INTELLIGENCE

• David Wechsler defined Intelligence is the global capacity to act

purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment (Wechsler, 1939).

• The core of intelligence is usually thought to consist of a small set of

general mental abilities (called the g-factor) in the areas of reasoning,
problem solving, knowledge, memory, and successful adaptation to one’s
surroundings.

• Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason

effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment.
• Psychologists have used two major approaches in the study of
intelligence (Sternberg et al., 2003).

• The psychometric approach attempts to map the structure of intellect

and to discover the kinds of mental competencies that underlie test
performance.

• The cognitive processes approach studies the specific thought

processes that underlie those mental competencies.
• The Psychometric Approach: The Structure Of Intellect

• Psychometrics is the statistical study of psychological tests. The

psychometric approach to intelligence tries to identify and measure the
abilities that underlie individual differences in performance.
• In essence, it tries to provide a measurement-based map of the mind.
• Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature Of Intelligent
Thinking

• Psychometric theories of intelligence are statistically sophisticated

ways of providing a map of the mind and describing how people differ
from one another. (Birney & Sternberg, 2006).

• What psychometric theories don’t explain is why people vary in these

mental skills.
• Metacomponents are the higher-order processes used to plan and
regulate task performance.

• They include problem-solving skills such as identifying problems,

formulating hypotheses and strategies, testing them logically, and
evaluating performance feedback.

• Sternberg believes that metacomponents are the fundamental sources

of individual differences.

• He finds that intelligent people spend more time framing problems and
developing strategies than do less intelligent people, who have a
tendency to plunge right in without sufficient forethought.
• Performance components are the actual mental processes used to
perform the task.

• They include perceptual processing, retrieving appropriate memories

and schemas from long-term memory, and generating responses.

• Finally, knowledge acquisition components allow us to learn from

our experiences, store information in memory, and combine new
insights with previously acquired information.

• These abilities underlie individual differences in crystallized

intelligence.
• INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS

• What is an “IQ”? Imagine that a child named Yuan can answer intelligence
test questions that an average 7-year-old can answer.

• We could say that 7 is her mental age (average intellectual performance).

How smart is Yuan?

• Actually, we can’t say yet, because we don’t know how old Yuan is. If she
is 10, she’s not very smart.

• If she’s 5, she is very bright..

• Thus, although mental age is a good measure of actual ability, it says
nothing about whether overall intelligence is high or low, compared with
other people of the same age

• Thus, to estimate a child’s intelligence, we also need to know her

chronological age (age in years).

• Then, we can relate mental age to chronological age. This yields an IQ, or
intelligence quotient.

• A quotient results from dividing one number into another.

• When the Stanford-Binet was first used, IQ was defined as mental
age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100.
(Multiplying by 100 changes the IQ into a whole number rather than a
decimal.)

𝑀𝐴
× 100 = 𝐼𝑄
𝐶𝐴

• An advantage of the original IQ was that intelligence could be

compared among children with different chronological and mental
ages.
• For instance, 10-year-old Justin has a mental age of 12. Thus, his IQ is
120:
𝑀𝐴
• × 100 = 𝐼𝑄
𝐶𝐴
12
• × 100 = 120
10

• Justin’s friend Suke also has a mental age of 12. However, Suke’s
chronological age is 12, so his IQ is 100:

12
× 100 = 100
12
• The IQ shows that 10-year-old Justin is brighter than his 12-year old
friend Suke, even though their intellectual skills are about the same.

• Notice that a person’s IQ will be 100 when mental age equals

chronological age.

• Therefore, an IQ score of 100 is defined as average intelligence.

• If an individual’s mental and chronological ages were equal, an IQ of 100

was obtained; this was considered to be an average score.
• Then does a person with an IQ score below 100 have below average
intelligence?

• Not unless the IQ is well below 100.

• Average intelligence is usually defined as any score from 90 to 109.

• The important point is that IQ scores will be over 100 when mental age
is higher than age in years. OR

• IQs above 100 indicated that a person’s intellectual age was greater than
her or his chronological age—in other words, that the individual was
more intelligent than typical students of the same age.
• IQ scores below 100 occur when a person’s age in years exceeds his or
her mental age.

• In contrast, numbers below 100 indicated that the individual was less
intelligent than her or his peers.

• An example of this situation would be a 15-year-old with an MA of 12:

12
× 100 = 80
15
• Perhaps you can already see one obvious problem with this type of IQ
score: At some point, mental growth levels off or stops, while
chronological age continues to grow.

• As a result, IQ scores begin to decline after the early teen years.

• Partly because of this problem, IQ scores now have a different

definition.
• Deviation IQs

• Although the preceding examples may give you insight into IQ scores, it’s
no longer necessary to directly calculate IQs.

• Instead, modern tests use deviation IQs.

• Now IQ simply indicates an individual’s performance on an intelligence

test relative to those of other persons.

• That is, they tell how far above or below average the person’s score falls.
• For example, if you score at the 50th percentile, half the people your age
who take the test score higher than you and half score lower.

• In this case, your IQ score is 100.

• If you score at the 84th percentile, your IQ score is 115.

• If you score at the 97th percentile, your IQ score is 130.

• CLASSIFICATION OF IQ

• The distribution (or scattering) of IQ scores approximates a normal (bell-

shaped) curve.

• That is, most scores fall close to the average and very few are found at
the extremes.

• Distribution of Adult IQ Scores on the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS-IV) are given:
Distribution of Adult IQ Scores on the WAIS-IV

IQ Description IQ Description
Above 130 Very superior
120–129 Superior
110–119 Bright normal
90–109 Average
80–89 Dull normal
70–79 Borderline
Below 70 Intellectually disabled
• Classification of intellectual deficiency,

CLASS IQ
Profound <20
Severe 20-34
Moderate 35-49
Mild 50-69
• The Intellectually Gifted—smart, Smarter, Smartest

• What does IQ tell us about genius?

• How high is the IQ of a genius? Only 2 people out of 100 score above
130 on IQ tests.

• These bright individuals are usually described as “gifted.”

• Less than one-half of one percent of the population scores above 140.

• These people are certainly gifted or perhaps even “geniuses.”

• Gifted Children

• Do high IQ scores in childhood predict later ability?

• To directly answer this question, Lewis Terman selected 1,500 children

with IQs of 140 or more.

• Terman followed this gifted group (the “Termites,” as he called them)

into adulthood.

• By doing so, Terman corrected several popular misconceptions about

high intelligence.
• However, some psychologists reserve the term genius for people with
even higher IQs or those who are exceptionally creative.

• Misconception: The gifted tend to be peculiar, socially backward

people.

• Fact: On the contrary, Terman’s gifted subjects, and gifted people in

general, are socially skilled and above average in leadership

• Misconception: Early ripe means later rot; the gifted tend to fizzle out as
adults.
• Fact: This is false. When they were retested as adults, Terman’s subjects
again scored in the upper IQ ranges.

• Misconception: The very bright are physically inferior “egg heads,”

“nerds,” or weaklings.

