 Ethics is a set of principles that influences our decisions and determines the

direction and goal of our lives.

 A society's own set of ethical norms serves as a guide for its people's behavior,
decisions, and actions.
o The preservation of principles and ideals is also a part of it.
o It takes more than just following a tradition or custom, rather, it
necessitates research and assessment of these rules in the context of
universal truths.
What is the Dimension of Ethics?

 Dimension of Ethics
o Descriptive Ethics:
 It is concerned with what individuals genuinely perceive to be correct or
incorrect.
 It gives us a broad picture of how people live their lives, or their life
pattern.
 It provides a history of certain stigmas, traditions, or practices.
o Normative Ethics:
 Normative ethics is also called perspective ethics.
 It is basically intended to establish moral benchmarks that define what
is appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
 It is an effort to find the best yardstick for righteous conduct.
 How individuals should behave is determined by the study of ethical
theory.
o Meta Ethics:
  The issues that decide whether a certain issue or object is morally
correct or wrong are the primary concern of meta ethics.
 It is more concerned with the fairness of morality itself than with
whether a particular conduct is moral or immoral.
 The meta ethics has been divided into two parts by modern
philosophers.
 Non- Cognitivism: According to this conceptual perspective,
whether we categorize anything as right or wrong is a reflection of
our moral knowledge.
 Cognitivism: This way of thinking places a strong focus on how
facts and figures determine what is morally right and wrong.
o Applied Ethics:
 It is the discipline of ethics that examines specific, contentious moral
concerns such as abortion, animal rights, and euthanasia. It is
beneficial to apply understanding of moral concepts to contemporary
issues.
What is the Essence of Ethics?

 At the heart of ethics is a concern about something or someone other than

ourselves, our own desires and self-interest. Ethics is concerned with other
people's interests, with the interests of society, with the ‘ultimate good’. Thus,
when people think ethically they are giving some thought to something beyond
themselves. The essence of ethics can be understood as follows:
o The scope of ethics includes only voluntary human actions. This means
the actions done by humans consciously, deliberately and in view of an end.
It is concerned about that part of human conduct for which humans have
some personal responsibility.
o It is a set of standards that a society places on itself and which helps in
guiding behavior, choices and actions of its members.
o It is concerned about what is right, fair, just or good, about what we ought to
do, not just about what is most acceptable or expedient.
o It endeavors to analyze and evaluate the principles embodied in various
alternatives for conduct and social order.
o It includes study of universal values such as essential equalities of all men
and women, human or natural rights, obedience to the law, concern for
health and safety and, increasingly, also for the natural environment.
What are the Determinants and Consequences of Ethics in Human Action?

 ‘Human action’ is the starting point of ethics. One of the very first points of
consideration in judging the morality or immorality of any act of a person is that
 it must be a conscious human act, before it can have any moral quality
whatsoever.
 Thus, since digestion, growth, movement of blood in the veins, etc. are not under
the control of our will, they are not spoken of as moral acts at all. They are acts of
a human person, but they are not called ‘human acts.
 A human act is one that proceeds from knowledge and free will. If either
adequate knowledge or freedom is lacking in the act of a person, then that act is
not fully human and therefore, not fully moral.
 Thus, the judgment of rightness and wrongness can be passed on only those
actions which are voluntary. They have to be intended by the doer, based on
adequate knowledge, i.e., the act must be voluntary.
 However, there are certain factors that diminish or reduce the voluntariness of
human actions. These are called the impediments to conscious human action.
 Determinants of Ethics in Human Action:
o The actions performed by human beings cannot be genuinely called human
actions, if any of the aforesaid conditions, i.e., ignorance, passion or
violence, are present. This action is not human and hence cannot be
subjected to scrutiny in ethics.
 However, when there is reason or knowledge involved, when the acts are
voluntary, it can be determined whether a given human act is good or
bad. As per moral theologians there are certain determinants of the
moral quality of our actions. These are:
o Nature/Object of the Act:
 One of the criteria of judging the morality/goodness of human acts
is its object/nature. Every action has a particular nature/essence that
makes it different from other actions. An act thus specified may, when
considered in itself, be good, bad, or indifferent. Thus, helping a blind
person across the street is a good act in itself, to blaspheme is bad in
itself, and learning to shoot is in itself an indifferent act and learning to
shoot is in itself an indifferent act.
 However, there are certain types of acts that are called intrinsically
evil/immoral by its very nature, that is, by its inherent moral
meaning. An intrinsically evil act is an act that is always bad, always
sinful. It is never good, never appropriate, and never useful irrespective
of the ulterior intentions of the one acting and the circumstances.
 Reason also attests that some of the human acts by their very
nature are incapable of being good because they radically
contradict the notion of good, for instance, rape, murder of
innocent children, or blasphemy.
  Meanwhile, there are some specific acts such as abortion, embryonic
stem cell research, same sex marriage, euthanasia, etc. that are
considered intrinsically immoral as per moral codes of certain
societies/religion. Even though intentions may sometimes be good, and
circumstances frequently difficult, these acts are considered non-
negotiable and hence punishable by such societies.
 However, such instances of judging morally of an act as evil or
sinful prior to a consideration of the circumstances and intentions
might be questionable, debatable or even invalid in some other
societies.
o Intention/Purpose of the Action:
 Actions may be either good or bad, depending on why we do them.
According to Aristotle and teleological theorists every human
action, no matter how trivial, has some purpose/ motive/intention
behind it. A person has the moral responsibility for all such actions
(deliberate or omissions, doing or withholding from an action, trying or
attempting to bring about a certain result) that involves agent’s
foresight, cause, desire, or motivation. Therefore, the intention of the
person in action is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an
action. The manner in which purpose/intention affects the ethics of an
action is outlined below:
 For a human act to be morally good the agent or doer must have
good intentions.
 The motive of an agent can change an act morally good by nature
into a morally evil act.
 A good intention, no matter how good, does not make something
essentially immoral into something morally good.
 An action that has a good object can become more or less good
because of its purpose.
 An action which is inherently wrong may become a greater or
lesser wrong depending on the purpose of the moral agent.
o Circumstances of the Action:
 Every human act in a concrete order is done under particular
circumstances. Circumstances may therefore affect the morality of an
action and add something to the moral quality. Circumstances of a
human action include such things as the act being done at a particular
time, in a particular place, by a particular agent, in a particular
manner. How the differing circumstances change the rightness or
wrongness of actions can be understood as outlined below:
 Sometimes circumstances affect the morality of the action only in
degree, that is, they contribute to increasing or diminishing the
 moral goodness or evil of human acts. For example, stealing is bad
by object, stealing a rare object/or stealing from a destitute/poor
increases the malice of the action. On the other hand, if a robber
acts like Robin Hood by stealing from the rich to help the poor, his
robberies become less immoral.
 Some circumstances impart a new type of goodness or badness to
an action by the effect of when and where it takes place.
 When: Whether it is done during war or peace. For instance,
there is an increase in the guilt of an intelligence officer who,
when caught by an enemy country at the time of war,
succumbs to threat of violence and discloses highly
confidential information that severely affects national secrets.
 Where: Similarly, where the action takes place can affect its
morality. For instance, a murder in a church/cathedral adds
an additional moral evil to murder itself as it involves the
profanation of a consecrated place of worship and hence the
additional evil of sacrilege.
 Circumstances can also diminish or lessen the agent’s
responsibility. For instance, a woman who kills the person who
attacks her chastity is absolved from the guilt of killing someone.
 Thus, since all human actions occur at a certain time and at a certain place, the
circumstances must always be considered in evaluating the moral quality of any
human act. Meanwhile, it must be understood that ‘a morally good act requires
the goodness of the object, of the end, and of the circumstances together’. If any
one of the three is evil, then the human act in question is evil and should be
avoided.
o Agents that influence/ determine the ethicality of human action:
 Individual personality traits
 Culture or country of the individual
 Organization/ industry
 Consequences of Ethics in Human Action:
o The consequences are the effects caused by an action. Many of our actions,
decisions, and choices of everyday life are made with an eye to the
consequences. Human beings by nature tend to be consequence oriented.
That means we have a tendency to seek intended results and the quality of
these results/consequences depend on how much goodness they contain.
o An action is judged to be good or bad on the basis of its outcome. If other
people suffer, it is wrong. If people benefit, it is right. Consequences, then,
are an important consideration in our analysis of ethical conduct. The cases
 where the consequences of an action are attributable to the doer who is held
responsible for an effect, involve the following conditions:
 If the doer holds notice (even if vaguely) or knows ahead what the
consequences of a particular choice or action will be, he/she is
presumed to have willed the effect. For example, in case of a bad effect,
if a hunter sees an object, but is unsure whether it is a man or a deer.
The hunter anticipates vaguely what the consequences of firing a shot
may be killing of dear or killing of men. If the hunter chooses to shoot
anyhow, he has willed the effect, whether the killing of dear or killing of
men.
 If the actor does not perform the act but causes another one to do it (in
the form of help, encouragement or persuasion), the first person is still
morally responsible for the consequences of the act to the degree that
he or she foresaw those consequences. For instance, if a politician gives
a hate speech that incites communal violence in a sensitive area, he will
be considered guilty of the commission of a wrong act.
 If one remains silent or does not take any action - If a person witnesses
a road accident and refrains from helping the victim in critical
condition, he fails to perform the duty of a good Samaritan therefore, is
guilty of errors of omission and the bad consequences (death of the
victim) that follow.
 Thus, whatever increases, lessens or destroys the liberty and knowledge that are
essential for a moral act also increases, lessens or destroys the responsibility of
the actor.
How do Ethics work in Private and Public Relationships?

