of individuals
who were present at the scene of a crime.
Gene screening will enable insurance companies accurately to assess risks and therefore set
premiums; employers to determine precisely the suitability of a person to work in a particular
job, e.g. excluding people with genetic susceptibility to hazardous chemicals.

The negatives

A disproportionate amount of available research funding is being spent on gene therapy

protocols yet despite many years of research, none have so far succeeded.

In cancer, the tumour is merely a symptom of the underlying diseased state. Whilst removing
it or halting its growth is undoubtedly a life saver, more effort is needed to look at underlying
causes.

The whole human being is really a healthy interrelation of body, soul and spirit (self). Any
medical system which fails to take account of this will be confined to treating symptoms
rather than treating the whole person. The whole person includes their biography and the
particular illness is part of that biography rather than just a property of the genes.

There is no effective therapy for most of the genetic disorders, so it is unethical to offer the
tests to patients. Furthermore, when samples are obtained from the unborn for these tests the
invasiveness of the procedures can be damaging to both mother and foetus. Combining these
techniques with abortion is eugenics by the back door. The effect is to steer the genetic
makeup of society according to the desires of the rich and powerful.

Genetic disorders are as much a social construct as a difference in genes. We are all disabled
in some respect either cognitively, socially or physically. Were society to change its attitude
to one of accepting all people as essential parts of what goes to make up humanity, not only
would life for people with alleged genetic disorders greatly improve, but also the perception
of 'disorder' would melt away.

Because Down's syndrome births are preventable the stigmatisation of people who for
various reasons have Down's babies is greatly intensified. Whereas, the reality is that Down's
children are usually happy and not only bring a ray of sunlight into families but also offer
opportunities for family members to develop capacities which they might not otherwise have
developed.
Genetic selection of the unborn is already beginning to lead to imbalance of the male/female
ratio in parts of India and China.

Genetic testing can usually only give a statistical probability, and then only with varying
degrees of accuracy, of developing a disorder. It has very limited predictive basis for the
individual actually being tested.

Genetic testing could one day be used to undermine the right of couples to reproduce.

Such things as intelligence and athletic performance are in any case very complex
interactions of epigenetic factors such as upbringing, nutrition, education, experience and
healthy living as well as genetic factors involving the networking of hundreds of genes. There
are no simple causal connections between genes and behaviour.

Creating so called 'designer babies' would be pandering to the unbridled vanity and
selfishness of the parents. The individuality coming into the world would be an instrument of
the parents' desires. It is not unlikely that children will sue their parents for wrongful genetic
selection.

Cloning oneself would be egoism made manifest. Furthermore, recreating exact physical
copies is not a guarantee that the same individuality will be recreated. Different
individualities shape the form and function of their physical bodies according to their needs,
inclinations and desires, such that in the course of time these bodies even grow to look
different.

Cloning applied to humans would be one further step in the commodification of human
beings which is already happening with human tissues and organs.

Clones are already proving to be old before their time and animal experiments show that it is
highly wasteful of eggs and embryos.

DNA fingerprinting is merely one tool in the forensic scientist’s tool-kit and like other
forensic techniques is open to error, misinterpretation and deliberate falsification of the
evidence. Because of its power there is a tendency to put excessive reliance on it and this can
lead to wrongful convictions.
Life is a cyclic process which is constantly unfolding. Death, decay and renewal are essential
parts of it. Human GE and cloning seek to short circuit the process and fix human beings as
they were at a particular point in time. GE is thus backward-looking, or past-orientated.
Ageing, illness and death are parts of human biography. Seeking to eliminate them denies
human evolution and what the future will bring.

Lecture Nine

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 22/05/2016

Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Topic:sustainable resource conservation

9.1 Sustainability

 Sustainable development is a process through which people can satisfy their needs
and improve their quality of life in the present but not compromise the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
  For most people, aspiring to a better quality of life means improving their standards of
living as measured by income level and use of resources and technology.

 However, sustainable development also requires equity. For example, economic and
environmental goals will not be sustainable unless social goals – such as universal
access to education, health care and economic opportunity – are also achieved.

 At any level of development, human impact (I) on the environment is a function of

population size (P), per capita consumption (C) and the environmental damage caused
by the technology (T) used to produce what is consumed. This relationship is often
described as a formula:

 I=PXCXT

 Currently, people living in the North have the greatest impact on the global
environment.

 However, as standards of living rise in the South, the environmental consequences of

population growth will increase.

Ever-increasing numbers of people aspiring, justifiably, to ‘live better’, also increases the
potential for damage to the environment beyond what we are already witnessing.

The case of Curitiba – BrazilCuritiba,

 The case of Curitiba – BrazilCuritiba, Brazil has become known as the world’s
greenest city. Although its population has more than doubled in the past generation,
the city’s environment has been greatly enhanced, increasing the wealth and the
welfare of its citizens.

 Among other things, the city government planned housing and work locations to
provide high quality living and working space, with efficient rapid transit systems
connecting them.

 It has also developed a distinctive garbage collection system for the slum areas, where
the government exchanges bags of food for garbage that people collect from their own
neighborhoods.

