PROFESSIONAL LETTER WRITING

WHAT ARE LETTERS?

Letters are written messages that serve as one of the most ancient forms of communication between
people who are separated by distance. Traditionally sent through the postal system, letters are sometimes
referred to as "snail mail" because they are much slower compared to modern emails. There are two main
types of letters: formal and informal. Formal letters are used for professional or official purposes and
follow a specific structure, while informal letters are more personal and relaxed, often written to friends
or family. Letters are written for various purposes, including informing, congratulating, requesting,
complaining, or inquiring, among other reasons. Despite the rise of digital communication, letters remain
a valuable and meaningful way to convey messages.

IMPORTANCE OF LETTERS
Letters play a crucial role in communication, especially in formal and professional settings. They help
organisations strengthen their relationships with customers, stakeholders, suppliers, and other key parties
by providing a personal touch that emails or digital communications may lack. Letters can be filed and
kept as records for future reference, serving as an important repository of information that may be needed
later. This is particularly useful for conveying confidential or complex information that requires a more
formal or secure medium. Furthermore, letters allow companies to reach clients, shareholders, and other
organisations that are geographically distant, maintaining communication regardless of location. They
also help companies receive feedback about problems with their products or services, enabling them to
address issues and improve. By facilitating the mutual exchange of information, letters help fill
communication gaps and contribute to the smooth functioning of an organization.

STRUCTURE OF A LETTER
A letter to the director to request for the change of sections
THE DIRECTOR
SLS NOIDA
(one line gap)
ABC (Your name)
DIVISION D BA LLB
SLS NOIDA
(one line gap)
26/07/2024
RESPECTED SIR
GOOD MORNING - (OPTIONAL)
SUBJECT: Change of section
With due regards, I ABC (name), Division D, would like to request you to help me in getting my section changed
from division D to E as most of my cab members are in E.
Looking forward to your kind consideration and approval.
Thanking you, Enclosures
Yours obediently, ID CARD
(Signature)
KEY POINTS
● Don't write your name or any information relating to you in the letter.
● Write your letters in a way that some space is left in the last line of the paragraph to show that
you have switched to a new paragraph.
● Use a made up name, or any details required as mentioned in the letter.
● Body should be of 2 paragraphs.
● Salutation:
○ If someone outside the organization or your colleague: Yours Sincerely
○ Head of your organization: Yours Obediently

LETTER HEAD PAD

Name SLS NOIDA Pin code

Email of the organization SECTOR 62, NOIDA Telephone number

THE DIRECTOR
SIBM NOIDA

26/07/2024
Dear Madam,
GOOD MORNING - (OPTIONAL)
SUBJECT: INVITATION
On behalf of SLS Noida, I extend a warm invitation on the occasion of freshers to be organised on the
1st of August, 2024 in the auditorium.
Your gracious presence is highly expected.
Thanking you, Enclosures
Yours Sincerely, Invitation
(Signature)

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE

SENDER AND RECEIVER'S ADDRESS

The sender’s and the receiver's address are aligned together, separated by an inch gap, that is one line.
They are interchangeable, but in the case of a letter head pad, the sender’s address is aligned on the top.
Always in capital letters.

DATE
The date is aligned below the sender’s and receiver’s address, separated by an inch gap, that is one line. It
is always written in capital letters. A date can be written in the following formats: 26/JULY/2024,
26/07/2024, JULY 26’ 2024
SALUTATION
Salutation is just below the date without leaving any line. Address the receiver just depending upon the
protocol of the office.

PLEASANTRY
Pleasantry is written just below the salutation without leaving any line. A pleasantry can be Good
morning/afternoon/evening. It is completely optional to write or not.

SUBJECT
Subject includes the main reason for writing this letter. It should be short and just to the point.

BODY
A body must have 2-3 paragraphs. Each paragraph must have 3-5 sentences. There should be no gap
between the paragraphs. The paragraphs must be written in a way that some space is left in the last line of
the paragraph to show that you have switched to a new paragraph.

COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE
In complimentary close, we thank the receiver of the letter or mail. Thank the reader followed by an
expression of goodwill. It can be done through Yours ________ depending upon the relationship with the
receiver. Parallel to the complimentary close is the enclosure.

ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Don't talk like a machine, add a human touch: don't be mechanical, use empathetic language and be
reflective of what you are writing. Be courteous and considerate: Putting ourselves in the shoes of the
other person. Do not sound dull or dry. Do not blame the reader: never blame the reader, no complaining,
when angry never dash your letter out. Avoid being negative and avoid using words like “none”, “no” etc.
Avoid using technical terms and repetitive language. Be natural and precise.

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LETTER [LETTER HEAD PAD]

This type of letter is written when you want to acknowledge someone for the help or support extended
when you are in trouble or you require that person’s voluntary help for the completion of some task. So,
an acknowledgement letter speaks about the volume of the gratitude that you have.

APPRECIATION LETTER [LETTER HEADPAD]

Realising the importance, this letter is written to appropriate someone’s work in the organisation. Written
by a senior to his junior, from one organisation to another, thanking a client. This letter is also a credential
to your C.V.
LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION [LETTER HEAD PAD]
In a letter of recommendation, only the positive traits are to be mentioned. Such a letter is written to
recommend a person for a job position/admission in a higher degree etc. State only positive traits of a
person, required details and how the person can be an asset for an organisation.

ACCEPTANCE LETTER [PLAIN PAPER]

It is a good gesture to formalise your acceptance with an acceptance letter. Begin your acceptance letter
by thanking whosoever has sent you the offer, then make it clear that you have decided to accept it.
Express how much you fulfil the position and mention 1 or 2 aspects of the job that you especially enjoy.
An acceptance letter could also be a duty accepted by you.

APOLOGY LETTER [BOTH PLAIN PAPER AND LETTER HEAD PAD]

Professionally, a person should avoid a situation which leads him to write an apology letter. It can be
written in two ways: personally (on a normal paper), professionally (letter head pad). Some examples of
professional apologies can be: Apology for not being able to keep up with the time or the standards of
service by some organisation, not being able to meet the target of the task, missing an appointment or
deadline, owning something on behalf of the team. Letter should look genuine, actually sorry, a learning
experience and not repeat the mistake.

COMPLAINT AND CLAIM LETTER

Adjustment letter in the context of goods and services = Complaint and Claim letter + Adjustment letter
Adjustment letter in the context of relations = Complaint and Claim letter + Apology letter. No
professional letter should be written in an agitated manner. A complaint letter can be written when an
error has occurred & needs to be taken care of. For example: Billings in restaurants, wrong goods
dispatched, goods arrived in damaged condition etc. In an adjustment letter, the invoice should be a part
of the complaint letter. If the complaint is regarding goods and services, include precise details in the
letter. Suggest a solution to rectify the problem. The letter should be solution based instead of complaint
based.

ADJUSTMENT LETTER
Dealing with a complaint letter is not a very happy thing to do, professionalism requires to deal with
requests and claims which require adjustment. A letter that deals with a complaint and a claim letter is an
adjustment letter. If the mistake is from your end then graciously accept it. If the fault is not from your
end, express your regret, politely point out where the fault is, and suggest a solution in an inoffensive
manner. No adjustment on any product or service without any invoice. Consumers make complaints when
they cannot cope with it themselves. Point out the problem and suggest some redressal without being
rude.

INQUIRY LETTER
A letter of inquiry is written to inquire about a product or service. At times inquiries are also written to
find out the status of an order, also when we want to know about any scholarship, original documents etc.
Precisely point out what you want to require in an Inquiry letter. Your enquiry should always be brief and
straight to the point.
PERMISSION LETTER
In a business, using any copyright work or patented work requires a permission letter. Permission letters
are written to seek permission for example to use any copyrighted material.

INVITATION LETTER
An invitation letter can be written both professionally and personally. Professionally/formal (letter head
pad), Informal (Plain paper).