• Fact: As a group, the gifted were above average in height, weight, and
physical appearance.

• Misconception: Highly intelligent persons are more susceptible to

mental illness (“Genius is next to insanity”).
• Fact: Terman demonstrated conclusively that the gifted enjoy better than
average mental health and a greater resistance to mental illness.

• In general, the highly gifted tend to be very well adjusted

psychologically.

• Misconception: Intelligence has little to do with success, especially in

practical matters.

• Fact: The success of Terman’s subjects was striking.

• Far more of them than average completed college, earned advanced

degrees, and held professional positions.
• As a group, the gifted produced dozens of books, thousands of scientific
articles, and hundreds of short stories and other publications.

• As noted earlier, IQ scores are not generally good predictors of real-

world success.

• However, when scores are in the gifted range, the likelihood of

outstanding achievement does seem to be higher.
• Giftedness and Achievement

• Were all the Termites superior as adults? No.

• Remember that high IQ reveals potential. It does not guarantee success.

• As adults, some of Terman’s gifted subjects committed crimes, were

unemployable, or were unhappy misfits.

• Nor does a lower IQ guarantee failure.

• Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman, whom many regard
as a genius, had an IQ of 122 (Michalko, 2001).

• How did Terman’s more successful Termites differ from the less
successful?

• Most of them had educated parents who valued learning and

encouraged them to do the same.
• In general, successful gifted persons tend to have strong intellectual
determination—a desire to know, to excel, and to persevere (Winner,
2003).

• Gifted or not, most successful persons tend to be persistent and

motivated to learn.

• No one is paid to sit around being capable of achievement.

• What you do is always more important than what you should be able to
do.
• That’s why a child’s talents are most likely to blossom when they are
nurtured with support, encouragement, education, and effort.

• Identifying Gifted Children

• How might a parent spot an unusually bright child? Early signs of

giftedness are not always purely “intellectual.”

• Giftedness can be either the possession of a high IQ or of special talents or

aptitudes.
• The following signs may reveal that a child is gifted:

 a tendency to seek out older children and adults;

 an early fascination with explanations and problem solving; talking in
complete sentences as early as [Link] [Link] of age;
 an unusually good memory; precocious talent in art, music, or number
skills;
 an early interest in books, along with early reading (often by age 3);
 showing of kindness, understanding, and cooperation toward others.
• Notice that this list goes beyond straight g-factor, or general “academic”
intelligence.

• Children may be gifted in ways other than having a high IQ.

• In fact, if artistic talent, mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, athletic

potential, and so on are considered, many children have a special “gift” of
one kind or another.

• Limiting giftedness to high IQ can shortchange children with special

talents or potentials.
• This is especially true of ethnic minority children, who may be the victims
of subtle biases in standardized intelligence tests.

• These children, as well as children with physical disabilities, are less

likely to be recognized as gifted.
• DETERMINENTS OF INTELLIGENCE

1. The Role of Heredity

2. The Role of Environment

• Human intelligence is clearly the result of the complex interplay

between genetic factors and a wide range of environmental
conditions.
Evidence for the Influence of Heredity:-

• Heritability: The proportion of the variance in any trait within a given

population that is attributable to genetic factors.

• Several lines of research offer support for the view that heredity plays
an important role in human intelligence.

• First, consider findings with respect to family relationship and

measured IQ.
• If intelligence is indeed determined by heredity, we would expect that
the more closely two persons are related, the more similar their IQs will
be.

• This prediction has generally been confirmed.

• For example, the IQs of identical twins have been found to correlate
almost +.90, those of brothers and sisters about +.50, and those of
cousins about +.15.
• the IQ scores of fraternal twins are more alike than those of ordinary
brothers and sisters.

• Fraternal twins come from two separate eggs fertilized at the same time.
They are no more genetically alike than ordinary siblings.

• More striking similarities are observed with identical twins, who

develop from a single egg and have identical genes.

• identical twins who grow up in the same family have highly correlated
IQs.
• Additional support for the impact of heredity on intelligence is provided
by studies involving adopted children.

• If intelligence is strongly affected by genetic factors, the IQs of adopted

children should resemble those of their biological parents more closely
than those of their adoptive parents.

• In short, the children should be more similar in IQ to the persons from

whom they received their genes than to the persons who raised them. This
prediction, too, has been confirmed.

• For example, consider a long-term study conducted by Plomin and his

colleagues.
• In this investigation, the researchers studied 245 children who were
placed for adoption by their mothers shortly after birth (on average, when
they were twenty-nine days old) until they were teenagers.

• Measures of the children’s intelligence were obtained when they were

two, three, four, seven, twelve, and sixteen years old.

• In addition, measures were obtained of their biological mothers’

intelligence and of their adoptive parents’ intelligence.

• A comparison group of children who were living with their biological

parents was tested in the same manner.
• The results showed a clear pattern: The correlation between the adopted
children's intelligence and that of their biological parents increased over
time, as did the correlation between the intelligence of the control group
(children living with their biological parents) and that of their parents.

• In contrast, the correlation between the intelligence of the adopted

children and that of their adoptive parents decreased over time.

• Similar patterns were found for specific components of intelligence, as

well as for general cognitive.

• These findings suggest that genetic factors play an important role

in intelligence and may indeed outweigh environmental factors in this
respect.
• Environmental Influences

• Genetic factors are definitely not the entire picture where human
intelligence is concerned.

• However, other findings point to the conclusion that environmental

variables, too, are important.

• One such finding is that performance on IQ tests has risen substantially

around the world at all age levels in recent decades.

• This rise in performance is known as the Flynn effect after the

psychologist who first reported it (Flynn, 1987).
• Accounts for these increases because of the changes in environmental
factors.

• The following variables have been suggested as possible contributors to

the continuing rise in IQ (e.g., Flynn, 1999; Williams, 1998): better
nutrition, increased urbanization, greater access to education, more
cognitively demanding jobs, and even exposure to computer games!

• In any case, whatever the specific causes involved, they are

environmental in nature and so add to the importance of environmental
factors in studies of human intelligence.
• Additional evidence provided by the findings of studies of environmental
deprivation and environmental enrichment.

• With respect to deprivation, some findings suggest that intelligence can

be reduced by the absence of key forms of environmental stimulation
early in life (Gottfried, 1984).

• In terms of enrichment, removing children from sterile, restricted

environments and placing them in more favorable settings seems to
enhance their intellectual growth.
• For example, in one of the first demonstrations of the beneficial impact
on IQ of an enriched environment, Skeels (1938, 1966) removed thirteen
children, all about two years old, from an orphanage in which they
received virtually no intellectual stimulation—and virtually no contact
with adults—and placed them in the care of a group of retarded women
living in an institution.

• After a few years, Skeels noted that the children’s IQs had risen
dramatically—29 points on average (although later corrections reduced
this figure to about 10 to 13 points; Flynn, 1993).
• Interestingly, Skeels also obtained IQ measures of children who remained
in the orphanage and found that these had actually dropped by 26 points
on average—presumably as a result of continued exposure to the
impoverished environment at the orphanage.

