MODULE: 3

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Classification of magnetic materials, concept of ferromagnetism, saturation

magnetization, Curie and Neel temperature.
• Temperature dependence of conductivity materials.
• Magnetostriction, magnetic anisotropy, spin-orbit interaction.
• Superconductivity.
 MAGNETISM

• Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material exerts either an attractive or a repulsive

force on another.
• The basic source of magnetic force is the movement of electrically charged particles. Thus
magnetic behavior of a material can be traced to the structure of atoms.
• Electrons in atoms have orbital motion and its own
spin around the nucleus. These cause separate magnetic
moments, which contribute to the magnetic behavior of
materials. Thus every material can respond to a magnetic
field.
• However, the manner in which a material responds
depend much on its atomic structure, and determines
whether a material will be strongly or weakly magnetic.
2
 MAGNETISM

Why not all materials are magnets

• As every material consists spinning electrons, each of them could be a magnet. Fortunately,
not so!
• First: according to Pauli exclusion rule, two electrons with same energy level must have
opposite spins – thus so are their magnetic moments, which cancel out each other.
• Second: orbital moments of electrons also cancel out each other – thus no net magnetic
moments if there is no unpaired electron(s).
• Some elements such as transition elements, lanthanides, and actinides have a net magnetic
moment since some of their energy levels have an unpaired electron.

3
MAGNETISM

4
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

A magnetic field is produced whenever

there is electrical charge in motion.

5
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

How electric fields and magnetic fields related

• Faraday’s Law: Changing magnetic field induces electric field.

• Ampère’s Law: Electric current (and changing electric field) induces magnetic field.

6
 MAGNETIC FIELD

• A magnetic field is a region of space around a magnet, a moving charge, or a current-

carrying conductor in which another moving charge or magnetic material experiences a
force.

Sources of Magnetic Field

[Link] magnets → produce magnetic fields due to aligned electron spins.
[Link] charges (currents) → e.g., wire carrying current.
[Link] electric fields → via Maxwell’s correction (displacement current)

7
MAGNETIC FIELD

8
MAGNETIC FIELD

9
 MAGNETIZATION

• Magnetization is a measure of how strongly a material is magnetized when placed in an

external magnetic field.
• Magnetization is proportional to the applied magnetic field.

Magnetic Susceptibility (χm)

10
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Magnetic materials are classified based on how they respond to an applied magnetic field.
The key property is magnetic susceptibility (χm).

1. Diamagnetic Materials
2. Paramagnetic Materials
3. Ferromagnetic Materials
4. Antiferromagnetic Materials
5. Ferrimagnetic Materials

11
 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• The permanent dipoles are absent in Diamagnetic materials. Magnetism is very weak; exists
ONLY in presence of an external field, non-permanent.
• Atoms have no magnetic moment when there is no applied field. Under the influence of an
applied field (H), produces a magnetization (M) in the opposite direction to that of the applied
field.
• Applied external field acts on atoms of a material, slightly unbalancing their orbiting electrons,
and creates small magnetic dipoles within atoms which oppose the applied field. This action
produces a negative magnetic effect known as diamagnetism.

12
 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• They are repelled by the applied magnetic field. Antiparallel alignment of the atomic
magnetic moment. This accounts for the weak and negative magnetic susceptibility.
• In a diamagnetic material the value of Susceptibility is independent of temperature.
• Thus the relative permeability is less than unity i.e. magnetic susceptibility is negative, and
is in order of -10-5.
• Materials such as Cu, Ag, Si, Ag and alumina are diamagnetic at room temperature.

13
 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Slightly stronger; when an external field is applied dipoles line-up with the field, resulting
in a positive magnetization. However, the dipoles do not interact.
• Materials which exhibit a small positive magnetic susceptibility in the presence of a
magnetic field are called para-magnetic, and the effect is termed as para-magnetism.
• In the absence of an external field, the orientations of atomic magnetic moments are
random leading to no net magnetization.
• When an external field is applied dipoles line-up with the field, resulting in a positive
magnetization.

14
 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• However, because the dipoles do not interact, extremely large magnetic fields are required
to align all of the dipoles.
• In addition, the effect is lost as soon as the magnetic field is removed.
• Since thermal agitation randomizes the directions of the magnetic dipoles, an increase in
temperature decreases the paramagnetic effect.
• Para-magnetism is produced in many materials like aluminium, calcium, titanium, alloys
of copper.
• Magnetic susceptibility of these materials is slightly positive, and lies in the range +10-5 to
+10-2.