 Ethics in Public Relationships:

o Ethics is concerned with notions such as right and wrong, as well as good
and bad human behavior in various social and organizational situations.
o Private Relationship:
 Unlike a politician's or bureaucrat's interaction with the general public
or a doctor's relationship with his patients, a person's private
relationships, such as marriage, family, kinship, and friendship, are
private. Private relationships are more personal.
o Characteristics of private relationships:
 Expecting a spouse to be faithful, loving, and affectionate.
 More tolerance for imperfections.
 They are comparatively long-lasting.
 Private relationships are frequently inherited or granted.
 Generally speaking, personal qualities, universal human values, religion, societal
conventions, and the law of the nation guide ethics in private interactions.
Actions guided by ethics are easier to justify in public. Moral standards and
institutions with religious and constitutional considerations also have an impact
on ethical issues in personal relationships in India.
 Ethics in Public Relationships:
o Public Relations are now becoming a vital function affecting management
decisions and influencing public opinion in every non-profit or profit-making
organization. Monitoring and assessing public opinion as well as preserving
goodwill and understanding between a company and its customers are all
part of the management task of public relations.
o Characteristics of public relationships:
 In public, there are people who are different from dealing with people.
 Public relationships are likely to be instrumental.
 Engagements due to work or benefit.
 Expectation for respect.
 A particular kind of role to be played in public relationships therefore
responsible for what a person says.
 Accountability is what a person says and does.

Meta-Ethics
Meta-ethics is concerned with the problems that determine whether a given subject or
item is morally right or morally wrong. It inquires about our comprehension– how
we perceive whether a decision, action, or purpose is good or negative.

 It focuses on the meaning of ethical concepts in general, rather than the

applied question of ‘what should be done in a specific situation?’ It is not
concerned with whether an action is right or wrong; rather, it is concerned
with the fairness and evilness of morality itself. Naturalism, non-naturalism,
and prescriptivism are the three main theories in meta-ethics.
 Philosophers have been attempting to provide a precise account of meta-ethics
since antiquity. For example, Aristotle proposed that our judgement of good
 and evil is founded on our grasp of other subjects and the relative ethical
wisdom that we passively obtain from it.
 Aristotle also stated that acculturation has a significant impact on our
thoughts and conceptions about a subject. When two or more cultures coexist
in a geographical location, the diverse characteristics of each culture are
absorbed into their everyday lives, broadening their knowledge span and
influencing their understanding of good and evil.
 Modern philosophers are divided on meta-ethics. There are two schools of
thought:
 Non- Cognitivism– This abstract ideology believes that when we label
anything as right or wrong based on our moral knowledge, our
judgement is neither true nor untrue. Non-cognitivists are non-
realists because they do not believe that a specific ontology is required
for meta-ethics
 Cognitivism– This school of thought emphasises the role of facts and
numbers in determining moral good and wrong. Cognitivist are
realists because they explain what kinds of properties or states are
relevant to this subject, what values they possess and why they guide
and motivate one’s decisions and actions.

Normative or Prescriptive Ethics

It is the study of ethical beliefs that govern how individuals should act and
behave in society. Furthermore, it investigates norms for the righteousness and
wrongfulness of the conduct. If someone violates set norms, there are grounds for
punishment as well as an explanation for doing so. The following are some of the
dimensions of normative ethics:

1. Deontology Ethics: It contends that the ideal ethical action protects and
respects the moral rights of those impacted. The fundamental assumption is
that persons have dignity as a result of their human nature or free choice.
Based on such dignity, people have the right to be recognised as goals in
themselves, rather than just as means to other objectives. As a result, means
are more essential than aims. The following are some deontological theories:

 Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Universality and Principle
of reciprocity– By universality, Kant means that a moral rule must be
applied to all individuals (for example, Liberty, Basic Human Rights of
Life and Property), and by reciprocity, he meant “do as you would be
done by” (for example, aid someone in need if you wish to be helped in
the event of hardship).
 Moral absolutism– According to this viewpoint, there exist absolute
standards against which moral questions may be examined to establish
 the rightness and wrongness of actions regardless of circumstances. For
example, if telling a lie is immoral, then the idea of an Ethical lie is
irrelevant in terms of moral constraints.

 Contractarianism- According to this viewpoint, moral rules are those that

are acceptable to all members of society, but they must be objective when
analysing their moral value. For instance, consider John Rawls’ Veil of
Ignorance and Thomas Hobbes’ Social Contract.
 Natural rights theory- This viewpoint believes in the existence of absolute
inherent rights that are bestowed upon humans just by their humanity. John
Locke and Thomas Aquinas (natural right theory) are two examples (Life, liberty
and property rights being unalienable).
 Divine Command theory- It claims that behaviour is justified if God has
ordained that it is right. According to this idea, the rightness of any action is
determined by the fact that it is undertaken as it is a responsibility, not out of
any potential benefits resulting from that activity.

1. Virtue Ethics: Ethical behaviours should be compatible with certain ideal

virtues that allow for the complete development of our humanity. These virtues
are dispositions and habits that enable us to behave in accordance with
our highest potential and on behalf of attribute values such as truth, honesty,
bravery, compassion, and so on. Plato, who defined justice and other virtues as
soul harmony, established the groundwork for it.
According to Plato, a brave man can be brave even if he is never given the opportunity
to demonstrate it. Aristotle defines virtue as the middle ground between two vices,
thus generosity between miserliness and prodigality. Furthermore, he claims for virtue
is a habit, implying that someone who lacks the right virtue but has internal
dispositions can acquire it gradually via practice. The key proponents of virtue ethics
were Plato, Aristotle, and Thomas Aquinas.

1.
1. Egalitarianism Approach- (Approach to Fairness, Justice, and
Equality)- Egalitarianism asserts that all advantages and obligations
should be divided using the following: “Every person should be assigned
a precisely equal share of society’s benefits and burdens.” Today, we
utilise this concept to support affirmative action, such as India’s
reservation system for disadvantaged sectors of society.

 Teleological Ethics- As per this viewpoint, the morality of an act is

determined by the consequence of that action. It indicates that morally right
activity will result in a good outcome, whereas morally wrong conduct will
result in a terrible end. In this viewpoint, the results are more essential than
the methods (process) and hence “ends justify the means“. They can be:
  Altruism– It is good to live for others rather than for oneself.
 Asceticism– It entails abstaining from egoistic pleasures to pursue a spiritual
aim.
 Egoism– The best action/decision is one that maximises one’s own good.
 Consequentialist Libertarianism- Liberty should be maximised.
 Hedonism- It states that the best action/decision is one that maximises
pleasure.
 Intellectualism– The ideal action/decision advances knowledge the most.
 Welfarism– The ideal action/decision enhances economic well-being the most.
 Utilitarianism- The best action/decision is one that results in the greatest
amount of happiness for the largest number of people.
 Situation Ethics- The best action/decision is the one that results in the
greatest amount of love.

Descriptive Ethics
This dimension of ethics is on the less intellectual end of the ethical spectrum. It
gathers knowledge on how people live, observes patterns of events that arise in their
surroundings, and draws broad judgments based on these observations.

 It is an empirical study of people’s moral ideas based on law and

conventions. It investigates the history and evolution of Ethics and provides
documentation of particular taboos, norms, or conventions. Descriptive Ethics
may be seen in Kohlberg’s idea of moral awareness.
 By providing a value-free viewpoint on ethics, descriptive ethics distinguishes
itself as a part of social science rather than human morality. Descriptive
ethics does not begin with preconceived theories and assumptions but
rather prefers to extensively study the subject’s existing facts and
examples, making observations of actual decisions made by moral actors in a
practical world.
 The study of descriptive ethics encompasses a wide range of examinations,
including ethical codes that establish rules and regulations for society,
informal theories on etiquette, legal and arbitration practices, and finally,
observing choices made by ordinary people without the support or advice of a
specialist.