• Twenty-five years later, the thirteen children who had experienced the
enriched environment were all doing well; most had graduated from high
school, found a job, and married.

• In contrast, those in the original control group either remained

institutionalized or were functioning poorly in society.
• In the Indian context the studies do indicate negative effects of poverty
and deprivation on measures of intellectual performance.

• As noted recently by Ramey and Ramey (1998), such changes are most
likely to occur when the following conditions are met:

• (1) The interventions begin early and continue for a long time;

• (2) the programs are intense, involving home visits several times per
week;

• (3) the children receive new learning experiences delivered directly to

them by experts rather than indirectly through their parents;
• (4) the interventions are broad in scope, using many different procedures
to enhance children's development;

• (5) the interventions are matched to the needs of individual children; and

• (6) environmental supports (e.g., excellent schools) are put in place to

support and maintain the positive attitudes toward learning the children
gain.

• Needless to say, programs that meet these criteria tend to be expensive.

• Additional support for the role of environmental factors in intelligence is
provided by the finding that

• Prolonged malnutrition can adversely affect IQ (e.g., Sigman, 1995), as

can exposure to lead—either in the air or in lead-based paint, which
young children often eat because it tastes sweet.

• Exposure to such factors as alcohol and drugs indicate that these factors
can also adversely affect intelligence (e.g., Neisser et al., 1996).

• In sum, therefore, many forms of evidence support the view that

intelligence is determined, at least in part, by environmental factors.
• Some evidence for an environmental view of intelligence comes from
families having one adopted child and one biological child.

• Parents contribute genes and environment to their biological child. With

an adopted child they contribute only environment.

• If intelligence is highly genetic, the IQs of biological children should be

more like their parents’ IQs than the IQs of adopted children are.

• However, studies show that children reared by the same mother

resemble her in IQ to the same degree. It doesn’t matter whether they
share her genes
Parent Environment Adopted child

Environment
Parent Biological child
Gene
• Psychologists who emphasize genetics believe figures like these show
that differences in adult intelligence are roughly 50 percent hereditary.

• Another frequently overlooked fact is that twins grow up in the same

environment before birth (in the womb).

• If this environmental similarity is taken into account, intelligence

would seem to be less than 50 percent hereditary.
CREATIVITY AND
INTELLIGENCE
• Creativity is defined as something different from intelligence and as a
parallel construct to intelligence, but it differs from intelligence in that it
is not restricted to cognitive or intellectual functioning or behaviour.

• Instead, it is concerned with a complex mix of motivational conditions,

personality factors, environmental conditions, chance factors, and even
products (Michalko, 1998).
• Aspects of Creativity

• According to Guilford (1950), creativity involves divergent thinking in

contrast to convergent thinking.

• The latter refers to thinking in conventional set pattern whereas divergent

thinking refers to thinking out of the box.

• Divergent thinking is having divergent ideas and possibilities, e.g., think

of how many ways you can use a brick.

• Thus, one of the key aspects of creativity is divergent thinking.

• It consists of four processes/aspects such as,

• Fluency: refers to how rapidly the person comes up with ideas. It can be
in respect of words, ideas, expression or associations.

• Flexibility: refers to the ability to produce a large variety of ideas such as

thinking of varied uses of a particular object,

• Originality: refers to the uniqueness or novelty of ideas.

• It is the ability to produce ideas that are unusual, statistically infrequent

and not obvious.
• Elaboration: involves the ability to develop and describe an idea, such as,
consequences of a hypothetical event.

• Stages of Creativity:-

• Graham Wallas (1926) who suggested that creative thinking follows

four successive steps:

1. Preparation: The subject begins to gather information about the

problem to be solved and attempts some solutions.
2. Incubation: In the second stage the solution exists but is not clear.

• The subject must not intentionally work on the problem. Instead it is

allowed to sink into the unconscious.

3. Illumination: In the third stage the subject suddenly experiences insight

into the problem when a new solution, idea, or relationship emerges.

4. Verification: Finally, the subject tries and checks the solution.

In this stage some modification may also occur to ideas reached in the
previous stages.
• CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE

• In one extreme opinion, creativity and intelligence are regarded as totally

independent of each other.

• Intelligence is not supposed to influence creativity. Creativity is viewed

as a mental operation accessible to everyone.

• It is supposedly dependent on domain-specific knowledge (i.e. the

amount of exposure to and expertise in a given field) and deliberate
practice.
• Creativity and intelligence relationship has been widely researched and
the ‘threshold hypothesis’ has been prominent.

• It states that high intelligence does not guarantee creativity; but a certain
level of intelligence (a particular threshold level) is required in order to
be creative.

• Thus, an above average intelligence is necessary for high level of

creativity (Guilford, 1967).
• Study by Jauk, Benedek, Dunst, & Neubauer (2013) supported this
threshold hypothesis for the interplay between intelligence and creative
potential.

• Further, they found that once the intelligence threshold is met, personality
factors become more predictive for creativity.

• On the contrary, no threshold was found for creative achievement, i.e.,

creative achievement benefitted from higher intelligence even at fairly
high levels of intellectual ability.
• Sternberg and O’Hara (2000) have proposed five possible
relationships between creativity and intelligence.
• A high IQ has proven as insufficient for creativity ever since Terman’s
(1925) famous longitudinal study of highly gifted children, which had a
mean IQ of 151.

• While most of these children achieved remarkable occupational success

in later life, none of them showed a noteworthy sign of creativity.

• Most of the studies concerning the association between psychometric

intelligence and creativity yielded only a weak relationship.

• For example, Torrance (1977) reported that the median of 178

correlation coefficients between IQ and the TTCT was only .20.
• However, a creative person’s IQ has been demonstrated to be at least a
standard deviation above the mean, often more.

• Guilford (1967) suggested a hypothesis that a minimal level of IQ, often

arbitrary set to 120, should be necessary, but not sufficient for creativity.

• Creative achievement was thought to be impossible below this threshold.

• Guilford’s structure of intellect model views creativity as a part of

intelligence.
• In his model, divergent production ability, which is an important feature
of creativity, is one of the several abilities he has proposed.

• Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences also views intelligence as the

superset with creative contributions reflected in various areas such as
music, language etc.

• On the other hand, Sternberg’s investment and confluence theory of

creativity considers intelligence to be a part of creativity.

• Here, intelligence is one of the six resources which together determine

creativity.
 THEORIES
MODERN PERSPECTIVES ON
INTELLIGENCE
1. SPEARMAN’S -TWO FACTOR THEORY

• According to Spearman structure of intelligence is consists of two factors

named as:

• The general ability known as general factor (g-factor)

• The specific ability known as specific factor (s-factor)

• General factor (g-factor):- It is referred as mental energy.

• According to Spearman in every individual a general capacity is found

which will help the individual to perform all the mental or intellectual
activity, this capacity is called g-factor.

• According to Spearman higher the magnitude of g factor within the

individual , more the individual will be efficient to perform the mental
functioning.