15
 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Both dia- and para- magnetic materials are considered as non-magnetic because they exhibit
magnetization only in presence of an external field.
• Certain materials possess permanent magnetic moments even in the absence of an external
field.
• This is result of permanent unpaired dipoles formed from unfilled energy levels.
• These dipoles can easily line-up with the imposed magnetic field due to the exchange
interaction or mutual reinforcement of the dipoles. These are chrematistics of ferro-
magnetism.

16
 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• It is the phenomenon in which a material gets magnetized to a very large extent in the
presence of an external field.
• The direction in which the material gets magnetized is the same as that of the
external field.

• Materials with ferro-magnetism (Examples: Fe, Co, Ni, Gd) possess magnetic
susceptibilities approaching 106.

17
 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Above the Curie temperature, ferro-magnetic materials behave as para-magnetic materials

and their susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as
where C – material constant, T – temperature,
Tc – Curie temperature.

• When temperature is greater than Curie temperature then the material gets converted into
paramagnetic.
• They possess the property of Hysteresis.

18
 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• It refers to a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction between any two

dipoles align themselves anti-parallel to each other.
• Since all dipoles are of equal magnitude , the net magnetization is zero.
• Like ferromagnetic materials antiferromagnetic materials also possess dipole moment due to
spin of the electron.
• The opposite alignment of adjacent dipole due to an exchange interaction.

The Alignment of Electrons in Anti-FerromagneticMaterials

19
 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• When the strength of anti-parallel spin magnetic moments is equal, no net spin moment
exists, and resulting susceptibilities are quite small.
• Eg: Mn, Cr, MnO, NiO, CoO, MnCl2
• One noticeable characteristic of anti-ferro-magnets is they attain maximum susceptibility at a
critical temperature called Neel temperature. At temperatures above this, anti-ferro-magnets
become para-magnetic.

Variation of the susceptibility with

temperature in antiferromagnetic
material

20
 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Ferrimagnetism is a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction between any

two dipoles align anti-parallel to each other.
• But since the magnitude of dipoles are not equal.
• The cancellation of magnetic moments become incomplete resulting in a net magnetization in
the material.

The Alignment of Electrons in Ferrimagnetic Materials

21
 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Ferri-magnetism is similar to anti-ferro-magnetism in that the spins of different atoms or ions

line up anti-parallel. However, the spins do not cancel each other out, and a net spin moment
exists.
• Ferrimagnetic materials possess magnetic dipoles moment due to the spin of the electron.
• A Ferrimagnetic material is composed of more state of different transition elements.
• The susceptibility is very Large and +ve.
• Examples:-Nickel,Ferrite and Ferrous ferrite. Some ceramic materials exhibit net
magnetization. Eg: Fe3O4, NiFe2O4, ([Link])Fe2O4, PbFe12O19, Ba Fe12O19, YIG – yttrium
iron garnet Y3Fe5O12.

22
 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Below the Neel temperature, therefore, ferromagnetic materials behave very much like
ferromagnetic materials and are paramagnetic above the Neel temperature.
• These materials exhibit a large but field dependent magnetic susceptibility similar to ferro-
magnets.
• They also show Curie-Weiss behavior. As these ceramics are good insulators, electrical
losses are minimal, and hence ferrites have lot of applications in devices such as high
frequency transformers.

23
Variation of susceptibility with temperature in ferrimagnetic materials
SUMMARY

24
 SUMMARY

A periodic table showing the type of magnetic behavior of

25
each element at room temperature
SUMMARY

A summary of the different types of magnetic behavior

M= Magnetic Diplole

26
 SATURATION MAGNETIZATION ( 𝑀𝑠 )

• Saturation magnetization is the maximum magnetization that a magnetic material can

achieve when all its magnetic dipoles are fully aligned with the external magnetic field.
• In a ferromagnetic material (like iron, cobalt, nickel), atomic dipoles normally form
magnetic domains oriented in random directions.
• When an external field (𝐻) is applied, these domains gradually align.
• At a certain field strength, all domains are aligned parallel → magnetization cannot
increase further.
• This state is called saturation, and the magnetization is 𝑀𝑠.

