Chapter 2.

Circuit Elements
Contents
2.1 Voltage and Current Sources
2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)
2.3 Construction of a Circuit Model
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
2.5 Analysis of a Circuit Containing
Dependent Sources

Objectives
1. 瞭解理想的基本電路元件的符號與特性：獨立電壓與
電流源、相依電壓與電流源、電阻器。
2. 能知道歐姆定律、克希荷夫電流定律、克希荷夫電壓
定律的使用情況，並利用此三種定律來分析簡易電路。
3. 瞭解如何計算簡易電路中各元件的功率，並且能夠判
斷整個電路是否保持功率守恆。
Chapter 2 1
 Five Ideal Basic Circuit Elements

• Voltage sources
• Current sources
• Resistors
• Inductors
• Capacitors

Chapter 2 2
 Electrical Safety

Chapter 2 3
 Practical Perspective – Electrical Safety

Chapter 2 4
 Section 2.1 Voltage and Current Sources
電源(electrical source) ：
1. 可將非電能轉為電能或將電能轉為非電能的一種裝置。
2. 具有提供功率或是吸收功率的特質。
3. 通常將理想電壓源及理想電流源當成電路的基本元件。
理想電壓源(ideal voltage source) :
不論流過其端點之電流大小為何，在其兩端電壓維持在規定值的電路
元件。

理想電流源(ideal current source) :

不論兩端電壓多大，在其兩端內之
電流維持在規定值的電路元件。

獨立電源(independent source) :
會依規定供給電路電壓或電流值
，不需仰賴電路中的其他電壓或
電流。

Chapter 2 5
 Dependent Source

相依電源(dependent source)或
受控電源(controlled sources):
所提供給電路的電壓或電流值，需
仰賴電路中的其他電壓或電流。
VCVS VCCS

1. 相依電源通常用菱形符號來表示
2. 電壓源以極性+-標示，電流源以方
向標示。
3. 因受電路中其他電壓或電流所控
制，共有四種組合，如右圖所示
。

CCVS CCCS
UNITS for , g , r ,  ? 相依電壓源 相依電流源
Chapter 2 6
 Active Elements Passive Elements

• A dependent source is an
active element in which the
source quantity is controlled
by another voltage or
current.
Independent Dependant
sources sources • They have four different
types: VCVS, CCVS, VCCS,
CCCS. Keep in minds the
signs of dependent sources.

Chapter 2 7
 • Passive elements : cannot generate electric energy
– Resistors
– Capacitors
– Inductors
• Active elements : can generate electric energy
– Voltage and current sources
• batteries
– Operational amplifiers
– Generators

Chapter 2 8
 Voltmeters and Ammeters

Direct-reading Digital meter

(analog) meter
Chapter 2 9
 Example 2.1 Testing Interconnections of Ideal Sources

State which interconnections

are permissible and which
violate the constraints
imposed by the ideal sources.

Chapter 2 10
Chapter 2 11
 Example 2.2 Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent
and Dependent Sources

State which interconnections

are valid and which violate
the constraints imposed by
the ideal sources.

Chapter 2 12
Chapter 2 13
 Examples:
Transistor, model, and transistor amplifier

Chapter 2 14
 Assessment Problems 2.1

a) What value of vg is required in order for the

interconnection to be valid?
b) For this value of vg , find the power
associated with the 8 A source.

ANSWER: (a) −2 V; (b) −16 W (16 W delivered).

Chapter 2 15
15
 Section 2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)
• Resistance – capacity of materials to impede
the flow of current (the flow of electric charge).

l
R
A

Ohm-meters

resistor circuit symbol

Chapter 2 16
 Examples of Resistivities

聚苯乙烯(塑膠材料)

• Some amount of electric energy is converted to

thermal energy and dissipated in the form of
heat.
• Examples of useful electric devices
– Stoves, toasters, irons, space heaters
Chapter 2 17
 Fixed resistors: (a) wire-wound type (b) carbon film
type (or composition) 碳薄膜

Chapter 2 18
 Carbon composition
resistors

¼ - watt metal film

resistor, 6mm long.

Chapter 2 19
 Wirewound resistor with (a) an adjustable center tap.
(b) a fixed tap.

Chapter 2 20
 Variable resistor (a) general symbol
(b) potentiometer

Variable resistor (a) composition type (b) slider pot

Chapter 2 21
 Resistors in a thick-film circuit
- surface mounted or integrated resistors

Chapter 2 22
 Georg Simon Ohm
(1787-1854), who
determined Ohm’s law
in 1827.