Applied Ethics
This is the theme of ethics that is used in everyday life in a variety of domains of
work and living. It is concerned with the philosophical investigation of specific moral
dilemmas in private and public life including moral judgements. It uses the
 conceptual tools of meta-ethics and normative ethics to investigate specific
difficult subjects such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental
concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, nuclear weapons and so on.

 Engineering ethics, bioethics, geoethics, military ethics, public services ethics,

and corporate ethics are some frequent topics of specialised applied ethics.
Several particular concerns have been raised within this area that demands a
philosophical perspective rather than technical interpretation to satisfy the
morality of human nature.
 Normative Principles in Applied Ethics – These are the most widely utilised
principles in the field of applied ethics. Here are a few examples:
 Social benefit– recognise the extent to which activity has a positive
impact on society.
 Personal benefit– recognise the amount to which activity has a positive
impact on the individual in the issue.
 Principle of paternalism– assisting others in achieving their best
interests when they are unable to do it themselves.
 Principle of harm– do not cause harm to others.
 Principle of benevolence– help families in need.
 Principle of lawfulness– one should not break the law.
 Principle of honesty– do not deceive people
 Principle of justice– recognise a person’s right to due process, fair
compensation for damage done and equitable sharing of benefits.
 Principle of autonomy– recognises a person’s freedom over his activities
or physical body.
 Rights- Recognise a person’s rights to life, information, privacy, freedom
of speech and safety.
The first two principles – personal advantage and societal benefit – are
consequentialist in the sense that they are concerned with the results of an action,
whereas the principles of kindness, paternalism and damage are duty-based. Moral
rights underpin the ideals of autonomy, fairness, and diverse rights.

Four Principles of Public and Private Relationships

 Respect

 Understanding

 Acceptance
 Appreciation

Scope of Private Relations

Private relation involves relations with himself, family (spouse, parents, children
and other relatives) and friends.

 Factors affecting Ethics in dealing with self:

 Having good/bad thinking about self

 The extent of consistency between your words and action

 Factors Affecting Ethics in Marital Life:

 Understanding of the uniqueness of spouse

 Imposition of self on spouse

 The extent of freedom given to the spouse

 Extent of possessiveness

 Extent of doubt

 The extent of acceptance of premarital relations of a spouse

 The extent of acceptance of the aspirations of a spouse

 Felling of competition vs cooperation

 The extent of daring to correct your spouse

 The extent of care of your spouse

 The extent of sharing the burden of your spouse

 Factor Affecting Ethics in Relations with Friends

 The extent of reposing the trust of the friend

  The extent of support to your friend

 The extent of emotional support to your friend

 The extent of respecting and accepting the values of your friend

Features of Private/Personal Relations/Ethics/Life

 Private relations are informal, as no formal procedure is there to regulate such

relations.

 These are one-to-one relationships, based on emotional bonds and in most

cases expression of individual personality is there.

 Internal control is there on ethical behaviour rather than external control in the
form of laws, rules and regulations.

 Ethics in private relations can differ widely from person to person and are often
influenced by the morality, emotional state and personal interest of the person
involved in such relationships.

 Duties in these relations are self-imposed, informal in nature and voluntary.

 Ethics shown in private relations often form a major part of individual ethics or
morality.

 The morality of private relations forms the basis of ethical behaviour in public
relations.

 Personal relations involve the following values Love, care, respect, trust,
responsibility, solidarity, peacefulness, good communication, security, self-
sacrifice etc.

Features of Public Relationship

 These relations are Predictable and Formal.

 The individual perceives themselves as part of the context and not as separate
entities.

 Legal and social obligations are there. Often the nature of duty in a public
relationship is obligatory, externally imposed, formal and sanctioned.

 Ethics shown in public relations are often influenced by norms, values and
behaviour prevailing in a particular society.

 The reach of our public relations is much wider and can impact society at large. Ex.
Honesty, openness, integrity, fairness etc.

Differences Between Private and Public Ethics

Basis of comparison Ethics in private life Ethics in public life

1. Existence Private life Public life

2. Basis Emotion Give and take/rules

3. Tolerance for
High Low
deviation

5. Regulation Low or nil High

Relatively permanent Generally temporary

6. Temporal nature (commitment to gaol, (commitment to duty
family partner) 9 se 5)

7. Codified rules No Yes

8. Professionalism
No Yes
required

Love and care, Openness, Honesty

Confidentiality, and integrity, Rule of
7. Values involved Truthfulness, law, Equality and
Responsibility, uniformity,
Perseverance. Accountability

Reasons for Separation:

 They operate in different domains.

 Their mixing may create issues like the entry of private relations into public relations
may lead to nepotism, and favouritism on the other hand entry of public relations
into private life may lead to undermining the sanctity, privacy and intimacy of private
life.

 To prevent conflict of interest.

 The difference in their nature: public relations are complicated and intense

Problems with Separation

 Not separable: Distinguishing ethics in public and private relations

is vague, ambiguous, and difficult. Both cannot be divided into watertight
compartments.

 Not feasible: They consistently interact and affect each other. Ethics in private
relations helps in humanizing public relations and plays an important role
in forming the moral system of a person.
 Not manageable: Conflict between ethics in private and public relations may lead
to a build-up of unrest, dissonance and confusion in the mind of the concerned
person.

 Not desirable: rigid separation may be proved counter-productive. Dishonest in

private relations can’t be an honest man in public life.

 However, too much congruence between ethics in public and private relations may
lead to the stagnation of ideas and change.

Effect of Public Relations on Private Relations

Positive

 Inspiration: the compulsion of respect for women in office may motivate a man to
treat his wife respectfully.

 Value: deceit by colleagues often makes people realize the innocence and greatness of
their family members and friends.

 Humane: the value of private life like love and care can make your public life more
humane

Negative:

 Spillover: Fauji Baap -very rigid in the discipline at home

 Time management: excess involvement in public life often forces people to cut time
from their private life.

Effect of Private Life on Public Life

Positive:

 Improve interpersonal relations: one who is honest in private relations is probably

more honest in public life.
 Positive mood: a healthy private life can promote work efficiency in the office.

Negative:

 Stress: family tensions may reflect in the office

 Prejudice: your experience of private life may lead to prejudice in office ex. If you
follow casteism in private life then it may also reflect in office.

Common in private and public life:

 Honesty

 Interpersonal skills

 Compassion

What are values?

 According to Radhakamal Mukherjee, “Values may be defined as socially

approved desires and goals that are internalized through the process of
conditioning, learning or socialization.”
 According to Allport, “Value is a belief upon which a man acts by
preferences.” According to Hill, Values are individual beliefs to which
people attach significant worth and by which they organize their life.

Features of Values

 Value is an emotional attitude in the sense that it motivates a person

directly or indirectly to act in the most desirable way preferred by him.
 Values are at the core of personality and are a powerful force affecting
behaviour.
 Values give direction and firmness to life and bring joy, satisfaction and
peace to life.
 Values regulate and guide human behaviour and action in our day to daily
life.
 Values involve the processes of thinking, knowing and understanding
feelings and action.
 Values are essential constituents of civilization. Our values indicate our
character and determine our moral and ethical choices.
  Values shape the behaviour of both individuals as well as of organizations.
The behaviour of individuals affects the behaviour of the organization if
the individual is a part of an organization.
 Acquisition of values begins at birth. Primarily values are learned at home
but in due course, they will change according to their experiences.
 Values changes over time within the same society which are influenced by
the changing needs and present situations of the society.
 Many values are relatively stable and enduring and one’s behaviour can be
predicted by upheld values.