27
SATURATION MAGNETIZATION ( 𝑀𝑠 )

Unit: A/m

28
SATURATION MAGNETIZATION ( 𝑀𝑠 )

The saturation Magnetisation (JS) and Curie

temperature of a range of magnetic materials

29
 CURIE TEMPERATURE (𝑇𝐶)

• The Curie temperature is the critical temperature above which a ferromagnetic or

ferrimagnetic material loses its spontaneous magnetization and becomes
paramagnetic.

30
 NÉEL TEMPERATURE (𝑇𝑁 )

• The Néel temperature is the critical temperature above which an antiferromagnetic

material loses its antiparallel spin ordering and becomes paramagnetic.

31
 SUMMARY

Property Curie Temperature (TC) Néel Temperature (TN)

Ferromagnetic &
Applies to Antiferromagnetic materials
Ferrimagnetic materials
Strong spontaneous
Below transition Antiparallel spins (net M=0)
magnetization
Above transition Paramagnetic Paramagnetic
Example Fe: 770 °C MnO: 122 K

32
SUMMARY

33
 CURIE – WEISS LAW FOR FERROMAGNETICS

• In ferromagnetic materials (like Fe, Co, Ni), atoms have strong exchange interactions that align spins in
the same direction → spontaneous magnetization below a critical temperature.
• Above Curie Temperature (Tc)., ferromagnets lose spontaneous magnetization and behave like
paramagnets.
Their magnetic susceptibility (χ) then follows the Curie–Weiss law.
• For T > Tc (paramagnetic region of ferromagnets):

It highlights the role of the Weiss molecular

field in ferromagnetism.

34
 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
CONDUCTIVITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The conductivity behavior varies across different temperature ranges

1. At Low Temperature
•At very low T, lattice vibrations (phonons) are weak.
•Magnetic materials (like Fe, Co, Ni) have well-ordered spins (ferro or antiferromagnetic).
•Spin-disorder scattering is minimal → electrons can flow more easily → conductivity is
high.

2. As Temperature Increases
•Lattice vibrations increase → electron–phonon scattering rises, lowering conductivity.
•Magnetic ordering begins to weaken with rising T.
•Spin fluctuations (spin-disorder scattering) grow stronger, further reducing conductivity.

35
 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
CONDUCTIVITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
3. Near Magnetic Transition Temperature
•At the Curie temperature (Tc) for ferromagnets or the Néel temperature (TN) for
antiferromagnets:
• Long-range spin order breaks down.
• Random spin orientations cause maximum scattering of conduction electrons.
• This produces an anomaly (sharp drop or peak) in resistivity/conductivity.

4. Above Transition Temperature (Paramagnetic Region)

•The material loses its magnetic order.
•Conductivity behaves like a normal metal or semiconductor:
• In metals → resistivity increases linearly with T (due to phonon scattering).
• In magnetic semiconductors (like manganites) → conductivity often decreases sharply
(insulating-like behavior).
36
 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
CONDUCTIVITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Summary (Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of Magnetic Materials)

•Low T: High conductivity (ordered spins + weak phonons).

•Rising T: Conductivity decreases (more phonon + spin scattering).
•At Tc/TN: Sudden anomaly/drop in conductivity due to spin disorder.
•Above Tc/TN: Material behaves like a normal conductor/semiconductor.

Temperature reduces conductivity in magnetic materials, mainly by enhancing phonon

scattering and destroying magnetic spin order.

37
 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
CONDUCTIVITY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

38
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

39
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

40
 MAGNETOSTRICTION

• Magnetostriction is the change in shape or dimensions of a ferromagnetic

material when it is placed in a magnetic field.

• It happens because the magnetic field causes the magnetic domains (regions with aligned
spins) to reorient (spin-domain reorientation), which leads to tiny changes in the
atomic spacing.

Types of Magnetostriction:
1. Positive Magnetostriction: Material elongates in the direction of the magnetic field. Example: Iron
(Fe).
2. Negative Magnetostriction : Material contracts along the field direction. Example: Nickel (Ni).

41
 MAGNETOSTRICTION

Mechanism

1. A ferromagnetic material consists of magnetic domains (tiny regions where spins

are aligned).
2. Without a field → domains are randomly oriented → no net strain.
3. With an applied magnetic field → domains rotate and align with the field.
4. This alignment alters the lattice spacing slightly, leading to expansion or
contraction of the material.