 Good urban planning promoted the wellbeing of both people and their environment.
9.2 Population and environment
Population and environment are closely entwined in a complex and dynamic relationship.
The relationship between population and environment is mediated by a number of
socioeconomic, cultural, political, and developmental variables whose relative significance
varies considerably from one context to another. Over the past decades, some economists,
biologists, and environmentalists have
Been debating the role of population in environmental degradation. The developing
countries have been blaming the developed countries for pushing them to reduce their
birth rates so that the rich countries can continue with their wasteful lifestyles. Such
debates and the blame-game have recentlyheated up with rapidly increasing visibility of and
awareness about environmental problems at both thelocal and global level (Shaw 1992).
On the other hand, rapid growth of human population is often identified as one of the main
factors behind environmental degradation. Given a socioeconomic and political structure and
a given level of technological development, a rapid growth in population can cause
environmental degradation.
However, the effects of population on environment are seldom clear and straight forward.
These effects are often confounded by political economy, consumption patterns, and
technological factors. There is also ample evidence that environmental degradation can affect
the size and distribution of population. Environmental degradation can affect each of the
three demographic processes--fertility, mortality, and migration. Environmental degradation
can adversely affect human health, which can in turn increase mortality rates and shorten life
spans in a population. Environmental degradation can lead to migration, for example, by
pushing people off the agricultural lands to other areas as a result of land degradation
(Jacobson 1988). Environmental degradation can also affect fertility by increasing the
demand for child labour (Feldman 1990; Dasgupta 1992) or by increasing the abstinence
periods due to environmentally-induced, sex-selective labour migration. For the most part,
the effects of environment on population are also mediated by institutional factors. These
factors make the link between population and environment complex. Adding to this
complexity is the bi-directional nature of the relationship and a lack of understanding of the
relevant variables, their behaviour, and the internal dynamics of environmental change (Lutz
1994a). Moreover, there are considerable uncertainties about the likely course of future
demographic and environmental changes. Considerations such as long term versus short term,
local versus global, and direct versus indirect effects of population on environment and vice
versa make the relationship even more unclear.
Realizing the complex and dynamic nature of the relationship between population and
environment and the contextual idiosyncrasies, some researchers argue that it is not possible
to have a single theory which can adequately explain the interactions between population and
environment.

2. THE PRESENT STATE OF THEORY

Population and resource relationship is the most basic underlying subject to all the social
sciences. In recent years, the literature on population, resources, and environment has grown
rapidly. The majority of the literature on population and environment can be categorized into
three groups. The first group presents a pessimistic future environmental scenario under
rapidly expanding Third World population, a worsening poverty situation, and the pressing
needs for improving the quality of life for large masses in the developing world (Ehrlich and
Ehrlich 1970, 1990, 1991; Meadows et al. 1972, 1992; Hardin 1968, 1993). In direct contrast
with the environmentalists' view are the views of a few "technological
Optimists," mostly neoclassical economists. This group presents a world view that does not
acknowledge any limits to growth. From this perspective, market mechanisms and
technological developments are seen as answers to all resource problems, and
population growth is seen as an asset, not a hindrance, to development (Simon 1977,
1980, 1981, 1986; Simon and Kahn 1984; Smil 1990; Kates and Haarman 1992).

There are, however, many researchers who fall between these two extremes (Blakie and
Brookfield 1987; Myers 1992; Shaw 1992; Commoner 1991; Bongaarts 1993). These
researchers recognize the significance of population growth in environmental degradation but
do not see population as the main
Or direct cause of it. This middle perspective can be divided into several categories
depending on what it emphasizes in the study of population and environment. Working
within the "world systems" perspective, some researchers argue that in developing countries
both demographic and environmental
Conditions are shaped by international economic and political forces. Slightly different from
this perspective is what is sometimes labelled as the "neo-Marxist political economy"
perspective. According to this perspective, profit seeking and capital accumulation require
the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, and socioeconomic differentiation in
a society creates a situation in which the "haves" place heavy demands on the world's
resources, primarily driving environmental changes while the subsistence needs of the
"have nots" put marginal environments under pressure (Blakie andBrookfield 1987;
Myers 1992). This viewpoint emphasizes the role of the means of production in theglobal
economy of international capitalism.