• So the intellectual capacity of the individual will be mainly depend upon

the value of –g factor.
• Another characteristic of the g factor is that it is a innate factor, it is not
affected by the learning or past experience of the individual.

• Second characteristic of the g –factor is that its value is fixed within an

individual for whole life time, although individual difference in
magnitude of this factor is possible.

• So, there is following characteristics of the g - factor:

o It is universal inborn abilities
o It is constant
o It is general mental ability
o It is used in every mental activity

• Greater the g in the individual , greater is his success in life.

• Specific factor(s-factor): According to Spearman each mental activity

requires some specific characteristics or each mental activity have some
amount of uniqueness.

• This will be provided by the specific factor.

• Specfic factor have three characteristics:

oIt’s nature is changeable.
oIt’s magnitude is not fixed within an individual for all the time.
oIt is affected by the learning and past experiences

• A student who excels in all subjects likely has a higher g factor, indicating
a strong general intellectual ability that influences their performance
across different areas

• A student who is exceptionally good at math but struggles with language

might have a high s factor for mathematical ability but a lower s factor for
linguistic ability,
2. CATTEL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

• Raymond Cattell (1971) and John Horn (1985) proposed a new model
of intelligence.

• They broke down Spearman’s general intelligence into two distinct but
related subtypes of g.

• Crystallized intelligence (gc) is the ability to apply previously acquired

knowledge to current problems.

• Vocabulary and information tests are good measures of crystallized

intelligence.
• Crystallized intelligence, which is the basis for expertise, depends on
the ability to retrieve previously learned information and problem-
solving schemas from long-term memory.

• It is dependent on previous learning and practice.

• For example, Remembering facts and figures

• Cattell and Horn’s second general factor is fluid intelligence (gf),

defined as the ability to deal with novel problem-solving situations for
which personal experience does not provide a solution.
• For example, Solving a new type of puzzle

• It involves inductive reasoning and creative problem solving skills

• Fluid intelligence is dependent primarily on the efficient functioning of

the central nervous system rather than on prior experience and cultural
context.

• People high in fluid intelligence can perceive relations among stimulus

patterns and draw inferences from relationships.
• Fluid intelligence requires the abilities to reason abstractly, think
logically, and manage information in working (short-term) memory so
that new problems can be solved on the blackboard of the mind

• Thus, long-term memory contributes strongly to crystallized

intelligence, whereas fluid intelligence is particularly dependent on
efficient working memory.

• Fluid intelligence declines with age while, crystallized intelligence

increase by age through experience.
3. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL

• Guilford (1967) proposed a three dimensional structure of intellect

model.

• According to Guilford every intellectual task can be classified according

to its

1. The Operation (mental processes)involved,

2. Content (types of information)
3. The product (forms of information) resulting from the operation.
• The first way of classification is in terms of the kind of mental operation
involved in the abilities.

• Each ability involved simply

cognition, -The ability to recognize or understand something. )

memory recording, -The ability to recognize or understand something.
memory retention, -The ability to recall or retrieve learned information.
divergent production,- Generating multiple unique solutions or ideas
convergent production -Finding the single, conventional, or correct
answer to a problem.
evaluation.- Judging whether information or a solution meets specific
criteria.
• The second way of classification is in terms of area information within
which the operations are performed:

Audio- Information perceived visually. ,

Visual- Information perceived through sound. ,
Symbolic - Information in the form of symbols, such as letters ,
Semantic - Information in the form of meanings,
Behavioral - Information related to the mental states and behavior of
others. .
• The third way of classification is in terms of product. It describes the
formal kinds of information. Information takes the form of

Units -A single piece of information ,

Classes- A group of units that share common characteristics. ,
Relations A connection or association between items. ,
Systems -An organized structure or network of related item,
transformations -Changes or conversions of information.
Implications -Predictions, inferences, or logical extensions of existing
information.

• Any area of information takes different abilities in the form of the

various products
• 4. THURSTONE’S PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES/GROUP
FACTOR THEORY (1938)

• An early critic of Spearman's ideas was Louis L. Thurstone (1887-

1955), argued that intelligence is made up-of seven distinct mental
abilities.

• Observing differences from person to person, Thurstone argued that

each of the primary mental abilities on his list was distinct, not simply
a reflection of general underlying intelligence.
• Verbal comprehension- understanding vocabulary, reading, etc.
Understanding the nuances of a poem

• Word fluency - The ability to quickly generate and manipulate a large

number of words with specific characteristics, as in anagrams or rhyming
tests

• Numerical skill -The ability to quickly and accurately carry out

mathematical operations. Quickly calculating the total cost of multiple item

• Spatial ability - Skill in spatial visualization as well as the ability to

mentally transform spatial figures. Mentally assembling flat shapes to form
a three-dimensional object
• Associative memory- The ability to memorize and recall information
quickly. Remembering a friend's phone number

• Reasoning- Skill in a variety of inductive, deductive, and

arithmetic reasoning tasks. determining which word does not belong
in a given list

• Perceptual Speed:- Quickness in perceiving visual details, anomalies,

similarities etc. A proofreader quickly spotting errors in a text
5. STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY

• Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence is made

up of three broad, interacting intelligences:

• Analytical intelligence,
• Creative intelligence,
• Practical intelligence,
• Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve
success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of
one's cultural community.

1. Analytical Intelligence (Componential element):- Sternberg’s term for

the analytical aspect of intelligence.

• Analytical intelligence consists of the information-processing components

that underlie all intelligent acts: applying strategies, acquiring task-
relevant and metacognitive knowledge, and engaging in self-regulation

• But on mental tests, processing skills are used in only a few of their
potential ways, resulting in far too narrow a view of intelligent behavior.
• As we have seen, children in tribal and village societies do not
necessarily perform well on measures of "school" knowledge but thrive
when processing information in out-of-school situations that most
Westerners would find highly challenging.

2. Creative Intelligence (Experiential element):- Sternberg’s term for

the insightful or creative aspect of intelligence.

• In any context, success depends not only on processing familiar

information but also on generating useful solutions to new problems.

• People who are creative think more skillfully than others when faced
with novelty.
• Given a new task, they apply their information-processing skills in
exceptionally effective ways, rapidly making those skills automatic so
that working memory is freed for more complex aspects of the situation.

• Consequently, they quickly move to high-level performance.

3. Practical Intelligence (Contextual element):- Sternberg’s term for

the practical aspect of intelligence.

• Finally, intelligence is a practical, goal-oriented activity aimed at

adapting to, shaping, or selecting environments.
• Intelligent people skillfully adapt their thinking to fit with both their
desires and the demands of their everyday worlds.

• When they cannot adapt to a situation, they try to shape, or change, it to

meet their needs.

• If they cannot shape it, they select new contexts that better match their
skills, values, or goals.

• An important aspect of practical intelligence is tacit knowledge:

(Information that is not formally taught or openly expressed but is
necessary to get ahead.)
• Tacit knowledge, acquired largely on one's own, is "commonsense"
knowledge of how to get ahead-how to win a promotion or cut through
red tape.