Sources of values

 Family– Family is the prime and most important source of obtaining

values. Every child learns some values from his family since his childhood
and retains those values in his mind throughout his life. The ways the
parents nurture, educate and raise their child shape his personality and
inculcate values in him.
 Society– After family, society also plays a major role in developing the
value system of an individual. Every child learns basic manners and
discipline from school. Besides schools and colleges, other groups of
society such as religious groups, and economic and political groups to
which an individual belongs also affect the value system of an individual.
 Personal factors– Personal characteristics like intelligence, ability,
appearance and education level of a person determine his value system
very strongly. For example, an intelligent and educated person will
understand and learn social and work-related values relatively faster than
an uneducated person.
 Culture– Cultural factors which influence the value system of an
individual include norms, beliefs and other behaviour patterns which are
preferred and acceptable by society. These values are often carried in
rituals, customs or narratives that are often repeated and highly resistant
to change because they are seen as absolute.
 Religion– Religion is comprised of a set of values and traditions which
guide the routine behaviour and decision-making of an individual.
Religious values help people determine what is good or what is bad.
 Life experiences– Man learns most from his own experiences and
sometimes from the experiences of others too. The values which an
individual learns from their own experiences of life are relatively lo ng-
lasting and difficult to change.
 Role demands– Role demand refers to the behaviour which is associated
with the particular position or role profile in an organisation. Every
individual play multiple roles in his life. The problem occurs when there is
a role conflict. In such cases, individuals quickly learn the value system
prevailing in the organisation so that they may survive and progress in the
same organisation.
  Constitution– Almost, all the existing constitutions of various countries
highlight the values of democracy, equality and world peace. The values
enshrined in the Constitution of India have stated in its Preamble are
Justice, Liberty, Equality of status and opportunity and Fraternity.
Herein, justice occupies the first place, followed by libe rty, and equality.

Values are ideals of someone (or a group) about what is good or bad (or desirable or
undesirable) .
Ethics is all about reasoning how to do the right action. Don՚t miss the article on the
dimensions of ethics from.
Remember, Values Motivate, While Morals and Ethics Constrain.

The Conflict between Values and Ethics

People tend to embrace values they grow up with. They also seem to feel that their
knowledge in their particular culture makes certain beliefs “right.”
For instance, if making money is a value by the criteria of some specific culture
without understanding how the money is being produced then the act of making
money itself seems correct to an individual from that culture irrespective of the means
to make that money.
Choosing which values to hold higher against another is a matter of ethical decision.

Values Vary Among Individuals, Cultures, and Time

Like morality, values do differ among people, across cultures and across time.
For instance, the flag of your nation may represent a sacred value for some people.
But for others, the flag is perhaps just a piece of cloth.

Types of Values
We know the ideals of honesty, goodness, humility etc. They create a set of values
known as Moral Values. There are also other types of values – such as Genius, Beauty,
Power etc. Moral values, however, are ranked as the highest of all-natural values.
Values can be classified as:
 Spiritual Values
 Moral Values
 Social Values
 Intellectual Values
 Economic Values
 Political Values etc

Personal Values vs. Social Values

 Personal Values – Important for individual well-being.
 Examples: self-respect, comfortable life, freedom etc.
 Social Values – Important for other people՚s well-being.
 Examples: equality, social justice, national security, world peace etc.
 Mahatma Gandhi: What he valued – Simplicity, Minimalism, Satyagraha,
Sarvodaya, Secularism, Ahimsa, Non-Violence, Truth, Forgiveness, Self-
Sufficiency, Dignity of labour etc.
 Jawaharlal Nehru: What he valued – democracy, institution building,
consensus building, socialism, secularism, self-determination, internationalism
etc.
 Nelson Mandela: What he valued – service, dignity, self-belief, equality of the
human race, freedom, fairness, justice, etc.
 Abraham Lincoln: What he valued – humanism, equality of the human race,
integrity, idealism, honesty, freedom etc.
 Martin Luther King Jr: What he valued – self-belief, equality of the human
race etc.
 Raja Rammohan Roy: What he valued – social equality, equality of the human
race, women empowerment, scientific thinking etc.
 Swami Vivekananda: What he valued – self-belief, equality of the human race,
patriotism, compassion etc.
 B R Ambedkar: What he valued – self-belief, equality of the human race,
radical thinking, compassion etc.
 Mother Teresa – What she valued – compassion, altruism, helpfulness,
kindness, cleanliness, determination.
 Verghese Kurien – What he valued – self-belief, co-operative societies,
entrepreneurship, innovation, farmer welfare etc.
 M.S. Swaminathan – What he valued – sustainable development, green
revolution, poverty alleviation, farmer welfare etc.
 Sam Pitroda – What he valued – self-belief, dreaming big, entrepreneurship,
policy making, innovation etc.
 E. Sreedharan: What he valued – punctuality, self-belief, integrity, high-quality
standards etc.

Role of Family in inculcating values

The family is the earliest and without question the most influential agent of
socialization. Socialization via the family goes from cradle to grave. The father,
mother, siblings, and grandparents become the immediate agents of socialization.

Children pick up behavioural traits from all those who are in his/her immediate
environment. Values are imbibed by children by observing what parents do (and not
just what parents say).

The power of the family is strongest during infancy and toddler years. During the
teenage, the influence of peer group and media usually overshadows the power of the
family. However, the family returns as a predominant agent of socialization during the
adult years with the roles of marital partner and parents becoming prominent.

There can be differences in values between family to family based on their socio-
economic statuses.

Role of Educational Institutions in inculcating values

Schools and Colleges are important agencies in the process of socialization and thus
can help a lot in inculcating values.

 School is the first place where the individual values get compared with the larger
value system of the society.
 The curriculum imparts the values of accepted behaviour.
 A school student learns not only from the official curriculum but also from the
social curriculum of peer groups. Values are also imbibed from the hidden
curriculum (Eg: don’t talk while a teacher is taking the class).
 This is the place where one learns the values of punctuality and discipline.
 Values education is an explicit attempt to teach about values. There are five
basic approaches to values education: inculcation, moral development, analysis,
action learning, and values clarification.

Role of Society in inculcating values

Society can also inculcate a lot of values in people. The elements of the society who
have great influence in people include:

 Friends
 Neighbours
 Media
 Films
 Religion
 Leaders
 Government

Lesson Learn from Leaders, Administrators and Reformers

Difference between Administration and Managment

Administration vs. Management

Process of working to achieved the agreed goals efficiently.

Administration The main work is to implement decisions.
  Leader + Administrator

 Their decisions are seen the decisions of the

organization.

 They also have to convince employees

 Emotional intelligence is must.

 Planning, co-ordination, direction to execution,

evaluation etc.
Manager

 Those who formulate policies and initiate new

 His authority is inherent in his position.

 He is either appointed or elected or emerges from within

a group.

 He envisages missions, develops strategy, inspires

people, and changes culture.

 Leadership: Exercise high-level conceptual skills and

Leaders decisiveness

 Those who execute policies and implement decisions,

utilizing the existing structure. (even if it is flawed)
Administrator
  The ability to influence is based on the formal authority
inherent in their position.

 A leader, and not an administrator, has the potential to

change the country.

 They are appointed (not elected generally).

 Those who work to improve the policies and the existing

structure.

 He is neither appointed nor elected. This virtue emerges

from within.

 Types: Social reformers, Political reformers, Religious

reformers, etc.
Reformers

Values are the leading principles in our lives. Leadership crop up within the context
of core values. Leaders guide and clear the way for others to make a positive difference
in their own lives and contribute to a larger good. Values apprise the application of
leadership qualities as the proficiency of leadership is activated – learned, developed,
& practiced – within the set of core values. By concentrating on what people trust and
value and then positively building on this understanding, we have the potential for
impact far more wide-reaching than if we approached leadership development as a
problem-solving activity. Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Mother Teresa, Sardar
Patel, etc. leaders
 The following values and lesson can be learn from Leaders:
1. Respect:
As manifested by self-respect and respecting other people disregarding differences,
treating other people with dignity, empathy, sympathy, and compassion, & the
ability to receive the respect of others.
2. Making a Difference:
As manifested by personal endeavors that lead to a favorable implication on a
person, systems, institutions, or organizations or positively affecting outcomes.
3. Integrity:
As demonstrated by moral courage, ethical strength, trustworthiness, integrity,
keeping promises, & fulfilling expectations.
4. Authenticity:
As demonstrated by consistency, steadfastness, congruency, and transparency in
values, beliefs, and actions, integrating values and principles to create a purposeful
life and contribute to the growth of others.
5. Courage:
As manifested by possessing a strength of self to act with intention on behalf of the
common good; taking action in the face of adversity; acting boldly in the service of
inclusion and justice.
6. Service:
As demonstrated by the commitment that extends beyond one’s own self-
interest; personal humility for the sake of a greater cause.
7. Humility:
As manifested by a sense of humbleness, dignity, and an awareness of one’s
own limitations; open to perspectives different from one’s own.
8. Wisdom:
As manifested by a broad understanding of human dynamics and the capability to
 balance the interests of multiple stakeholders when making decisions, it can take a
long-term perspective in decision-making.