Some researchers argue that the obstacles to the proper allocation of costs are the main cause
of environmental degradation. These obstacles may originate from an imperfect information
regarding resources or due to an artificial distortion of prices through subsidies for many
environmentally destructive services and technologies (World Bank 1992). This viewpoint is
sometimes categorized as the "neoclassical political economy" perspective. There is another
middle perspective which argues that improper use of technology is the main cause of
environmental degradation. According to this perspective rapid increases in population can
worsen the problems created by the improper use of
Technology. Although the growing concern about the role of population growth in
environmental degradation is a relatively recent phenomenon, the study of the population-
resources (especially food) relationship is not new. Malthus and Boserup are the two most
important names in the literature on population and
Environment. As early as the late 18th century, Thomas Malthus laid the foundation for a
theory of population-resource interrelationships by proposing that a geometrically growing
population tends to outrun an arithmetically growing food supply. According to Malthus,
over the long run population and
Resources remain in a state of equilibrium mediated by the available technology of food
production and the prevailing living standard (Malthus 1960; Lee 1986; Winch 1987).
Malthus assumed that the natural resources are fixed and he is Ricardo and Mill, in general,
supported Malthus' thesis that population growth beyond a certain density is harmful to
human welfare and the economic development (Keyfitz 1991). Other classical social theorists
of the 18th and 19th century such as Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, also paid some attention to
natural resources and the environment. Malthus' views were the basis for discussion of
population and resources for more than 150 years until challenged by Ester Boserup in 1965.
Boserup (1965) criticized the Malthusian theory on the grounds that it exclusively focuses on
food-production technology and ignores the effects of technological changes in other sectors
and the effects of environmental changes. She also criticized Malthus for not considering the
effects of population change on both technology and environment (Boserup 1976).
Refuting the Malthusian assumption about unchanging technology, Ester Boserup postulated
that increasing population pressure itself induces technological change, leading to a more
intensive use of land (Boserup 1965, 1981). This became popularly known as "Boserup's
land-intensification hypothesis." Boserup argued that under given agro climatic conditions,
the agricultural system slowly
Shifts from forest fallow to annual multiple cropping due to increasing population pressure.
Recently, Bilsborrow (1987) and Bilsborrow and Ogendo (1992) presented a theoretical
framework for studying the effects of population change on agricultural development in rural
areas of developing countries. Bilsborrow builds upon Ester Boserup's land-intensification
hypothesis and theory of demographic change and response (Davis 1963), and he suggests a
set of several possible demographic and non-demographic responses to increases in
population density, such as land intensification through irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticide
use, land intensification, higher age at marriage, contraception, abortions, increased
abstinence, and net out-migration. He has argued that a
Particular response or a combination of responses depends upon the stage of agricultural
development in that region. Several factors, such as the existing level of living, availability of
potentially cultivable land, availability of off-farm employment opportunities, size and
distribution of land holdings, potential
For labour and technological intensification, rural fertility level, rural-urban population
distribution, and existing crop structure, determine the type of response(s) to be expected. He
emphasizes the role of socioeconomic and institutional factors in determining the nature of
such responses.
In a historical study of population growth, agricultural productivity, and land degradation in
Machakos district in Kenya, Tiffen and Mortimore (1992) and English (1992) also find
support for Boserup's hypothesis. They observe that colonial policies before the Second
World War, when population growth was relatively slower, were mainly responsible for low
agricultural productivity and widespread land degradation in the district. But after the Second
World War, when the population of the district grew much more rapidly, it was accompanied
with improved food production and considerable improvements in land degradation.
In a review of population pressure effects on environment and land intensification in six sub-
Saharan African countries, Lele and Stone (1989) question the appropriateness of Boserup's
hypothesis by showing that higher population densities do not necessarily result in higher
yields, better inputs, and
Larger incomes, especially for small farmers in resource-poor areas. They point at a number
of inherent limitations in Boserup's formulation, such as: Boserup did not hypothesize
rapidly-rising densities and highly-skewed distribution to land in the developing countries;
she did not conceptualize substantial concentration of population even in the land-abundant
countries; she did not visualize the land-mining tendency among poor farmers; and she
overlooked the fact that for poor households there is often a built-in conflict between social
and private gains in having a large family.

9.2 Conservation and Preservation

Conservation refers to the wise use of a resource to ensure sustainability. The idea is that the
resource should be used with the aim of allowing other generations to benefit from the same
resource. This only applies to resource that are not endangered and those on the verge of
extinction. For those endangered and those on the verge of extinction, preservation should be
used.

Preservation refers to non-consumptive use of a resource. In this case the resource can be
used but without consuming it since consumption might mean the end of the resource hence
extinction. Non consumptive uses include photographing, site seeing, use of shadows for
trees and so on.

Zimmerman and concept of resources

According to Zimmerman resources are things that we see everywhere, sometimes we don’t
care about them until something happens to open our eyes to see the value of the thing. Once
we have seen the value that thing becomes a resource thus Zimmerman argues
“......resources are not but can be” this definition sounds funny but is very typical and
realistic. Taking an example of mineral resources in Zimbabwe, does it mean that all people
living in Chiadzwa were all along ignorant of the diamonds which were recently
“discovered”? Can we agree that not even one person in Chiadzwa new about the diamonds?
The truth of the matter is that almost everyone new about the “rocks” as just mere rocks until
they discovered the value thus when it became a resource. The rubbish that your throw away
at your house is a resource to those who know its value but to you it’s truly rubbish. Thus
with Zimmerman’s definition everything is therefore a resource.
9.3 Majorproblems resulting in environmental degradation

Fig 9 a and b showing comparison between an almost bare soil against a vegetative forest.

Deforestation is mostly associated with farming. Veld fires during hunting as shown by
fig.............. Showing a deforested area which in turn was burnt for the purpose of hunting.

Fig 10 showing a deforested area which was later burnt.

Fig 11 showing a burnt forests

a) b)
Burning results in massive death of trees, soil organisms’ animals such as snakes, lizards,
hare just to mention a few. To recover all these organisms it takes years if not decades over
fire which destroys these in less than five minutes.

Human activities also results in environmental degradation. For instance, the construction of
roads results in clearing the trees and massive digging of the land as shown by the picture
below

Fig 12 showing effects of road construction

As noted from the above pictures, there are various problems that results in environmental
degradation. The major cause of environmental degradation is human interference. Human
beings disturb the environment when they do their day to day activities which include:

 Farming
 Mining
 Hunting
 Industrialisation
 Research
 Urbanisation
 Shelter

The activities leading to degradation

Farming

When farming human beings practise activities which results in degradation and these
include:

 Stream bank cultivation

 Monoculture
 Ploughing up and down the slope
 Use of pesticides
 Use of fertilisers
 Irrigation
 Cross breeding
 Use of sledges
 Overstocking
 Deforestation
 Research
 Veld fires

Mining

Mining also results in degradation due to such activities:

 Deforestation (clearing land for mining)