• Tacit knowledge may include self-management (knowing how to

motivate oneself and organize time and energy), management of tasks
(knowing, for example, how to write a term paper or grant proposal),
and management of others (knowing when and how to reward or
criticize subordinates).
• For example, Alix, Barbara, and Courtney applied to graduate programs
at Yale University.

• Alix had earned almost straight A's in college, scored high on the
Graduate Record Examination (GRE), and had excellent
recommendations.

• Barbara's grades were only fair, and her GRE scores were low by Yale's
standards, but her letters of recommendation enthusiastically praised her
exceptional research and creative ideas.

• Courtney's grades, GRE scores, and recommendations were good but not
among the best.
• Alix and Courtney were admitted to the graduate program.

• Barbara was not admitted but was hired as a research associate and took
graduate classes on the side.

• Alix did very well for the first year or so, but less well after that.

• Barbara confounded the admissions committee by doing outstanding

work.

• Courtney's performance in graduate school was only fair, but she had the
easiest time getting a good job afterward.
• According to Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence Barbara and
Courtney were strong in two aspects of intelligence that psychometric
tests miss: creative insight (what Sternberg calls the experiential
element) and practical intelligence (the contextual element).

• As an undergraduate, Alix's componential (analytical) ability helped her

sail through examinations.

• However, in graduate school, where original thinking is expected.

• Practical problems emerge from personal experience, as does the

information needed to solve them.
• Barbara's superior experiential intelligence her fresh insights and
innovative ideas began to shine.

• So did Courtney's practical, contextual intelligence her "street smarts.“

• She knew her way around. She chose "hot" research topics, submitted
papers to the "right" journals, and knew where and how to apply for
jobs.

• Studies suggest that creative production and the ability to solve practical
problems grow at least until midlife, while the ability to solve academic
problems generally declines.
• Analytical intelligence, or information-processing skills;

• Creative intelligence, the capacity to solve novel problems;

• Practical intelligence, application of intellectual skills in everyday

situations.
6. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

• In yet another view of how information-processing skills underlie

intelligent behavior,

• Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences defines intelligence

in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals
to solve problems, create products, and discover new knowledge in a
wide range of culturally valued activities.

• Dismissing the idea of general intelligence, Gardner proposes at least

eight independent intelligences.
• Gardner believes that each intelligence has a unique biological basis, a
distinct course of development, and different expert, or “end state,”
performances.

• At the same time, he emphasizes that a lengthy process of education is

required to transform any raw potential into a mature social role.

• Cultural values and learning opportunities affect the extent to which a

child’s strengths are realized and the way they are expressed.
• Gardner acknowledges that if tests were available to assess all these
abilities, they should show little relationship to one another.

• Research indicating that damage to a certain part of the adult brain

influences only one ability (such as linguistic or spatial), while sparing
others, and suggests that the affected ability is independent.

• Individuals with savant syndrome, who display one area of outstanding

strength alongside deficits in many others, provide an illustration.
• Children with autism occasionally show this pattern. Though severely
impaired in language and communication, a few individuals with autism
have remarkable abilities, always featuring dazzling memory.

• These usually involve numerical and spatial skills—such as effortless

calculation, detailed drawing, or performance of long piano pieces after
hearing them only once—that are primarily housed in the right
hemisphere of the cerebral cortex.

• Savant syndrome often is associated with damage to the left cerebral

hemisphere, which may have caused the right hemisphere to compensate,
yielding an “island of strength”.
• Linguistic:- Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words
and the functions of language
Eg:- Poet, journalist

• Logico-mathematical:- Sensitivity to, and capacity to detect, logical or

numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of logical reasoning.
Eg:- Mathematician

• Musical:- Ability to produce and appreciate pitch, rhythm (or melody),

and aesthetic quality of the forms of musical expressiveness.
Eg:- Instrumentalist, composer
• Spatial:- Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately, to
perform transformations on those perceptions, and to re-create aspects
of visual experience in the absence of relevant stimuli
Eg:- Sculptor, navigator

• Bodily-kinesthetic:- Ability to use the body skill fully for expressive as

well as goal-directed purposes; ability to handle objects skill-fully
Eg:- Dancer, athlete

• Naturalist:- Ability to recognize and classify all varieties of animals,

minerals, and plants
Eg:- Biologist
• Interpersonal:- Ability to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others
Eg:- Therapist, salesperson

• Intrapersonal:- Ability to discriminate complex inner feelings and to

use them to guide one’s own behavior; knowledge of one’s own
strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences

Eg:- Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge

7. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

• EQ is a cluster of traits or abilities relating to the motional side of life-

abilities such as recognizing and managing one's own emotions, being
able to motivate oneself and restrain one's impulse, recognizing and
managing others' emotions, and handling interpersonal relationships in
an effective manner.

• Mayer and Salovey (1997) proposed that El was a cognitive ability

which is separate but also associated to, general intelligence.
• This model consists of four different abilities (or branches) including:

1. Perception of Emotion,
2. Emotional Facilitation,
3. Understanding Emotions,
4. Management of Emotions.

• Major Components of Emotional Intelligence

• Goleman (1995) suggests that emotional intelligence consists of five

major parts:
1. Knowing Our Own Emotions,
2. Managing Our Emotions,
3. Motivating Ourselves,
4. Recognizing The Emotions of Others,
5. Handling Relationships.

• Each of these elements, he contends, plays an important role in

shaping the outcomes we experience in life.
• Self Awareness (Knowing Our Own Emotions):-

• Emotions are often powerful reactions, so it would seem at first glance that
everyone ought to be able to recognize their own feelings.

• In fact, however, this is not always the case.

• Some persons are highly aware of their own emotions and their thoughts
about them, but others seem to be almost totally oblivious to these.

• First, to the extent individuals are not aware of their own feelings, they
cannot make intelligent choices.
• How can they tell whom to marry, what job to take, which house or car
to buy, or even what to order in a restaurant?

• Second, because such persons aren't aware of their own emotions, they
are often low in expressiveness they don't show their feelings clearly
through facial expressions, body language, or other cues most of use to
recognize others' feelings.

• This can have adverse effects on their interpersonal relationships,

because other people find it hard to feeling reacting.

• For these reasons, this first component of emotional intelligence seems

to be quite important.
• Self-regulation (Managing Our Own Emotions):-

• Have you ever lost your temper or cried when you didn't want to show
such reactions?

• Have you ever dose something to cheer yourself up when you felt
anxious or depressed?

• If so, you are already aware of the that we often try to manage our
emotions to regulate their nature, intensity, and expression.

• Doing so is very important both for our own mental health and from the
point of view of interacting effectively with others.
• For instance, consider persons who simply cannot control their temper,
are they bound for success and a happy life? No.

• They will probably be avoided by many people and will not get the jobs,
promotions, or lovers they want.