9. Justice, Selflessness, Peace-loving, Respect for humanity and dignity, Love and care,
Benevolence & Compassion lesson can also learn from leaders. Similarly, Human
Values and Lessons can be learned from the lives of great administrators Verghese
Kurian, M.S. Swaminathan, E. Sreedharan, C.D. Deshmukh, V.P. Menon, and
Sardar Patel.

Main Lessons:
The lessons are based on ethics in public administration. For example;

 Honesty and Integrity.

 Discipline

 Non-discrimination, equality.

 Public welfare.

 Accountability- ethical & professional.

 Responsibility

 Lawfulness

 Loyalty

 Courage

 Solidarity and respect.

 Human Values
Lessons from the lives of great reformers. Swami Vivekananda, Raja Rammohan Roy,
Gandhi Ji.

Main Lesson:
The lessons are based on compassion, equality and inclusion. For example;

 Respect for humanity & dignity.

 Benevolence, Love, care & compassion.

 Inquiry for seeking the cause-effect relationship.

 Contentment

 Social equality

Role of Family, Society, Educational Institutions in Inculcating

Values | Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes
or actions. They help us to determine what is important to us. Values describe the
personal qualities we choose to embody to guide our actions; the sort of person we
want to be; the manner in which we treat ourselves and others, and our interaction
with the world around us. They provide the general guidelines for conduct.

Values in a narrow sense are that which is good, desirable, or worthwhile. Values are
the motive behind purposeful action. They are the ends to which we act and come in
many forms. Personal values are personal beliefs about right and wrong and may or
may not be considered moral. Cultural values are values accepted by religions or
societies and reflect what is important in each context.

Values are universal as they are shared by all the individuals regardless of their
nationality, religion, gender, culture or history. Values can be:-

 Innate – values due to our genes and conscience.

 Acquired – values imparted by social institutions and influences.
Values can be inculcated very easily in early childhood and they have a long lasting
impact on the conduct of the individual for their entire life. Values are developed
through various agencies:-

 Family (first agent but is informal)

 Educational Institutions (first formal agency)
 Society or peer group
 Religion/culture
 Media, etc.
The beliefs and values are imparted by family, society, educational institutions which
ultimately leads to the change of attitude and behaviour of an individual.

Role of Family in Inculcating Values

Family is the most important platform and foundation for a child to learn values.
They are the first set of individuals that one interacts with. Children identify with their
parents and other family members and adopt them as their personal models by
emulation and imitation.

Social standards and customs defined by a family provide the emotional and physical
basis for a child. It leads to a disciplined and organized life. Family prepares an
individual to the face the real world and equip them with all the essentials needed to
cope with social others.

A child with a good sense of right and wrong are less likely to become sufferers of
deviant influences. Ex.- Drug addiction. Values like Kindness, Love, Compassion,
Respect, Tolerance etc. can inculcated through family values.

A bad familial experience can seriously hamper the development of moral and
mental capabilities of an individual. Family, being the primary and major agency of
socialization sets the pattern for the child’s perspective towards. Folks and society,
aids intellectual growth within the kid and supports his aspirations and sensible
values.

Some of the values and ways that facilitate up inciting kid in an exceedingly
harmonious setting.

 Family provides informal way of learning. Love, compassion, self-sacrifice and values
of sharing and caring develop implicitly within a child.
 Praise and encourage exploring.
 Children observe and unconsciously imbibe values. Looking at the mother who cooks
and care for whole family values of compassion is imbibed. If female members are
treated with respect in the family then respect for women is inculcated in the child.
 Set realistic goals for them.
 Acts itself as a task model.
 Sensitize youngsters towards weaker and marginalized sections.
 Set non-secular and cultural values for youngsters.
 Forbids indulgence in dishonest deeds.
 Helps youngsters to develop the sense of discrimination between right and wrong so
they might develop their own judgment.

Effect of Styles of Parenting on Values:

Styles of parenting also play an important part to discipline children and inculcating
values in them. They are:-

1. Authoritative – believe in restricting the autonomy of their children and imposing the
value system on them. It can lead to less empathetic, biased, self centered child.
2. Democratic – deal with their children in rational and issue oriented manner. It also
provide for positive re-enforcement on display of children’s behavior. Objectiveness,
impartiality, tolerance, patience, etc. can be seen in such children.
3. Permissive – it is characterized by neglect, apathy and non- involvement of parents.
Children can develop negative values and follow negative role models.
Role of Teachers and Educational Institutions

“ Education which does not mould character is wholly worthless.”

Gandhi Ji

Education is an effective and pervasive phenomenon for all round individual

development and social transformation. A balanced development of mind and body in
harmony with enhancement of human personality with value based education to
achieve higher levels of consciousness.

Since the ancient times, the value education is being manifested and upheld in the
society through the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics, Buddhist moral code of conduct, etc.
More importance was given to Morality, Honesty, Duty, Brotherhood, Friendship, etc.

Education plays as an important driver to enhance values.

 Science increases rational thinking and questioning of old age beliefs.

 Literature helps us understand human nature and prevalent social values of a given
era.
 An account of life history of great leaders like Gandhi’s train journey to Pretoria shows
how he stood against injustice.
 Content of a textbook plays important role in imparting value system.
 Education also teaches important values through stories and real life examples. For
example, lesson on Hellen Keller teaches importance of grit and determination despite
hardships.
Educational institutions help children in development of:-
 Cognitive and psychomotor skills – through curricular activities
 Social and interpersonal skills – through extra-curricular activities.
It is the place where the seeds of discipline, devotion, commitment are planted and
fostered with deliberate efforts.

Teachers serve as the role models to students in schools and they play a major role in
inculcating ethical behavior in them.

 Values like team work, leadership etc. are inculcated.

 Gokhale was a political guru of Gandhi and in many ways he shaped the ideology
and outlook of Gandhi towards India and life.
 If teacher is promoting his private coaching class during official class in the school, he
is indirectly imparting materialistic.
 A child who was unduly punished by the teacher will develop a wrong attitude.
Role of Society in Inculcating Values

You know that as individuals grow older, their social worlds expand. They begin to
look outside their homes and toward other individuals in their neighbourhood as their
companions for play and for sharing their mental thoughts. The neighborhood is
where individuals spend most of their time besides their homes and schools. The
concept of neighbourhood has both physical and social meanings. But the social
meaning is more important, as it is characterized by the social similarities of
individuals.

Following values can be attached to society:

 Man lives in society for his mental and intellectual development. Society preserves our
culture and transmits it to succeeding generations.
 Society brings morality and ethics in individuals.
 Individual discipline is brought by society via sanctions and rewards.
 It brings tolerance and national integration.
 Society removes the evils of social indifferences like caste through collective struggle.
 The society imbibes conformity.

What is Attitude?

 Attitude is a state of mind or a fixed way of thinking or feeling about

something in a particular way that has an evaluative feature (Positive, Negative,
or Neutral).
 Attitudes are abstract constructs that we cannot actually perceive. We can only
observe them by their behaviour.
 To elaborate, anytime a person observes or thinks about a specific thing, the
sum of his or her thoughts and feelings becomes attitude.
  In our daily lives, our attitudes impact our behaviour toward people,
situations, events, and so on, which shapes the greater social interaction in
societies.
 People's behaviours and actions are frequently influenced by their attitudes. If
there are no external inputs, attitudes can lead to intended behaviour.
 Over time, attitudes are progressively developed. The process of developing
attitude begins in childhood and continues throughout a person's life. Initially,
family members may have a stronger influence on a child's attitude.
 There are two types of attitudes: explicit and implicit.
 When a person is conscious of his attitudes and how they influence his
behaviour and beliefs, his attitudes are explicit. Explicit attitudes are
consciously created.
 Even if a person is ignorant of his implicit beliefs, they nonetheless have an
impact on his actions and behavior


Structure of Attitude

 Rosenberg and Hovland took a three-pronged approach, suggesting that

attitudes are composed of cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components.
 The ABC model of attitudes represents three aspects of any attitude: A for
affective, B for behavioural, and C for cognitive.
 Despite the fact that all three components are present in all attitudes, every
given attitude can be based on one component more than the others.
 The ABC Model or CAB Model refers to this multi-component model. Let's have
a look at the model's components.

Cognitive

 It refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and traits that individuals associate with a
specific thing.
 The negative and positive traits that a person associates with an object typically
impact their attitude.
 We are discussing the cognitive aspect of an attitude when we develop our
opinion or judgement based on available information and decide whether we
have a favourable or unfavourable perspective on it.
 Example: I believe Snakes are dangerous.