 Pollution due to use of chemicals such as mercury.
 Soil heaps produced from mining
 Erosion (especially wind )
 Air pollution (smoke from mining activities)
 Pits, dongas and gullies
 Siltation due to illegal panning

Hunting

This activity is very common in most developing countries and results in:

 Extinction of animals
 Deforestation
  Veld fires
 Death of animals through poisoning
 Disturbance of the natural ecosystem
 Destruction of natural habitats

Industrialisation and urbanisation

 Air , land and water pollution

 Acid rainfall
 Deforestation
 Flooding due to high r
 runoff from pavements
 Micro climate which might confuse local farmers

Research

When human beings carry out researches, they usually use the environment and all the effects
of these experiments are felt in the environment and of which most of them are not reversible.
A good example is of the Fukushima nuclear plant disaster in 2011 which destroyed various
facets of the environment after the Tsunami had hit Japan. A lot biodiversity was destroyed
by this nuclear station

When human beings are undertaking any of the above activities they tend to disturb the
environment. This coupled with population explosion results in massive destruction of the
environment. The resultant degradation include:

 Soil erosion in form of splash, gully and rill erosion.

 Siltation of rivers and dams
 Deforestation
 Pollution of water and land
 Pits and dongas from mining
 Extinction of plants and animals
 Desertification
 Death of organisms

9.4 Measures to reduce the effects

There are various measures that can be undertaken to reduce the effects the human activities.
These are again to be undertaken by human beings as well. These include:

 Afforestation and reforestation

 Good farming methods such as contour ploughing terracing , crop rotation and use of
contour ridges
 Use of legislations and by laws
 Educating people on the effects of their actions
 Use of fire guards to red/ gully filling
 Use of organic fertilisers
 Biological control of pests
 Use of policies such as polluter pays principle
 Use of punishment and heavy fines

However sometimes degradation is caused by natural factors such as:

 Volcanoes
 Earthquakes
 Lightning
 Rainfall

CONSTRAINTS
There are various constraints which have prevented the successful rehabilitation of degraded
lands. These constraints include:
 Degraded forests and degraded forest lands are insufficiently taken into account in
International agreements. (Convention on Biological Diversity. Framework
Convention on Climate Change, Desertification Convention, Agreements (ITTO) and
Processes United Nations Forum on Forests)
 National Policies do not mention or consider degraded forest landscapes as priority
when compared short term economic activities (e.g. intensive agriculture) In addition
there are no clear definitions/classifications of the various conditions in resource
assessment, policy planning, and legal frameworks.
 In addition forest policies and economics do not recognize the value natural
resources.
  Restrictive regulations for the use and harvesting of products from degraded forest
landscapes a forest legislation often imposes high bureaucratic requirements and
procedures a landowner must follow to obtain permission to harvest and market
wood, timber and certain NWFP.
 Insecure land tenure or use rights
 High informality and corruption
 Lack of adequate data knowledge and expertise on the ecological, socio-economic,
silvicultural and institutional dimensions of degraded affects and influences people's
perceptions of the resource, masks its importance and potential, and often results in
poor management/degradation and inappropriate rehabilitation
 In many cases, degraded forests have overlapping tenure claims involving the state,
the private sector and local communities. As a result, conflicts over access rights are
common, often resulting in unsustainable use and further degradation of the resource.
 Inadequate assessment and sharing of costs and benefits related to the management
and use of degraded forest landscapes could result in resource degradation and
inappropriate conversion.
 Inadequate assessment and sharing of costs and benefits related to the management
and use of degraded forest landscapes could result in resource degradation and
inappropriate conversion.
 Inadequate assessment and sharing of costs and benefits related to the management
and use of degraded forest landscapes could result in resource degradation and
inappropriate conversion.

Lecture Ten

Name: MOYO EVANS

Student Number: PA/2016/241

Date: 23/05/2016

Course: Biogeography

Lecturer: Mr Pikirai.T.

Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Indigenous knowledge systems are a body of knowledge, or bodies of knowledge of the

indigenous people of particular geographical areas that they have survived on for a very long
time. The [Link] website defines IKS as local knowledge that
is unique to a given culture or society. They are knowledge forms that have failed to die
despite the racial and colonial onslaught that they have suffered at the hands of Western
imperialism and arrogance. IKS are forms of knowledge that have originated locally and
naturally. According to Ermine (cited in Hammersmith 2007:2), they are linked to the
communities that produce them. He observes: Those natural communities are characterized
by complex kinship systems of relationships among people, animals, the earth, the cosmos,
etc. from which knowing emanates. These knowledge forms are known by other names, and
among them are indigenous ways of knowing (Nyota and Mapara 2008), traditional
knowledge, indigenous technical knowledge, rural knowledge as well as ethno-science (or
people’s science) (Altieri 1995:114). Indigenous knowledge systems manifest themselves
through different dimensions. Among these are agriculture, medicine, security, botany,
zoology, craft skills and linguistics.

ODora-Hoppers (2001:4) defines Indigenous Knowledge Systems as knowledge that is

characterized by its “embededness in the cultural web and history of a people including their
civilization and forms the backbone of the social, economic, scientific and technological
identity of such a people”. This definition seems to concur with the view of both Ntuli (1999)
and Vilakazi (1999) that the culture of a people, thus its civilization, carries both its
indigenous and modern knowledge systems. Contrary to this line of thought, Flavier, De
Jesus and Navarro (1999:479) interpret Indigenous Knowledge as “basically local know-
ledge that is unique to a given culture. It is the information base for a society which facilitates
communication and decision-making”. They further argue that “indigenous information
systems are dynamic and continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation, as
well as by contact with external systems”. They refer to Indigenous Knowledge Systems as
science that is user-derived, not scientifically derived, and its use complements and enhances
the gains made by modern-day innovations. The introduction of the concepts Information
Systems and Modern Science, as opposed to Indigenous Science, seems to be pointing in the
direction of regarding Indigenous Knowledge Systems as made up of commodities as well as
regarding Indigenous Knowledge as systems that enable the continuous integration of
‘information’ be they indigenous or modern.