A ferromagnetic material slightly stretches or shrinks when magnetized.

42
 MAGNETOSTRICTION COEFFICIENT ( Λ)

The fractional change in length due to magnetostriction

measured as strain is:

43
 APPLICATIONS

Magnetostriction Effect in Practice:

• The strain caused by magnetostriction can generate mechanical vibrations when the
magnetic field is alternating (AC).
• This effect is useful for producing ultrasonic waves in magnetostrictive transducers.

Applications of Magnetostriction

•Magnetostrictive sensors → measure stress, torque, or pressure.

•Ultrasonic transducers → generate high-frequency sound waves.
•Actuators → precise positioning in micro/nano devices.
•Sonar systems → underwater detection using magnetostrictive transducers.
•Magnetostrictive memory materials (Terfenol-D) → used in smart materials.
44
 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY

Magnetic anisotropy is the property of a magnetic material where the energy required
to magnetize it depends on the direction of magnetization inside the crystal or
material.
Magnetic anisotropy is a phenomenon where a material's magnetic properties, like ease of
magnetization, vary depending on direction.

45
 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY

• Magnetic anisotropy arises because of the

interaction between electron spins and the
crystal lattice (called spin–orbit coupling).

• Electrons prefer to align along certain

crystallographic directions where energy is
minimized.

46
 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY

This shows how magnetic anisotropy

energy varies with direction of
magnetization.

•Red dashed lines (0° and 180°):

Easy axes → magnetization prefers to
align here (lowest energy).
•Blue dashed line (90°): Hard axis →
magnetization along this direction costs
maximum energy.
47
 TYPES OF MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY

[Link] Anisotropy
1. Originates from the crystal structure.
2. Example: In cubic crystals (Fe, Ni), certain crystallographic axes are easy axes.
[Link] Anisotropy
1. Caused by the shape of the material (ellipsoid, thin film, nanowire).
2. Magnetization tends to align along the longer dimension to reduce demagnetizing fields.
[Link]/ Magnetoelastic Anisotropy
1. Mechanical stress (tensile or compressive) changes magnetic domain alignment.
2. Related to magnetostriction.
[Link] Anisotropy (Exchange Bias)
1. Occurs at interfaces between ferromagnets and antiferromagnets.
2. Important in spintronics and magnetic storage devices.

48
 NO ANISOTROPY

If a magnetic material had no anisotropy:

• Magnetization would be equally easy in all directions.
• The magnetic anisotropy energy (E(θ)E(\theta)E(θ)) would be flat/constant, independent of
angle θ.
• There would be no “easy axis” or “hard axis.”

With no anisotropy, a magnetic material would behave like an isotropic

paramagnet, where magnetization has no preferred orientation → no
stable domains, no hysteresis, and no permanent magnetization.

49
 SUPERPARAMAGNETISM (NO ANISOTROPY)

• Superparamagnetism is a magnetic behavior observed in ultrafine ferromagnetic or

ferrimagnetic nanoparticles (typically < 10–20 nm).
• Because the particle is so small, thermal fluctuations (kBT) can randomly flip the
particle’s magnetization direction
Without an external magnetic field, the average magnetization is zero, just like a paramagnet.

But when a field is applied, the response is much stronger than ordinary paramagnets → hence the
name “superparamagnetism.”

Superparamagnetism = giant paramagnetic behavior of magnetic nanoparticles, where

thermal energy randomly flips magnetization, removing hysteresis but giving very high
susceptibility.

50
 HYSTERESIS

• The property of Ferromagnetic materials, which gives the relation between magnetization
and the strength of the magnetic field, is called hysteresis.

• The B-H curve is the curve showing

the variation of magnetic flux density 𝑩
with the magnetising field 𝑯 for a
material.
• Magnetising field,
𝑯= 𝑵 𝒊/𝑳
• Magnetic flux density,
𝑩= 𝝁 𝑯 where 𝝁 is the
absolute permeability of the
material
51
 HYSTERESIS

• When the core is unmagnetised both B and H

will be at zero.
• The magnetization of the specimen increases
from zero to higher values and attains its
maximum value at a point referred to as
Saturation Magnetization.
• Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a
decrease in the applied field back to zero
results residual magnetization.
• Further if the Magnetic field changes
from zero to negative values, the induced
magnetization becomes zero is termed as
coercivity, Hc. This must be applied anti-
parallel to the original field.
52
 HYSTERESIS LOSS

• Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of energy in

the form of heat.
• The loss of heat is proportional to the area under the
magnetic hysteresis loop. It is called Hysteresis loss.
• It is due to the reversal of magnetization of core
whenever it is subjected to alternating magnetizing
force.
• Each time the magnetic field reverses, the domain walls move
and spins rotate. Due to this, some energy is lost in each
cycle.
• This energy appears as heat, which can reduce efficiency (e.g.,
in transformers, motors).
Hysteresis loss = energy lost per magnetization cycle, proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop, and increases with frequency and flux density.
53
 SOFT MAGNET AND HARD MAGNET

• Soft magnets → Materials that are easily magnetized and demagnetized.

• Hard magnets → Materials that are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize, but they retain
magnetization strongly once magnetized.
Property Soft Magnet Hard Magnet
Coercivity (Hc) Low High
Residual magnetization (Br) Low High
Hysteresis loss Low (narrow loop) High (wide loop)
Magnetic permeability High (easy to magnetize) Low
Saturation magnetization Achieved quickly Requires strong fields

Domain wall movement Easy Difficult (strongly pinned)

Retention of magnetization Poor (loses quickly) Strong (permanent)

54
 SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION

• Spin–orbit interaction (SOI) in magnetic materials couples the electron’s spin degree of
freedom with its orbital motion.
• An electron moving in the electric field of the atomic nucleus experiences an effective
magnetic field (in its rest frame).
• The electron’s spin magnetic moment interacts with this effective field, giving rise to spin–
orbit coupling (SOC).
• Mathematically, the Hamiltonian term is usually expressed as:

Spin–orbit interaction in magnetic materials is the bridge between electron spin, orbital motion, and the crystal
lattice. It governs magnetic anisotropy, exotic spin textures, magnetotransport, and many spintronic phenomena.
55
 SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION

• Quantum mechanics lead to understanding of the quantization of angular momentum of

elementary particles.
• Electrons have angular momentum:
– from orbital motion around the nucleus;
– from spin of the electron

56
 SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION

Spin–orbit interaction strongly influences magnetic ordering and anisotropy:

• Magnetic anisotropy:
SOC links the spin orientation to the crystal lattice via orbital motion, leading to preferred
directions of magnetization (easy axis/hard axis). This determines the stability of
magnetic domains.
• Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy (MAE):
Arises directly from SOC and defines how much energy is needed to rotate the
magnetization away from its easy axis.
• Magnetostriction:
Coupling of magnetic and elastic properties also comes from SOC, since lattice distortions
modify orbital states and thus spin orientation.

57
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY IN MAGNECTIC MATERIALS

• Superconductivity is the state in which a material shows zero electrical resistance

and expels magnetic flux below a critical temperature Tc.
• Magnetism is the long-range ordering of electron spins (ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic,
ferrimagnetic).
• Superconductivity in magnetic materials means the coexistence or competition of
superconductivity and magnetism.

These two phenomena are opposites, , under special conditions, both can exist together, leading
to exotic physics and useful applications (spintronics, quantum devices, advanced magnets).
• Superconductivity requires electrons to form Cooper pairs (usually opposite spins).
• Magnetism tends to align electron spins parallel (ferromagnetism) or in ordered patterns.
• So, magnetism usually destroys superconductivity.
58
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY IN MAGNECTIC MATERIALS

In magnetic materials, superconductivity can still exist in special cases

[Link] superconductors
1. Antiferromagnetism doesn’t strongly break Cooper pairs (net magnetization cancels).
2. Example: High-Tc cuprates, iron-based superconductors.
[Link] superconductors
1. Rare materials where superconductivity coexists with ferromagnetism due to spin-triplet pairing
(Cooper pairs with parallel spins).
2. Examples: UGe2, URhGe, UCoGe (uranium-based compounds).
[Link] superconductors (rare-earth compounds)
1. Both magnetism (from localized rare-earth ions) and superconductivity (from conduction
electrons) can coexist.
2. Example: RERh4B4, REMo6S8 (RE = rare earth).
[Link] SC–FM structures
1. Artificially engineered materials combining superconductors and ferromagnets (Nb/Co multilayers).
2. Basis of superconducting spintronics. 59
PROBLEMS

60
PROBLEMS

61
PROBLEMS

62