• Motivation (Motivating Ourselves):- Thomas Edison, the famous

inventor, remarked: "Success is two percent inspiration and ninety-eight
percent perspiration."
• By "perspiration, however, we mean more than simply hard work, we
also include aspects of emotional intelligence, such as being able to
motivate oneself to work long and hard on a task, remaining enthusiastic
and optimistic about the final outcome, and being able to delay
gratification-to put off receiving small rewards now in order to get larger
ones later on.

• Being high in such skills can indeed contribute to success.

• Empathy (Recognizing and Influencing Others' Emotions):-

• Another aspect of emotional intelligence, as described by Goleman, is the

ability to "read" others accurately to recognize the mood they are in and
what emotion they are experiencing. This skill is valuable in many
practical settings.

• For instance, if you can accurately gauge another person’s current mood,
you can tell whether it's the right time to ask her or him for a favor.

• Similarly, persons who are skilled at generating strong emotions in others

are often highly successful in such fields as sales and politics: They can
get other people to feel what they want them to feel.
• Social Skills (Handling Relationships):-

• Some people seem to have a knack for getting along with others: most
people who meet these people like then.

• And as a result they have many friends and often enjoy high levels of
success in their careers.

• In contrast, other seem to make a mess of virtually all their personal

relationships.

• These differences are another reflection of differences in emotional

intelligence.
• What does interpersonal intelligence involve such skills as being able to
coordinate the efforts of seven people and to negotiate solutions to
complex interpersonal problems, being good at giving others feedback
that doesn't make them angry or resentful, and being a team player.

• Again, these skills are clearly distinct from the ones needed for getting
good grades or scoring high on tests of intelligence, but they often play a
key role in important life outcomes.

• Emotional intelligence can be enhanced with the help of adequate

provision for training in self-monitoring, self-regulation, communication,
and problem solving.
• There are cultural variations in the emphases in the aspects of emotional
intelligence.

• As Sibia, Srivastava and Mista (2003), have noted the concept of

emotional intelligence in the Indian context is embedded in its highly
valued social concerns, virtues, religious traditions and cultural practices.

• Further in the Indian contest the person who is able to manage and
regulate his emotions is called Jitendriya.

• Further the view is content sensitive and focuses on the role of significant
others including guru, family, and larger society in shaping and
developing one's emotional intelligence
8. PASS THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

• Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed the Planning, Attention,

Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) theory which, he refers to four
kinds of competence,

• Planning processes are required when an individual makes decisions

about how to solve a problem, carry out an activity, or compose a
narrative.

• This component involves goal setting, as well as anticipating and

monitoring feedback.
• Attention or arousal is the process that allows a person to selectively
attend to some stimuli while ignoring others, resist distractions, and
maintain vigilance.

• Simultaneous processing integrates stimuli into groups. As a result,

stimuli are seen as whole, each piece being related to others.

• Successive processing includes integrating stimuli in a specific serial

order.

• For example, to understand English syntax an individual has to process

words to determine their grammatical function.
• First, input information is received from external sources through the
senses and from internal sources, internal cognitive information such as
images, memories, and thoughts become a part of the input.

• Excell input information can be presented serially or concurrently.

• When the sensory information is sent i.e. analyses, the four central
processes (planning, attention-arousal, simultaneous processing, and
successsive procesing), as well as the knowledge base, become active.

• Similarly, output can occur in two forms, serial and concurrent.

• The PASS components are broadly associated with four different parts
of the brain.

 Planning is located in the frontal lobe.

• Specifically, cognitive functions such as reasoning are attributed to the

prefrontal dorsolateral cortex, whereas socially relevant decision
making may be the function of the fronto-orbital cortex.

• It is required when an individual makes decisions ranging from specific

actions to general plans such as revising life's goals.

• Planning also guides how people focus their attention and use
simultaneous and accessive processes when required.
The attention-arousal component is more difficult to locate.

• Arousal keeps people awake and alert and is associated with arousal
activities in the brain stem as well as with inhibitory activities in the
thalamus.

• The mobilization of attentional resources, however, is the function of

the frontal lobes and closely connected to planning.

Simultaneous and successive processing are located in the posterior

region of the cortex.

• Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and

parietal lobes, whereas successive processing is associated with the
frontal temporal lobe.
• All four processes must be active in the context of an individual's
knowledge base.

• Knowledge is built upon the base of past experiences and includes both
formal and spontaneously acquired knowledge.

• It is essential for providing the background for information to be

processed.

• It is as if the PASS processes are floating on a sea of knowledge,

without water they cannot operate and will sink.
• Knowledge can be of two kinds: tacit (spontaneous, experiential) and
explicit (formal, instructed).

• The last component of the PASS model is output, which is expressed in

behavior.

• As Donald (1991) has suggested there are three output modes:

movements, mimetics, and language.

• Movements include both gross and fine movement, mimetics comprises

dance, music, theatrical poses, and body language, and language includes
oral and written language, as well as graphs and signs.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
1. BINET-SIMON SCALE

• The French government passed laws requiring that all French children
attend school in the early 1900s

• French government asked psychologist Alfred Binet to help decide

which students were mostly likely to experience difficulty in schools.

• The goal was to find a way to identify children who would need
specialized assistance.
• Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon began developing a number of
questions that focused on things that had not been taught in school such
as attention, memory and problem-solving skills.

• Binet determined which types of questions were seen as the best

predictors of school success.

• Some children able to answer more advanced questions that older

children were generally able to answer, while other children of the same
age were only able to answer questions that younger children could
typically answer.
• Based on this observation, Binet suggested the concept of a mental age,
or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children of
a certain age group.

• This first intelligence test, referred to today as the Binet-Simon Scale

(1905), became the basis for the intelligence tests still in use today.

• However, Binet himself did not believe that his psychometric instruments
could be used to measure a single, permanent and inborn level of
intelligence.
• Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is
far too broad a concept to quantify with a single number

• Instead, he insisted that intelligence is influenced by a number of factors,

changes over time and can only be compared among children with
similar backgrounds.

• Binet's Warnings About Possible Misuse of Intelligence Testing

1) Do not and should not be used to measure innate intelligences.

2) Intelligence testing should not be used to label individuals.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

• Binet-Simon Scale was brought to the United States, where it generated

considerable interest.

• Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original

test and standardized it using a sample of American participants.

• This adapted test, 1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
became the standard intelligence test used in the U.S.
• The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the
intelligence quotient (or IQ), to represent an individual's score on the
test. Stern given the term “IQ”

• This score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by their
chronological age, and then multiplying this number by 100.

IQ = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) × 100

• For example, a child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of

10 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 x 100).
• Thus, the SB5 provides a number of different perspectives on the
cognitive functioning of an examinee: 10 subtest scores, three IQ scores
(the familiar Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, and Nonverbal IQ), as well as five
factor scores.

• Fluid Reasoning,
• Knowledge,
• Quantitative Reasoning,
• Visual-Spatial Processing,
• Working Memory

• The IQ and factor scores are normed to a mean of 100 and SD of 15.
• Army Alpha And Beta Tests

• During World War, U.S. Army officials were faced with the monumental
task of screening an enormous number of army recruits.