9.3 Indigenous knowledge systems

Eyong (2007) defines indigenous knowledge systems as “a set of interactions between the
economic , ecological, political and social environments within a group or groups with a
strong identity drawing existence from local resources through patterned behaviour that are
transmitted from generation to generation.” The definition reveals that indigenous
knowledge refer to the unique knowledge to a given culture or society, which is passed
through oral tradition. Atte (1992) defines indigenous knowledge as “the form of shared
environmental knowledgebeliefs andtechniques for productiveactivities.” This definition
views indigenous knowledge as communal belief whose aims is to produce desired results. .

Africans generally depends on taboos in the conservation of natural resources. One of the
taboo observed in many African communities is the issue of collecting ripe fruits from the
forests. It is a taboo to collect unripe fruits. In other instances people are forbidden
collecting fruits direct from the tree. This practise reduces over collection of fruits and the
fruits therefore would ripe naturallythereby ensuring furtherpropagation. In Uganda this
practise is done to restrict baboons and monkeys into the forests as they would have enough
food from the forests hence reduces destruction of people’sfields.

According to Tlou (1985) the use of traditional weapons such as the bow and the
arrow,traps,snares, spears and game pits ensuresustainability in resource management. This is
because these weapons kill only a few animals. This idea is further supported by Mapara
(2009) who asserts that the so called primitive methods of hunting ensures goodconservation
as the hunters kill very few animals. This is also augmented by the meat preservation like
drying which encourages killing of few animals. This is a common feature with the
Basarwa people ofBotswana the method ensures resource recovery.

Indigenous knowledge systems encourages selective hunting. The Basarwa people of

Botswana have hunting rules which include selective hunting where , the males and the
old animals are targeted In the event of a pregnant animal being trapped they set it free .
On fishing, a catch will be scrutinised with the young fish being returned into the water.
Mbaiwa (1999) arguesthat hunting and fishing is usually done in seasons when the animals
and fish have weaned their young ones. This ensures continuity as old animals are killed
leaving the young ones.

In areas like Nyanga of Zimbabwe there is use of good and conservative methods of farming
called Chin Jiri. This practise entails utilisation of slopes for cultivation using terracing.
This reduces erosion while it produces good harvests.

The Chenchus people of India haverecorded high success in vegetation conservation. It is a

taboo to collect broom sticks from unripe plants. The broom sticks are collected from ripe
plants and the community takes care tosee to it that the ripe seeds fall on the ground to
ensure growth of new plants. Another success is noted in Botswana in the Okavango Delta.
The people in the area practise regards thatching grass collection aswomen’sjob. It is a taboo
for men to be seen collecting thatching grass. This is also common in Zimbabwe. Women are
usually responsible for crop harvesting. Thus the thatching grass collection taboo allows the
grass to grow and ripe during the time when women are harvesting. After harvesting grass
will have ripe hence women can proceed to collect grass thereby allowing more grass to
grow from seeds.

Most Africans believe in burning of forests as a way of allowing regrowth. However,

burning can also have other purposes such as clearing land hunting etc. In Ghana, use of fire
has been used for quite a long time producingsuccessful results such like clearing away
competing weeds, releasing nutrients to the soil as well as preventing pests.

Another success of the use of indigenous knowledge systems is noted from the Indian
perspective. In Indiansocieties aredivided into classes named afterplants, animals and birds
which area totemic in nature. According to Rao and Ramen (2007) theChenchus (Indians)
forbids people from cutting and killing such totemic plants and animals. This has
contributed to conservation of the totemic plants and animals. This conservation strategy is
also practised in Zimbabwe. Had it not been some of the taboos like the totemic aspect most
of the plants and animals would have been extinct. (Mapara 2009).

Indigenous knowledge systems also plays an integral part in conservation of wild fruits and
indigenous crops like in India .The Savaras in the Seethampetha celebrates the “Kothala
Pandugalu” whereby a festival of offerings will be made to the concerned deity before the
consumption of the new crop for the first time during the’ first season . This ensures fruits
and crops ripe to their full.

According to Madzudzo and Dzingirai (1996) “Lagisa is a form of transhumance practised

by people in the communal areas of Matabeleland. It involves the seasonal movement of
cattle from one area to the other, in order to extend the grazing range.” Cattle owners or
herd boys move into the lagisa and make a temporary shelter, umlaga, which they abandon at
the end of the season. In the Bulilimamangwe lagisa area, some of these shelters are almost
permanent. Owners return to these shelters each year. The area will be idle during the rainy
season to allow re-growth of grass. This ensures provision of grazing pastures during the dry
season while reducing problems of overgrazing in the fields.

The use of myths and superstition has significantly played a role in preserving biodiversity in
the traditional Vhavenda community of South Africa. Certain trees are forbidden for use as
firewood. This is regarded as a taboo which if broken is usually accompanied by bird lucky.
This practise has indirectly contributed towards the conservation of associated biodiversity
and ecosystems services. Such trees are found in abundance in the area due their protection.