Affective

 The affective component of attitudes is linked to people's feelings or emotions

(for example, fear, pity, hatred, liking, and pleasure).
 Affective reactions influence attitudes in a variety of ways.
  Snakes, for example, are feared by many people. As a result of this negative
affective response, you're more likely to dislike snakes.
 Affect is important in the creation of attitudes.
 Affect is another important aspect in changing one's mind. Purely cognitive
justifications may be trumped by how we feel about a result.

Behavioural (Conative)

 The behavioural (or conative) component of attitudes refers to a tendency or

predisposition to act in a particular way.
 A person's predisposition to behave in a given way may be influenced by
affective and cognitive factors.
 Example: I will avoid snakes and scream if I see one.

Functions of Attitude
Knowledge Function

 Attitudes have a knowledge function that allows people to grasp their

surroundings and be consistent in their beliefs and thinking. In some way,
most attitudes serve this fundamental function.
 The knowledge function relates to our need for a consistent and reasonably
stable universe. In a nutshell, attitudes serve the purpose of imparting meaning
(knowledge) to life.
 Such attitudes are likely to shift in situations when the addition of new facts or
experiences makes it harder for the attitude holder to maintain his current
attitude.

Utilitarian Function

 Attitude assists people in maximizing benefits and reducing drawbacks when

engaging with people, groups, and circumstances in their environment.
 Utilitarian views result in behaviour that serves one's best interests.
 For example, because tax evasion is punishable, a person may abandon tax
evasion and begin paying taxes legally.

Social Identity Function

 Attitudes play a social role through facilitating an individual's self-expression

and social interaction.
 Subscribing to a specific set of attitudes indicates identification with major
reference groups in order to convey basic values and develop one's identity.
 This is known as the social identification function, and it underpins an
individual's drive to establish his individual and social identity.

Ego Defensive Function

  Attitudes can be used as a defense mechanism to deal with an individual's
internal mental conflict, which reflects conflicts in the individual psyche.
 The defense mechanisms conceal an individual's genuine motivations from
himself or isolate him mentally from organizations viewed as hostile or
threatening.
 Attitudes also help to sustain self-esteem in other ways. A person's opinions
about numerous things are influenced by his perception of how they affect his
own self-esteem.
 You might not be able to play football like Messi, for example. Instead of
recognizing this truth, you can defend your self-esteem by claiming that you
dislike football and are only interested in academic things.
 Positive attitudes toward ourselves, like the example above, perform a protective
function (i.e., an ego-defensive role) in assisting us in maintaining our self-
image. Otherwise, we risk becoming depressed.

Ego Expressive Function (Value Expressive)

 Our attitudes (what we like and detest) help us represent who we are, what our
fundamental values are, and what we stand for. This has two purposes:
o it helps us explain who we are, and
o it may make us feel good since we have proclaimed our identity.
 Attitudes can also be expressed nonverbally.
 Ego Expressive attitudes assist a person in establishing his identity and
communicating the type of person he is.
 For example, Gandhi shifted from Coat-Pant to Khadi to show his value of self-
reliance & simple living.
 As a result, value expressive attitudes aid us in the practice of expression
management.
 They, like Ego Defensive Attitudes, are difficult to modify since they are deeply
embedded in an individual's mentality.
 However, change may occur:
o If an individual's values have shifted
o A person is convinced that the attitudes offered to him will better express
his fundamental ideals.

Factors Influencing Attitude Change

1) Culture

 Culture has a huge impact on an individual. Religion, tradition, conventions,

prohibitions, rewards, and sanctions are all part of culture.
 Socialisation is the process by which culture changes people's attitudes.
 Individual views, attitudes, and behaviours that are acceptable in one's life and
society are taught through culture.
 Consuming beef, for example, is widely considered taboo in India, but not in
Western countries.
2) Family

 A person's family is his or her most important and closest social group. It is the
nursery for the formation of attitudes.
 Parents have the most influence on the family system since they structure and
mould a child's mindset.
 Extended family and sibling connections, in particular, influence attitude
formation.

3) Social Groups

 Friends, peers, colleagues, and other social groupings, in addition to family,

play a vital influence in attitude formation.
 Consider the Indian voting pattern. Some people do not listen to candidate
speeches, read newspapers, or participate in debates. They consult with friends,
relatives, and others before casting their vote for a candidate.
 Families, friends, and other social groupings all have a strong influence on a
candidate's choice.

4) Institutions

 A man is never by himself. From birth until death, man is influenced by one or
more institutions.
 For example, educational institutions such as schools and universities serve as
stores of knowledge, directing and shaping a person's views and values, and
therefore forming attitudes.

5) Familiarity

 Familiarity breeds positivity. Because man is generally afraid of the unfamiliar,

something familiar may help him or her feel at ease.
 Familiarity and classical conditioning alter an individual's feelings, shaping the
affective component of attitudes.

Theories Related to Attitude Change

1) Pavlovian / Classical Conditioning

 In this technique, the person is repeatedly exposed to positive and neutral

stimuli, and after a while, the response to neutral stimuli becomes the same as
the response to positive stimuli.
 When two stimuli are repeatedly coupled, a response that was initially triggered
by the second stimulus is finally generated by the first stimulus alone.
 Igor Pavlov discovered it in his dog, bell, and food experiment. As a result, it's
also known as Pavlovian Conditioning.
 It can be used to induce phobias in humans. Watson and Rayner
demonstrated this in their Experiment on Albert (1920).
  Albert, a nine-month-old infant, was shown a rat, a bunny, a monkey, and
numerous masks but remained emotionless. However, if a hammer was struck
against a steel bar, the sudden loud noise would cause him to cry.
 During the experiment, he was shown a rat as the hammer was struck against
a steel bar. This happened again and again.
 After that, he began to cry when he was just shown a rat.

2) Instrumental / Operant Conditioning

 A process in which a positive conduct, when rewarded, has a higher possibility

of recurrence than a bad activity, which, if repeated, results in punishment and
so has a lower chance of repetition.
 Example: When parents celebrate their child's accomplishment by
complimenting them in front of their peers, the child develops a positive
attitude toward success. Furthermore, punishing a child for their faults inhibits
the child from repeating those mistakes.

3) Social Observation

 It entails learning from our social surroundings, which includes our family,
school, media, and its expression.
 Children observe their parents' attitudes, and most of the time, their attitudes
mirror those of their parents.
 If parents adhere to the caste system, their children will as well.
 Whatever one sees on TV or other forms of social media, there is a good chance
that person will do it in real life.

Difference Between Attitude and Behaviour

Attitude Behaviour

Attitude is described as a person's mental The acts, motions, conduct, or functions

inclination that governs how he thinks or feels of an individual or group toward other
about someone or something. people are referred to as behaviour.

A person's attitude is primarily formed by the A person's behaviour, on the other

experiences and observations he has made hand, is determined by the
during his life. circumstances.

The inner thoughts and sentiments of a person In contrast, behaviour expresses a

are expressed through their attitude. person's attitude.

A person's attitude reflects their manner of On the contrary, a person's conduct

thinking or feeling. reflects his behaviour.

The way we see things defines our attitude, Attitude is a human trait, whereas
whereas societal rules govern our actions. conduct is an inborn attribute.
Factors Influencing Attitude-Behaviour Link
Attitude is a set of traits that are evaluated, whereas behaviour is a disposition to act
in a specific way. The end effect of attitude is behaviour, yet this cannot always be
true. We sometimes fail to respond to a specific issue. As a result, attitudes are not
behaviours, but rather a predisposition to behave or act in a certain way.

1) Attitude Relevance

 The greater the vested interest, the stronger the Attitude-Behaviour relationship
would be.

2) Attitude Strength

 The more powerful the attitude, the more consistent the Attitude-Behaviour
relationship.
 Strength will be high if:
o attitude is created via direct experience
o one anticipates a favourable outcome
o his attitude is established as a result of his vested interests.

3) Attitude Specificity

 Specificity refers to how specific our attitude is toward something. Having

numerous or ambiguous opinions regarding something weakens its specificity.
 For example, political attitudes regarding an issue can be ambiguous and vary
depending on the group we are in.

4) Attitude Accessibility

 The more accessible the Attitudes are, the more likely they are to dominate our
mind.
 The more commonly expressed attitudes are more accessible.

5) Social/ External Pressure

 If we feel that others have a different attitude toward the same thing and we
have high regard for those persons, we are less likely to show our genuine
attitudes.
 The bandwagon effect occurs when someone does something just because
others are doing it. It is frequently observed in political and consumer
behaviour.
 Even if you are opposed to the caste system, you may nevertheless marry within
your caste due to peer pressure.
  The relationship between attitude and behaviour is not simple. "Social influence
/ peer pressure" is important and might cause a person to act contrary to his
Attitude.