• In 1917, as president of the APA and chair of the Committee on the

Psychological Examination of Recruits, psychologist Robert Yerkes
developed two tests known as the Army Alpha and Beta tests.

• The Army Alpha was designed as a written test (litterate), while the
Army Beta was administered orally in cases where recruits were unable
to read (illiterate).
• The tests were administered to over two million soldiers in an effort to
help the army determine which men were well suited to specific
positions and leadership roles.

• At the end of WW1, the tests remained in use in a wide variety of

situations outside of the military with individuals of all ages,
backgrounds and nationalities.

• For example, IQ tests were used to screen new immigrants as they

entered the United States at Ellis Island.
2. THE WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALES

• The next development in the history of intelligence testing was the

creation of a new measurement instrument by American psychologist
David Wechsler.

• Much like Binet, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved a number

of different mental abilities, describing intelligence as, "the global
capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with his environment“.

• Dissatisfied with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet, he published his

new intelligence test known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) in 1955.
• Wechsler also developed two different tests specifically for use with
children:

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI).

• The adult version of the test has been revised,like WAIS-III (16-90 years
11 months)
• The WAIS-III contains 14 subtests on two scales and provides three
scores: a composite IQ score, a verbal IQ score and a performance IQ
score.

• Subtest scores on the WAIS-III can be useful in identifying learning

disabilities, such as cases where a low score on some areas combined
with a high score in other areas may indicate that the individual has a
specific learning difficulty.

• The average score is fixed at 100, with two-thirds of scores lying in the
normal range between 85 and 115.
• The WAIS-IV is a significant revision of the WAIS-III, even though
many of the previous items were retained.

• The most significant changes include the addition of two subtests, a

simplified test structure, and an emphasis on index scores that provide a
sharper demarcation of discrete domains of cognitive functions.

• In addition, the WAIS-IV abandons the familiar bifurcation of

intelligence into Verbal IQ and Performance IQ, preferring instead the
fourfold breakdown.
 Verbal Comprehension Index
• Similarities
 Working Memory Index
• Vocabulary
• Digit Span
• Information
• Arithmetic

 Perceptual Reasoning Index  Processing Speed Index

• Block Design • Symbol Search
• Matrix Reasoning • Coding
• Visual Puzzles
• Scoring & Subtests

• There are four index scores representing major components of

intelligence:

Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)

Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
Working Memory Index (WMI)
Processing Speed Index (PSI)
• Two broad scores are also generated, which can be used to summarize
general intellectual abilities:

Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), based on the total combined performance of the

VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI

General Ability Index (GAI), based only on the six subtests that
comprise the VCI and PRI

• Normed to a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15,

• Today, there are three Wechsler intelligence tests, the

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV): 16-90

years 11 months

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fifth Edition (WISC-V):- 6-16

years

• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth

Edition (WPPSI-IV): 2 years 6 months to 7 years 7 months
3. KAUFMAN BRIEF INTELLIGENCE TEST

• Alan Kaufman responded to the need for a brief, easily administered

screening measure of intelligence by developing the Kaufman Brief
Intelligence Test (K-BIT).

• The KBIT-2 consists of a Verbal or Crystallized scale that includes

two types of items (Verbal Knowledge and Riddles) and a Nonverbal
or Fluid Scale that consists of Matrices items.

• The KBIT-2 is normed for examinees ages 4 to 90 and can be

administered in approximately 20 minutes.
• The test yields standard scores with means of 100 and standard
deviation of 15 for Verbal, Nonverbal, and combined scores.

• In spite of the comparability of these scoring dimensions with well

known intelligence tests, the KBIT-2 authors make it clear that their
instrument is not intended as a substitute for traditional approaches
(e.g., WPPSI-III, KABC-2, WISC-IV, or SB5).

• The KBIT-2 is mainly a screening test useful in signaling the need for
more extensive assessment.
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

• It was developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s and was published
in 1983, during a time when IQ was largely a Wechsler-Binet
monopoly.

• This scale intended to bridge the gap between theories of intelligence

and measures of intelligence.
• The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC, 1983) is in
line with the information processing theory of Das (1984) and Luria
(1966).

• The test comprises 7 tests of Simultaneous Processing, 3 subtests of

Sequential Processing and 6 subtests of Achievement Scale.

• The mean and SD of all these scores are set at 100 and 15 respectively.

• The second edition of the K-ABC (K-ABC-II) was published in 2004.

4. RAVEN'S PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (culture fair)

• First introduced in 1938, Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) is a

nonverbal test of inductive reasoning based on figural stimuli.

• This test has been very popular in basic research and is also used in some
institutional settings for purposes of intellectual screening.

• RPM was originally designed as a measure of Spearman's g factor

(Raven, 1938).
• In particular, to correctly answer items on the RPM, examinees must
identify a recurring pattern or relationship between figural stimuli
organized in a 3 x 3 matrix.

• The items are arranged in order of increasing difficulty, hence the

reference to progressive matrices.

• The Standard Progressive Matrices is normed for examinees from 6 years

and up, although most of the items are so difficult that the test is best
suited for adults.

• This test consists of 60 items grouped into 5 sets of 12 progressions.

• The Advanced Progressive Matrices is similar to the Standard version
but has a higher ceiling. (12 years and up.)

• The Advanced version consists of 12 problems in Set I and 36 problems

in Set II.

• The Coloured Progressive Matrices is a 36- item test designed for

children from 5 to 11 years of age.

• Raven incorporated colors into this version of the test to help hold the
attention of the young children.
• The test is a nonverbal one. Use of language is restricted only to giving
instructions to the test-taker.

• Once the test-taker understands his task, he does not require language
anymore for solving the problems.

• Therefore the RPM is best suited for testing persons who do not know
English.

• Thus, culture's influence is kept at minimum.

• The test can be administered individually or in groups.

5. BHATIA BATTERY OF INTELLIGENCE TEST

• Chandra Mohan Bhatia, former director of Uttar Pradesh Mano

Vigyanshala, constructed this test for Indian Population in 1955.

Five Sub-Tests:
1. Koh's Block Design
2. Alexander Pass a Long
3. Pattern Drawing Test
4. Immediate Memory Test
5. Picture Construction Test
• Standardization of 5 subtests was done for over 4 years in village &
cities in place of cross cultural settings

• Total Maximum time:1 hour, and Total Maximum score: 95

1. Koh's Block Design Test-

• There is one card on every subject upon which depicted a colour

design.

• The Subject or the examinee see design and makes a similar one out of
the block as shown the figure below.
• These designs become correspondingly more a more complex, having
been simple at the start.
2. Alexander Pass Along Test- The Bhatia battery also includes
Alexander Pass Along Test, there are some designs.

• The subject shifts coloured pieces in an open box and places them
similar design.
3. Pattern Drawing Test- This test has been developed by Dr. Bhatia
himself.
• In this there are eight cards on each of which there is a particular
form.
• The subject draw particular figure of pattern after seeing this form.