The issue of problem solving in Indigenous Knowledge is also highlighted by Green

(1996:51) quoting McClure, who defines Indigenous Knowledge Systems as: “That body of
accumulated wisdom that has ...‘evolved from years of experience and trial-and-error
problem solving by groups of people working to meet the challenges they face in their local
environments, drawing upon the resources they have at hand’. Indigenous Knowledge
Systems are labelled as local and traditional because they are constructed in a local context
for resolving local challenges in the environment. However, it can be contested whether such
Indigenous Knowledge has such a limited function and competence that it cannot be utilized
in a broader, national and global manner and whether such knowledge is not a universal
resource. Some academics seem convinced that Indigenous Knowledge Systems, or rather, an
“ethno-ecological knowledge/traditional story, in whatever shape or form, is fraught with
ambiguity, danger and diverse challenges” (Donoghueet al., 1999:101). This view on
Indigenous Knowledge systems (ethno-ecological/traditional story) cautions us to be careful
in consuming traditional knowledge (indigenous) without critically looking at its production
or rather construction and utilization. Examples cited by Donoghueet al., 1999 are the
assumptions that environmental problems and issues challenging us today are a result of the
decline in Indigenous Knowledge Systems utilization. These authors further argue that
“traditional (indigenous) peoples lived in conscious harmony with nature” and that
“traditional knowing processes contain some sort of deep purity of values and have somehow
been gradually eroded and lost” (O’Donoghue et al., 1999:98).These scholars argue that not
everything about the use of Indigenous Knowledge Systems was noble and good (valuable) in
those early days. Africa was actually experiencing environmental issues and challenges
unique to her setting. This view is concluded with their definition of indigenous knowledge
which states that indigenous processes (systems) are seen as any responsive and sustaining
symbolic capital, historically grounded and characterizing a commonsense life-world
knowing amidst local people’s in particular socio-economical settings around the world.
What should be noted in this definition, is that though it perceives Indigenous Knowledge
Systems as embedded within all cultural groupings, it also elevates the status of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems as ‘processes’ that we respond to and use to sustain ourselves as peoples
in different parts of the world

In matters relating to security, especially of properties like homes and livestock, the
indigenous people developed some mechanisms that are still used in some rural areas to
monitor their, properties. They have also developed traditional ways of weather forecasting
that helped them to plan their activities for at least two to three days in advance. This
knowledge was very useful especially in summer and immediately after harvesting when
crops like finger millet would be in need of thrashing and winnowing. Indigenous ways of
knowing have also brought forth useful knowledge on medicine and health. In fact, their
resilience in this area led to the recognition that
Traditional healers or alternative medical practitioners got in Zimbabwe in 1980. They were
formally recognized and an association to register practitioners called the Zimbabwe National
Traditional Healers’ Association (ZINATHA) was formed. The use of for example, proverbs
is another case of ethno-knowledge that has been used in both judicial and governance
matters. In short, IKS are those forms of knowledge that the people of the formerly colonized
countries survived on before the advent of colonialism
Postcolonial Theory
Indigenous knowledge systems have history. The postcolonial theory (also written as post-
colonial) is as area of cultural and critical theory that has been used in the study of literary
texts. It deals with the reading and writing of literature written in previously colonized
countries. Postcolonial theory may also be literature that was written in colonizing countries
(the metropolis/centre) dealing with colonization or the colonized people. The theory also
focuses largely on the way in which literature by the colonizers distorts the experience and
realities of the colonised, and inscribes the inferiority of the colonized while at the same time
promoting the superiority of the colonizer. The postcolonial theory is also about the colonized
and formerly colonized announcing their presence and identity as well as reclaiming their
past that was lost or distorted because of being bothered by colonialism. The post-
colonialism theory is not just a literary theory that deals with the literature produced in
countries that were former colonies of countries such as Britain, France, Portugal and Spain.
It also deals with the cultural identities of the colonised peoples, focusing largely on their
dilemmas that relate to attempts at developing national identities after the demise of colonial
rule. It also deals with the way in which writers articulate and celebrate that identity. As a
theory, it is also anchored on binary oppositions where white is presented as superior while
black and oriental are inferior. In all representations, in both the arts and sciences, the West is
always presented as the standard, while non-Europeans are inferior and have to have their
sensibilities and values cultivated so that they become like those of the Europeans, or at least
approximate them.

Postcolonial theory has among its major proponents Franz Fanon and Edward Said. In his
book, Black Skin, White Masks, Fanon suggests that colonialism, because of its explicit
promotion of white racial superiority over non-white colonial peoples, has created a sense of
division and alienation in the self-identity of the colonised. He argues that under colonialism,
the history, language, culture, customs as well as belief systems of the white colonizers are to
be considered as universal and normative as well as superior to the knowledge systems of the
colonised that are treated as the inferior other. The proliferation and perpetuation of this myth
leads to a strong sense of inferiority in most of the colonised such that they adopt almost all
of the colonizers’
Identity as their own. He asserts that they end up using the colonizers’ language, culture and
customs. IKS are more than just a displaying of the knowledge and belief systems of the
formerly colonised. They are one of the forms of responses to the myth of Western
superiority. They are a way in which the formerly colonised are reclaiming their dignity and
humanity that they had been robbed of by colonialism. They are also an effort to show the
world that they are not just the other or the significant other, but equals to the former
colonizers. By bringing forth achievement examples of the formerly colonised, they are also
asserting their visibility.
IKS are attempts to put the record straight on several issues, among them those that relate to
history, education, architecture, philosophy, language and science, stating that the formerly
colonized have been either misunderstood or were deliberately ignored, because if they and
their knowledge systems had been acknowledged by the colonizers, there would have been no
justification for colonialism. IKS as postcolonial theory also attempt to remove the tag of
being called the other and relabeling the West as the other that is not only greedy, but also
murderous, adulterous and myopic.