6) Congruence

 Congruence refers to the uniformity of several aspects of our attitude.

 If the information and affective components are discordant, our behaviour will
be more situational than attitude-based.

7) Direct Experience

 Attitudes established directly through experience are stronger and have a

greater influence on behaviour than attitudes formed indirectly (for example, by
hearsay, reading, or watching television).


What is Moral and Political Attitude?

Moral Attitude

 Morality is synonymous with righteousness. Moral attitudes are concerned with

righteous behaviour.
 As a result, moral attitudes are not a neutral idea. It is a tendency to be upright
or virtuous.
 Some examples of moral attitudes are:
o Goodness
o Selflessness
o Respect
o Love & Compassion
o Empathy

Political Attitude

 Political Attitudes are the ways in which an individual approaches a political

situation and defines his behaviour in response to that problem.
 It is also a set of norms and regulations, practices, traditions, and beliefs that
impact a country's political system.
 An individual's political opinions show that person's perspective on the political
side of social living.
 They describe the citizen-government relationship and the functions of the
political system.
 Examples:
o Voter’s voting behaviour in elections is determined by political attitudes
followed by individuals and political parties.
 o Government policies were socialist when India gained independence, but
following the LPG era in the 1990s, India opened its economy and
adopted a pro-market strategy.

Social Influence & Persuasion

Social Influence

 It is a characteristic that can cause a change in a person's behaviour, ideas,

feelings, and attitudes as a result of interaction with another person in society.
 The methods in which people influence the attitudes, values, beliefs,
sentiments, and behaviours of others are referred to as social influence.
 Example: Our everyday exposure to radio and television commercials, print
advertisements, direct solicitations, are attempts at persuasion by salespeople,
politicians, and others.
 Theorists divide social influence into three categories: conformity,
compliance, and obedience. The main distinction between them is as follows.
o Conformity is defined as a change in behaviour in response to real or
imagined social pressure.
o Compliance is defined as a change in behaviour in response to an
explicit request to perform an action.
o Obedience is defined as a change in behaviour in response to an extreme
pressure demand to perform an action.
 The amount of pressure involved in social influence varies.
 Imitation is a response to no pressure, conformity is a response to peer
pressure, compliance is a response to an explicit request to perform some
behaviour, and obedience is a response to a direct order to undertake some
activity.
 In other words, imitation is the change in behaviour that occurs in the absence
of social pressure.
 Obedience is the most direct kind of social influence, while conformity is the
most indirect; compliance falls somewhere in between the two.

Social Persuasion

 Persuasion is an active attempt to change the attitudes, opinions, or feelings of

another person, usually through some sort of communication.
 It can be done intentionally or unintentionally, depending on how the
transformed person sees themselves in connection to the influencer.
 Persuasion is typically recognized as a different sort of social influence from the
other three. As you might expect, it has more to do with conformity and
compliance.
 Persuasion is an active form of influence that has an internal focus. The
purpose of such influence is to change people's thoughts or feelings.
 Systematic persuasion is the process of using logic and reason to influence
attitudes or opinions. Heuristic persuasion, on the other hand, is the process
of influencing attitudes or views by appeals to habit or emotion.
What is Theory of Persuasion?

 This theory holds that people's perspectives on any subject can be

influenced by providing them with relevant knowledge. Many factors come
into play while trying to persuade someone to change their minds about
anything. These are:
o the object of the attitude i.e., the thing, person, group, or idea toward
which the attitude is directed;
o the message or information;
o the manner in which it is delivered;
o the messenger; and
o the target audience, i.e., persons whose attitudes need to change.
 An advertising is a simple example of attempting to persuade consumers to
purchase a specific brand of goods. It demonstrates all of the aforementioned
qualities of persuasion.
 Attitude is established in many business and administrative circumstances by
persuading people to change their attitudes, beliefs, and habits.
 It provides the best way to persuade people to change their views, attitudes,
and behaviours.
 This hypothesis is also known as the Elaboration Likelihood Theory of
Attitude.

Factors Influencing People's Persuasion Success

1) Characteristics of the Target Audience

 To modify people's attitudes toward any object, they must be given facts that
they may not have.
 The audience is responsible for receiving and processing the information.
 Their IQ determines their ability to do so.
 People of higher intelligence are unlikely to be swayed by one-sided messages.
 The conventional wisdom holds that convincing people with high self-esteem to
adopt new attitudes is difficult.
 The association between self-esteem and readiness to change one's attitude, on
the other hand, appears to be curvilinear.
 Individuals with normal levels of self-esteem are thus more willing to adjust
their attitudes than those with either high or low self-esteem.
 The target audience's state of mind and mood also influence how they respond
to the message.

2) Characteristics of the Source Messenger

 These are the words used to describe the person who is delivering the message.
 The characteristics that affect a person's effectiveness in presenting a message
include his competence, trustworthiness, and appeal to the audience.
 To be persuaded, the listener must be certain that the message is authoritative
and authentic.
3) Cognitive Routes

 A message attempting to modify an individual's mindset may appeal to his or

her intellect or reasoning faculty.
 This appeal can be made via the central or peripheral routes.
 In the central route, the individual is supplied with data and motivated to
examine the evidence in order to reach an attitude-changing conclusion.
 In the peripheral route, the individual is taught to look at the source rather
than the content for attitude transformation. This is prevalent in recent
advertising starring celebrities.
 For example, having a popular athlete endorse athletic shoes is a common
strategy used to attract young adults to buy the shoes.

Quotes Related to Attitude

 "Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference." - Winston Churchill

 "The only disability in life is a bad attitude." - Scott Hamilton
 "Life is 10% what happens to us and 90% how we react to it." - Charles R. Swindoll
 "Your attitude, not your aptitude, will determine your altitude." - Zig Ziglar
 "People may hear your words, but they feel your attitude." - John C. Maxwell
 "We cannot change our past... we cannot change the fact that people will act in a certain
way. We cannot change the inevitable. The only thing we can do is play on the one string
we have, and that is our attitude." - Charles R. Swindoll
 "A positive attitude causes a chain reaction of positive thoughts, events, and outcomes. It
is a catalyst and it sparks extraordinary results." - Wade Boggs
 "Attitude is everything, so pick a good one." - Wayne Dyer

Integrity reflects the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles. It
reflects adherence to ethical code with incorruptible virtues of uprightness and
honesty. Ashok Khemka and Abdul kalam can also be cited as good examples of
people with a high level of integrity.

Types of Integrity
There are different types of Integrity, which are as follows:

Intellectual integrity: It requires being willing to stand up for your best judgment of
truth by willing to act following the judgment when the need arises. When we fail to
stand up for our best judgment of truth, we are said to lack intellectual integrity.

It requires truth for its sake and it needs one to overcome self-deception and
temptation offered by commercialism. It is characterized by openness and fairness
For example, Socrates was an outstanding example of a person of intellectual integrity
who was committed to the pursuit of truth and knowledge and demonstrated it even in
the time of attacks on his integrity

Personal Integrity: It is about organizing one’s desires, commitments, volitions,

values, and actions in such a way that there is no conflict between any one of them.
When a person possesses personal integrity then various aspects of his self are fully
integrated

It requires that the person should commit to some consistent set of principles and
commitments in times of temptations and challenges and uphold these principles or
commitments.

For example, the holders of public office should not place themselves under any
financial or other obligation to outside individuals or organizations that might seek to
influence them in the performance of their official duties.

Moral Integrity: Moral integrity refers to consistency and honesty in the application of
standards of morality or right and wrong which is used for judging others as well as
ourselves.

It requires an unconditional and unwavering commitment to some of the other moral

principles. We can’t have moral integrity without having personal integrity

For Example, Buddha emphasized the purity of thoughts, words, and deeds.

Sources of Integrity

 DPSP-“Uphold and safeguard the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India,” as

stated in Part IV-A and Article 51A, is one of the fundamental obligations.
 Inner conscience-The best way to uphold our ideals is always determined by
one’s inner conscience.
 United Nations code of conduct-The UN adopted India’s Central Civil Services
(Conduct) Rules as the “International Code of Conduct for Public Officials.”
 Role Models-Recognizing the integrity of those who uphold the organization’s
values For instance, the PM will recognize and present honors to the best
administrators at the annual Vigilance Awards, Civil Services Day, and Good
Governance Day.
 Peer Group and parents-We can learn from our peers and parents.
 Public servants-Numerous case studies of retired government officials can be
used to motivate others because people tend to mimic the actions of the people
they see as their role models.
The younger generation is frequently taught how to respect integrity through the
provision of foundational training and mid-career coaching.