• It requires a subject to draw a series of eight increasing-difficulty

patterns on a card without repeating lines or lifting the pencil,
assessing spatial ability, coordination, and motor skills within
specific time limits
4. Immediate Memory Test- Some digits are recited, which are
immediately repeated by the subject.

• This activity throes some light on the immediate memory of the

subject.

5. Picture Construction Test:- In this sub-test, the pictures relating to the

Indian rural life are fragmented into 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 pieces respectively.

• At one time, Pieces of a picture are placed before the subject who puts
them in order and constructs the picture.
SEGUIN FORM BOARD TEST (SFBT):

• The Seguin Form Board Test is based on the single factor theory of
intelligence, measures speed and accuracy.

• It is useful in evaluating a child's eye-hand co-ordination, shape-

concept, visual perception and cognitive ability.

• The test primarily used to assess visuo-motor skills.

• It includes Gesell figures where in the child is ask to copy ten

geometrical figures to evaluate visuo-motor ability.
• Test materials consist of ten differently shaped wooden blocks and a
large form board with recessed corresponding shapes.

1. One of the earliest performance tests developed by Seguin, a French

physician in 1856.
2. Indian adoption was done by J Bharatraj (India adaption; Bharatraj
1971)
3. It is used to assess the IQ of Children between 3-11 years of age and
adults with Intellectual disability.
4. Ideal for Non-verbal children used particularly in small children and
supported with other tests.
6. Originally designed for use with intellectually disabled children as
initial task in sensory-motor training.
7. Western norms were given RB Cattell
8. Indian norms by SK Goel & J Bharat Raj.

• The form board consisting of 10 different geometric shaped wooden

blocks

• Examine should note down time in seconds for every trial and the total
seconds of all three trials without child's knowledge.
• Speed is stressed at the start of the test, with no further between cues
or assistance being provided to the child.

• Mental age is assessed by calculating the shortest time taken of the

three trials or by calculating the total time taken by the person and
mental age is seen by the table for scoring.

• Formula for calculating IQ:

IQ= MA/CA x 100

 ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
• Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct systems
that show intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent processing of
information.

• Chess-playing programs, which now can beat most humans, are examples
of artificial intelligence.

• AI: Attempt to make computers demonstrate intelligent cognitive

performance, regardless of whether the process resembles human
cognitive processing.
• Computer programs have been developed both to simulate human
intelligence and to exceed it.

• In many ways, computer programs have been created with the

intention of solving problems faster and more efficiently than humans.

• Much of early information-processing research centered on work

based on computer simulations of human intelligence as well as
computer systems that use optimal methods to solve tasks.
• Programs of both kinds can be classified as examples of artificial
intelligence (AI), or intelligence in symbol-processing systems such as
computers.

• Computers cannot actually think; they must be programmed to behave as

though they are thinking.

• That is, they must be programmed to simulate cognitive processes.

• In this way, they give us insight into the details of how people process
information cognitively.

• Essentially, computers are just pieces of hardware — physical

components of equipment—that respond to instructions.

• Other kinds of hardware (other pieces of equipment) also respond to

instructions.

• For example, if you can figure out how to give the instructions, a DVR
(digital video recorder) will respond to your instructions and will do
what you tell it to do.
• What makes computers so interesting to researchers is that they can be
given highly complex instructions (computer programs, more commonly
known as software).

• Programs tell the computer how to respond to new information.

• Before we consider any intelligent programs, we need to consider

seriously the issue of what, if anything, would lead us to describe a
computer program as being “intelligent.”
The Turing Test

• Probably the first serious attempt to deal with the issue of whether a
computer program can be intelligent was made by Alan Turing (1963).

• The basic idea behind the Turing Test is whether an observer can
distinguish the performance of a computer from that of a human.

• The test is conducted with a computer, a human respondent, and an

interrogator.

• The interrogator has two different “conversations” with an interactive

computer program.
• The goal of the interrogator is to figure out which of two parties is a
person communicating through the computer, and which is the computer
itself.

• The interrogator can ask the two parties any questions at all.

• However, the computer will try to fool the interrogator into believing
that it is human.

• The human, in contrast, will be trying to show the interrogator that he or

she truly is human.
• The computer passes the Turing Test if an interrogator is unable to
distinguish the computer from the human.

• Often, what researchers are interested in when assessing the

“intelligence” of computers is not their reaction time, which is often
much faster than that of humans.

• They are interested instead in patterns of reaction time, that is, whether
the problems that take the computer relatively longer to solve also take
human participants relatively longer.

• Sometimes, the goal of a computer model is not to match human

performance but to exceed it.
• In this case, maximum AI, rather than simulation of human intelligence,
is the goal of the program.

• The criterion of whether computer performance matches that of humans

is no longer relevant.

• Instead, the criterion of interest is that of how well the computer can
perform the task assigned to it.

• Computer programs that play chess, for example, typically play in a way
that emphasizes “brute force,” or the consideration of all possible
moves without respect to their quality.
• The programs evaluate extremely large numbers of possible moves.

• Many of them are moves humans would never even consider evaluating.

• Using brute force, the IBM program, “Deep Blue,” beat world champion
Gary Kasparov in a 1997 chess match.

• The same brute-force method is used in programs that play checkers.

(Samuel, 1963).

• These programs generally are evaluated in terms of how well they can
beat each other or, even more importantly, human contenders playing
against them.
Expert Systems

• Expert systems are computer programs that can perform the way an
expert does in a fairly specific domain.

• They are not developed to model human intelligence, but to simulate

performance in just one domain, often a narrow one.

• They are mostly based on rules that are followed and worked down like a
decision tree.

• Several programs were developed to diagnose various kinds of medical

disorders, like cancer.
• Such programs are obviously of enormous potential significance, given
the very high costs (financial and personal) of incorrect diagnoses.

• Not only are there expert systems for use by doctors, but there are even
medical expert systems online for use by consumers who would like an
analysis of their symptoms.

• Expert systems are used in other areas as well, for example in banks.

• The processing of small mortgages is relatively expensive for banks

because a lot of factors need to be considered.
• If the data are fed into a computer, however, an expert system makes a
decision about the mortgage application based on rules it was
programmed with.

• There is one expert system with which you may have made some
experiences yourself: Microsoft Windows offers troubleshooting through
the “help section” where you can enter into a dialogue with the system in
order to figure out a solution to your particular problem.

• Reflecting on your own experiences with computerized troubleshooting

processes, you can see the strengths but also weaknesses of expert
systems.
• One has to be cautious in the use of expert systems.

• Because patients generally do not have the knowledge their doctors

have, their use of expert systems, such as online ones, may lead them to
incorrect conclusions about what illnesses they suffer.

• In medicine, patient use of the Internet is no substitute for the judgment

of a medical doctor.

• The application of expertise to problem solving generally involves

converging on a single correct solution from a broad range of
possibilities.
• A complementary asset to expertise in problem solving involves
creativity.

• Here, an individual extends the range of possibilities to consider never-

before-explored options.

• In fact, many problems can be solved only by inventing or discovering

strategies to answer a complex question.