The same Western world is also presented as destructive and unappreciative. As an extension
of the postcolonial theory, indigenous knowledge systems have highlighted among the past
glories and achievements of the formerly colonised, the architectural successes of the pre-
colonial period. Scholars like Bhebe (2000:7-8) have pointed out that structures like the Great
Zimbabwe Monuments, that have been declared a world heritage site are a clear indicator of
the architectural prowess of the pre-colonial Shona who built it. Other structures that Black
Africa takes pride in are Mapungubwe in South Africa and Manekweni in Mozambique
(Garlake 1992:64).

Traditional knowledge is vital for sustainability of natural resources including forests, water,
and agro-ecosystems across landscape continuum spanning from households through farms,
village, commons and wilderness. To examine the traditional knowledge on biodiversity,
particularly in the light of contemporary research on traditional and formal knowledge
systems and demonstrate the value of traditional knowledge for biodiversity conservation.
One has to also revisit the efficacy of traditional knowledge systems for conservation. We
identify recent developments in local knowledge research and interface this with the
challenges that contemporary society faces in India and how local knowledge can be useful to
address the biodiversity conservation.

Management of natural resources cannot afford to be the subject of just any single body
knowledge such as the Western science, but it has to take into consideration the plurality of
knowledge systems. There is a more fundamental reason for the integration of knowledge
systems. Application of scientific research and local knowledge contributes both to the
equity, opportunity, security and empowerment of local communities, as well as to the
sustainability of the natural resources. Local knowledge helps in scenario analysis, data
collection, management planning, designing of the adaptive strategies to learn and get
feedback, and institutional support to put policies in to practice (Getz et al., 1999). Science,
on the other hand, provides new technologies, or helps in improvement to the existing ones. It
also provides tools for networking, storing, visualizing, and analyzing information, as well as
projecting long-term trends so that efficient solutions to complex problems can be obtained
(Pandey, 2002a).

Local knowledge systems have been found to contribute to sustainability in diverse fields
such as biodiversity conservation and maintenance of ecosystems services, tropical ecological
and bio-cultural restoration, sustainable water management, genetic resource conservation
and management of other natural resources. Local knowledge has also been found useful for
ecosystem restoration and often has ingredients of adaptive management.

Traditional Knowledge on Biodiversity Conservation

In order to be effective, efforts on biodiversity conservation can learn from the context-
specific local knowledge and institutional mechanisms such as cooperation and collective
action; intergenerational transmission of knowledge, skills and strategies; concern for well-
being of future generations; reliance on local resources; restraint in resource exploitation; an
attitude of gratitude and respect for nature; management, conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity outside formal protected areas; and, transfer of useful species among the
households, villages and larger landscape. These are some of the useful attribute of local
knowledge systems (Pandey, 2002a). Traditional knowledge on biodiversity conservation in
India is as diverse as 2753 communities (Joshi et al. 1993) and their geographical
distribution, farming strategies, food habits, subsistence strategies, and cultural traditions.

Limitations of Indigenous Knowledge

However the indigenous knowledge system to some extent have not been all that useful in the
management of resources. The practise of selection harvesting for both plants and animals is
almost a thing of the past in Zimbabwe. The taboo is no longer as effective as it used to be.
This is probably because of population explosion which results in the competition of
resources resulting in shortage of resources in Communal areas such as Mazvihwa of
Zvishavane people cut trees that were normally regarded as sacred
In most countries there is a notion that whatever indigenous people do is naturally in
harmony with the environment. Thrup (1989) assertsthat historical and contemporary
evidence shows that indigenous peoples have also committed environmental crimes through
issues such as over-grazing, over-hunting, overfishing, veld fires or over-cultivation of the
land. This clearly indicates that indigenous knowledge sometimes have not been useful as far
as conservation of resources is concerned. This is exemplified by most communal areas of
Zimbabwe ([Link] of Masvingo) where overgrazing, overhunting and stream bank
cultivation have resulted in siltation of dams and rivers and extinction of animals.

For African countries civilisation means copying their colonial master’s way of life. This
reduces the value of indigenous systems. Great pressure has been put on indigenous people
to integrate with larger societies (former masters), and as they become more integrated, the
social structures which generate indigenous knowledge systems and practices usually breaks
break down. The growth of national and international markets, the changing of educational
and religious systems and the impact of various technological development processes have
led to the usefulness of indigenous knowledge systems being undermined and degraded.
(Best, 1999). Most African countries have fallen into this trap as they have educational
systems inherited from the colonial masters whose bias is inclined to the former colony.
Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered
and the resulting knowledge base incomplete and multifaceted.

The use of indigenous knowledge has contributed to the degradation of natural resources in
Tanzania. For instance the eradication of the traditional silvopastoral system known as
Ngitiri in the Shinyanga region of Tanzania led to the formation of a semi-desert in the mid
80’s which later became known as the ‘Desert of Tanzania’. Thus the use of the indigenous
knowledge is accountable for the degradation.