Importance of values in Administration

The nation’s overall development did not interest the British government. Indians were
offered all lower posts. The pay for these positions was meager. They engaged in
corrupt behavior. It developed and become a habit over time.

We need to adopt values and aspirations because of “rapid urbanization and

industrialization,” where status in society is determined by one’s place in society,
economic power, and material belongings. Poor civil servants are easy prey to corrupt
activities because of low pay and ongoing inflation, which makes it difficult for them to
retain their social standing.

Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India

Kautilya

Kautilya, chief minister of Chandragupta Maurya, was the author of Arthashastra

and wrote that book on the political economy around 300 B.C.E. Artha means wealth
and Shastra means knowledge. In short, it means the science of wealth. He is one of
the foremost thinkers from India whom you should know about.

Kautilya’s thoughts in Arthasastra explain the concept of good governance. For

example, he states that “In the happiness of his subjects lies the king's happiness”.
Anything good shall be considered good only if it brings prosperity to his subjects and
not good if it brings them harm. He was in favor of a welfare state and maintained that
a king should always be accessible to his subjects.

Tiruvalluvar

Tiruvalluvar, also spelled Thiruvalluvar, also called Valluvar, was a Tamil poet-saint
who rose to prominence in the 1st century BC or 6th century AD, in India. He is
known as the author of the Tirukkural or Sacred Couplets. It is considered a
masterpiece of human thought and held in high regard in India and abroad.
Researchers and scholars compare his work to the Bible, John Milton’s Paradise Lost,
and the works of Plato.

Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda’s original name was Narendranath Datta, where Datta is also
spelled Dutt. He was born on January 12, 1863, at Calcutta and died on July 4,
1902.

Vivekananda was a disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. A strict follower of

Vedanta philosophy, his version of Vedanta is called Practical Vedanta.

He was a Hindu spiritual leader and reformer who attempted to combine Indian
spirituality and Western material progress. He was of the belief that the two
complimented each other and helped each other grow. He believed that ‘to labor for
the benefit of humanity was the noblest endeavor.’

Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, or as the world knows him, Mahatma Gandhi, led
India to victory and freedom against one of the mightiest powers of the world at that
time.

He has been and still is an inspiration to leaders around the world. Many leaders like
Nelson Mandela, and Barak Obama among others have quoted him countless times.
His philosophies of Satyagraha, Sarvodaya, Swaraj, his 11 vows, and his seven sins,
all remain relevant today.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru was an idealist but a practical one. He believed that socialism and
democracy were complementary to each other and he wanted to build a welfare state
for the equal distribution of wealth.

For Nehru, you should know about the Nehruvian model of development which is
based on the four pillars of parliamentary democracy, secularism, economic planning
for establishing a welfare state, and the policy of non-alignment. Also, you must
include the Nehruvian model of a mixed economy as a separate study.

Amartya Sen

Amartya Sen won the 1998 Nobel Prize in Economics for his significant contributions
to welfare economics. His work includes developing more sophisticated measures of
poverty, determining the causes of famines, and developing practical solutions for
preventing the effects of real or perceived shortages of food.

Mahavira - Jain Philosophy

Mahavira translates into ‘Great Hero’ in Sanskrit. He was also known as Vardhamana.
Mahavira was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras or saviors of Jainism and was a reformer
of the Jain monastic community. As a monk leading an extremely ascetic life he
taught a doctrine of austerity, promoted nonviolence in all circumstances, and
advocated the acceptance of the Mahavratas or the “Five Great Vows of
Renunciation.”

Buddha Philosophy (Ideas of Gautam Buddha)

Buddha means the “Awakened One” in Sanskrit. Gautama Buddha was the founder of
Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophies around the world, especially in
Southern and Eastern Asia. Buddha was not a God and the philosophy of Buddhism
does not entail any theistic view of the world. The goal of Buddhism was to liberate
human beings from suffering. The core teachings of the Buddha revolve around

 The Three Universal Truths

 The Four Noble Truths
 The Noble Eightfold Path

Aurobindo Ghosh

Shri Aurobindo or Aurobindo Ghose was born in Calcutta in 1872 and was a yogi,
seer, philosopher, poet, and a nationalist. He expounded on the idea of living a divine
life on earth through a spiritually evolved self and this was the central theme of his
philosophy.

Aurobindo’s teachings are an amalgamation of idealism, realism, naturalism, and

pragmatism. He truly believed that through spirituality, the human life can not only
be transformed but turned into a divine life.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was an Indian philosopher and politician who was the 1st
Vice President and 2nd President of India. Radhakrishnan was one of the most
influential philosophers of comparative religion and philosophy in the 20th century.

He was significant in promoting the idea of a contemporary Hindu identity by

defending Hinduism from what he referred to as ‘uninformed western criticism.’ His
work stemmed from the philosophies of Advaita Vedanta and reinterpreting the same
for modern society.
Socrates

A Greek philosopher from Athens, Socrates is credited as one of the founders of

Western philosophy and the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of
thought. He was well known as a questioner of everything and of everyone.

The Socratic method of teaching involved conveying knowledge by enabling students to

arrive at their own conclusions after multiple questions, probing deeper into a topic till
you get to its roots.

Although he wrote nothing himself, everything that is known about him comes from
his followers, contemporaries, and from Plato, his disciple.

Plato

Plato was a disciple of Socrates and belonged to an aristocratic family in Athens. The
political chaos during his days in Athens coupled with Socrates’ death greatly
influenced his political views.

For Plato, you have to understand what he wrote in his books, especially in the three
most important ones which are The Republic, The Statesman, and The Laws, his
longest work.

Aristotle

Aristotle was a student of Plato who studied at his Academy in Athens. He is

considered one of the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology, and ethics. One of
Aristotle’s most famous disciples is Alexander the Great. Aristotle is regarded for
proposing the best practicable state.

He is credited as being one of the most influential philosophers of all time as his work
laid the foundation for centuries of philosophy later on.

Karl Marx

Karl Marx’s theories have contributed to our understanding of the world and changed
the way we see it. For Marx, you must go through the Communist Manifesto,
Materialistic Conception of History, and Das Kapital. His theory, Marxism, is a social,
political, and economic concept that focuses on the struggle between capitalists and
the working class.

John Stuart Mill

A logician and an ethical theorist, Mill was an English philosopher, economist, and
exponent of the theory of utilitarianism. He believed that social awareness, economic
theory, and philosophy should play a role in shaping public policy.

His best-known works include Principles of Political Economy, Utilitarianism, On

Liberty, and The Subjection of Women.

John Rawls

Rawls was an American political and ethical philosopher and a contemporary thinker.
He was best known for his defence of egalitarian liberalism as stated in his most
influential work, A Theory of Justice, written in 1971. He is considered the most
important political philosopher to have lived in the 20th century.

Max Weber

Max Weber can be argued to be one of the foremost philosophers and theorists of the
20th century. Along with Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim, Max Weber is known as one
of the founding fathers of social science. In fact, it was through his contributions to
the field that new disciplines such as sociology have evolved.

His work has been significant in establishing social science as a separate field of
study. Two of his most well-known contributions are his “Rationalization Thesis” and
the “Protestant Ethic Thesis.” His theories had far-reaching effects in the field of
political theories as well.

Adam Smith

Adam Smith was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and pioneer of the political
economy.

A renowned figure in the history of economic thought, Smith is primarily known for
his work, “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” where he
wrote about market-determined wages and free enterprise. “Wealth of Nations” was
regarded as the first comprehensive system of political economy.

Hegel

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher. He is considered the last of
the great philosophers who contributed to building our understanding of modern
society. Since he followed in the footsteps of the great philosophers preceding him, his
work is considered the apex of Idealism in German philosophy.
David Hume

David Hume is considered one of the most important English philosophers who
shaped modern thinking. He was also a well-known historian and an essayist, along
with being an economist and a philosopher.

He is remembered for his philosophies of empiricism and skepticism. His aim was to
understand how the mind works in acquiring knowledge. He came to the conclusion
that developing a theory of reality was not possible and no real knowledge exists
beyond experience.

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and arguably one of the greatest
philosophers of all time and one of the leading thinkers of the Enlightenment era.

His comprehensive works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have

made him one of the most influential western philosophers. As a philosopher, he
belonged to the Deontological school of ethics.

Apart from this, we would recommend going through the six Indian schools of
philosophy, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita as well. Along
with being important literary works, they contain reflections on life, ethics, values,
humanity, and love.