• Ohm’s law
v
vi v  iR R
i
• The unit of resistance R is ohm ()
1  = 1V/A
Ex. R of a 10-m length of TV cable is 2 m.
Chapter 2 23
 Relationship between the directions of v and i

v  ia  R
ia  ib
v  ib  R
Chapter 2 24
 The i-v characteristic of (a) a linear resistor
(b) a nonlinear resistor

Ohm’s law
v  iR

Ex. Lightbulb, diode

Chapter 2 25
 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct
electric current, measured in mhos or siemens (S).
1 i
G  1 S = 1A/V
R v
i  Gv
2 2
v i
p  vi  i R 
2
 Gv 
2 Werner von Siemens
(1816-1892)
R G
The power dissipated in a resistor is
• a nonlinear function of either current or voltage.
• always positive since R and G are positive.  passive element

Chapter 2 26
 • A short circuit is a
circuit element with
resistance approaching
zero (R→0),
v = iR= 0.
• An open circuit is a
circuit element with
resistance approaching
infinity (R→∞),
v
i  lim  0
R  R

Chapter 2 27
 Example 2.3 Calculating Voltage, Current, and
Power for a Simple Resistive Circuit

(a) calculate the

values of v and i.
(b) determine the
power dissipated
in each resistor.

Chapter 2 28
 Section 2.3 Construction of a Circuit Model

Chapter 2 29
 • Rl : lamp resistance
• R1 : connector
• Rc : electrical connection
provided by the case

connector

Chapter 2 30
 General Observations about Modeling

• The electrical behavior of each physical

component is of primary interest.
• Circuit models need to account for undesired
and desired electrical effects.
• Modeling requires approximation.

Chapter 2 31
 Example 2.5 Constructing a Circuit Model Based on
Terminal Measurements

Chapter 2 32
 Section 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or

a resistor.
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Chapter 2 33
 • A network with b branches, n nodes and l
independent loop satisfy the fundamental theorem
of network topology:
b  l  n 1
• Two elements are in series if they exclusively
share a single node and consequently carry the
same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are
connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

Chapter 2 34
 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff(1824-1887)

• Stated two laws in 1847

regarding the current and
voltage
• Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL)

Chapter 2 35
 Kirchhoff’s Current Laws (KCL)

– Algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a

closed boundary) is zero.

i
n 1
n 0

N = number of branches connected to the node

in = nth current entering (or leaving) the node

Chapter 2 36
 Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

i1  (i2 )  i3  i4  (i5 )  0

i1  i3  i4  i2  i5

Chapter 2 37
 Applying KCL to a closed boundary.

Chapter 2 38
 Current sources in parallel: (a) original circuit,
(b) equivalent circuit

How about two current sources in series?

Chapter 2 39
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Laws (KVL)

– Algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path

(or loop) is zero.

v
m 1
m 0

N = number of voltages in the loop

vm = mth voltage

Chapter 2 40
 A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

 v1  v2  v3  v4  v5  0

v2  v3  v5  v1  v4

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises.

Chapter 2 41
 Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit,
(b) equivalent circuit

How about two voltage sources in parallel?

Chapter 2 42
 Parallel and Series Voltage and Current Sources

Chapter 2 43
 Example 2.6 Using KCL

Sum the currents at each node.

Chapter 2 44
 i1  i2  i4  i5  0
 i1  i2  ia  i3  ib  0
ib  i3  i4  ic  0
ic  ia  i5  0

Chapter 2 45
 Example 2.7 Using KVL
Sum the voltages around each designed path.

Chapter 2 46
  v1  v2  v4  vb  v3  0
 va  v3  v5  0
 v5  vb  v4  vc  v6  0
 va  v1  v2  vc  v7  vd  0
Chapter 2 47
 Example 2.8 Applying Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s
Laws to Find an Unknown Current

(a) find io
(b) test the solution by verifying that the total power
generated equals the total power dissipated.

Chapter 2 48
Chapter 2 49
 Example 2.9 Constructing a Circuit Model Based on
Terminal Measurements

(a) Construct a circuit

model of the device.
(b) Using this circuit
model, predict the
power this device
will deliver to a 10 Ω
resistor.

Chapter 2 50
Chapter 2 51
 Section 2.5 Analysis of a Circuit Containing
Dependent Sources

Chapter 2 52
 Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element.

p1  20(5)  100 W
p2  12(5)  60 W
p3  8(6)  48 W
p4  8(0.2 I )  8(0.2  5)  8 W
p1  p2  p3  p4  100  60  48  8  0
Chapter 2 53
 Example 2.10 Applying Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s
Laws to Find an Unknown Voltage

• Find vo
• Show that the solution is consistent with the constraint
that the total power developed in the circuit equals the
total power dissipated.
Chapter 2 54
 Example 2.11 Applying Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s
Laws in an Amplifier Circuit

• Develop the equations

needed to determine
the current in each
element.
• Devise a formula for
computing iB in terms
of the circuit element
values.

Chapter 2 55
 (KCL)

Amplifier
(Controlling variable)

(KVL & Ohm’s law)

Chapter 2 56
56