Emery (1996) noted that younger generations are acquiring different values and lifestyles due
to exposure to global and national influences. Traditional communication networks are
breaking down, meaning that elders are dying without passing their knowledge on to
children. This has weakened the impacts of indigenous knowledge systems such that the
young generation regards the indigenous knowledge systems as primitive. In Zimbabwe
youths regard those who believe in taboos as having too rural background hence primitive
this has also affected resource management as most taboos are no longer respected. In areas
like Gutu and Chivi of Zimbabwe there is massive use of fertilizers and pesticides as people
have moved from the traditional farming methods to the modern farming methods. This has
weakened the usefulness of indigenous knowledge systems.

Matowanyika (1994) argues that indigenous knowledge systems have disappeared in

Swaziland due to over-exploitation of resources, deforestation, affluence which in turn leads
to changes in eating habits, introduction of alien species and invasive species and chronic
diseases such as HIV and AIDS. Studies in Swaziland revealed that HIV and AIDS adversely
affected cropping systems resulting in traditional methods such as mixed Cropping being
discarded for simpler and less complex ways of farming though soil conservation will be
compromised.

As with scientific knowledge, however, IK has its limitations, and these must be recognized.
IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of naive notions that whatever indigenous
people do is naturally in harmony with the environment. There is historical and contemporary
evidence that indigenous peoples have also committed environmental 'sins' through over-
grazing, over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to think of IK as
always being 'good,' 'right' or 'sustainable'.

For example, a critical assumption of indigenous knowledge approaches is that local people
have a good understanding of the natural resource base because they have lived in the same,
or similar, environment for many generations, and have accumulated and passed on
knowledge of the natural conditions, soils, vegetation, food and medicinal plants etc.
However, under conditions where the local people are in fact recent migrants from a quite
different ecological zone, they may not have much experience yet with their new
environment. In these circumstances, some indigenous knowledge of the people may be
helpful, or it may cause problems (e.g., use of agricultural systems adapted to other
ecological zones). Therefore it is important, especially when dealing with recent migrants, to
evaluate the relevance of different kinds of indigenous knowledge to local conditions.

Indigenous knowledge can also be eroded by wider economic and social forces. Pressure on
indigenous peoples to integrate with larger societies is often great, and as they become more
integrated, the social structures which generate indigenous knowledge and practices can
break down. The growth of national and international markets, the imposition of educational
and religious systems and the impact of various development processes are leading more and
more to the 'homogenization' of the world`s cultures (Grenier, 1998). Consequently,
indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered and the resulting
knowledge base incomplete.

Sometimes IK that was once well-adapted and effective for securing a livelihood in a
particular environment becomes inappropriate under conditions of environmental degradation
(Thrupp, 1989). Although IK systems have a certain amount of flexibility in adapting to
ecological change, when change is particularly rapid or drastic, the knowledge associated
with them may be rendered unsuitable and possibly damaging in the altered conditions
(Grenier, 1998).

Finally, an often overlooked feature of IK which needs to be taken into account is that, like
scientific knowledge, sometimes the knowledge which local people rely on is wrong or even
harmful (Thrupp, 1989). Practices based on, for example, mistaken beliefs, faulty
experimentation, or inaccurate information can be dangerous and may even be a barrier to
improving the well-being of indigenous people. However, researchers need to be careful
when making such judgements.

The Loss of Indigenous Knowledge

With the rapid environmental, social, economic and political changes occurring in many areas
inhabited by indigenous people comes the danger that the IK they possess will be
overwhelmed and lost forever. Younger generations are acquiring different values and
lifestyles as a result of exposure to global and national influences, and traditional
communication networks are breaking down, meaning that Elders are dying without passing
their knowledge on to children. In some cases, the actual existence of indigenous people
themselves is threatened. Researchers can assist in preserving IK through the following:

* record and use IK: document IK so that both the scientific and local community have access
to it and can utilize it in the formulation of sustainable development plans.

* raise awareness in the community about the value of IK: record and share IK success stories
in songs, plays, story-telling, videos and other traditional or modern means of
communication. Encourage people to take pride in their knowledge.

* help communities record and document their local practices: Get local people involved in
recording their IK by training them as researchers and providing means of documentation
(computers, video equipment, etc.).

* make IK available: disseminate IK back to the community through newsletters, videos,

books and other media.

* observe intellectual property rights: have agreements so that IK is not misused and benefits
return to the community from which it originates. (Source: IIRR, 1996a)

Summary

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the knowledge used by local people to make a living in a
particular environment. It evolves in situ and is dynamic and creative, constantly growing and
adapting to meet new conditions. The term 'indigenous knowledge' sometimes refers to the
knowledge possessed by the original inhabitants of an area, while the term 'local knowledge'
is a broader term which refers to the knowledge of any people who have lived in an area for a
long period of time. IK is considered to be cultural knowledge in its broadest sense. It is
embedded in a dynamic system in which spirituality, kinship, local politics and other factors
are tied together and influence one another, and researchers must take this into account when
examining a particular part of the IK system. IK has many positive aspects, and incorporating
IK into projects can contribute to local empowerment and can provide valuable input for
alternative natural resource management strategies. However, IK also has its limitations, and
researchers should not make the mistake of romanticizing it and believing that whatever
indigenous people do is right or sustainable. IK researchers should also play a part in
stemming the loss of IK, by helping local people record and use their knowledge.
Assignment

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of indigenous knowledge systems in the management
of natural resources [100]

Times New Roman

12 font size

1, 5 spacing

Justify

Due date ………………. 1300hrs 06 June 2016