ORDER LETTER
An order letter is a legal document because it shows the transaction between the customer and the seller.
Give precise details of your order: Specifications of the goods, delivery requirements, details regarding
the terms of payment. End the letter with a concluding sentence

APPLICATION LETTER AND COVER LETTER

Application letter will have the entire details of your resume in the body of the letter itself. The difference
between an application letter and a cover letter is that a cover letter is structured whereas an application
letter need not be structured. A cover letter is a letter of transmittal for your application letter. A job
application letter is a letter of transmittal which talks about if this application is either: Solicited or,
Unsolicited.
BIO DATA: Physical details for wanted purposes
CV: Gradually gaining experience - also about the educational qualification
RESUME: Already experienced for professional work.
JOB APPLICATION: Job cover letter - transmitted to the recruiter. It is either solicited, meaning applying
through referrals, or unsolicited, applying yourself on your own will.

NAME: PHOTO
DATE OF BIRTH:
AGE: (Year/Month/Date)
HEIGHT:
WEIGHT:
BLOOD GROUP:
MOTHER’S NAME:
FATHER’S NAME:
SIBLING’S NAME/S:
MOTHER’S OCCUPATION:
FATHER’S OCCUPATION:
SIBLING’S OCCUPATION:
CONTACT DETAILS:
CONTACT ADDRESS:
1. LOCAL
2. PERMANENT
(Local and permanent address can be the same so avoid local address)
CONTACT NUMBER:
1. MOBILE
 2. LANDLINE
3. EMAIL

DETAILS OF EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:

[Link] Name of Name of University Year of % / CGPA Distinction

Exam Board passing

1. X

2. XII

3. B.A LL.B

DETAILS OF PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS (NO INTERNSHIPS):

S. NO Name of Duration Year of Qualif. Distinction

Organization

DETAILS OF PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

S. NO Name of Organization Duration of work Salary drawn

EXTRA CURRICULAR ACT:

CO CURRICULAR ACT:
HOBBIES:
AIMS/OBJECTIVES:
DECLARATION: I XYZ hereby put on record that the above furnished information is true to my
knowledge and belief.
REFERENCES: (Two people minimum, write about people working with you, no relatives)
Name:
Name of organization:
Designation:
Email ID:
Telephone Number:
SIGNATURE
TYPES OF RESUMES

CHRONOLOGICAL
When writing bio-data details, mention work and educational qualification in a chronological order and
your professional qualification in reverse chronological order.

FUNCTIONAL
Major focus on skills and experience, if changing careers often put in reverse chronology.

HYBRID/COMBINATION
Most usable form, wherein keep on strategically changing job description defined in the job protocol. The
following ways are:
1. PAPER COPY/TRADITIONAL: Need to keep it brief and concise. Prepare in standard font size (12),
font type: serif and sans serif. Make it computer friendly.
2. ELECTRONIC/SCANNABLE: Electronic CV - plain text in ASCII or HTML. Submitted along with a
job covering letter. Make use of the key words to provide information about skills, work experience and
qualification.
3. NON TRADITIONAL RESUME: Visual CV: Make your own website, make it easy and presentable.
Video Resume: Online Interview.
 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
Professional communication refers to the exchange of information, ideas, and messages in a formal and
effective manner within a workplace or organisational setting. It ensures clarity, respect, and purpose,
playing a vital role in building strong relationships, fostering collaboration, and achieving organisational
goals while maintaining professionalism and ethical standards. Strong communication skills help
individuals convey their thoughts effectively, address conflicts, and encourage teamwork, all of which are
crucial in today’s competitive and diverse work environments. By mastering professional communication,
individuals can enhance their credibility, boost productivity, and contribute to a positive organisational
culture.
Something professional that you do intentionally or unintentionally - goal specific, message. Message is
first interpreted by the sender through some medium and then explained to the receiver.

MESSAGE —-> SENDER —> CHANNEL MEDIUM —> ENCODE —-> RECEIVER —->
CHANNEL MEDIUM —-> DECODE —-> FEEDBACK —> SENDER

The word communication comes from the latin word “communicare”, meaning to share, impart or
communicate. Done through verbal or non verbal ways. According to Keith Davis, “Communication is
the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another person.” It is the process of
sending and receiving messages.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. MESSAGE: Idea, thoughts, emotions, feelings, information. Objective: what exists in the
sender’s mind.
2. SENDER: The transmission of the mensagem- communication of the message- starts and ends
with him. What makes a sender? The interpretation of the messages makes a sender.
3. CHANNEL/MEDIUM: Sender’s understanding is through the knowledge - channel is the path
through which message travels - the choice of the channel depends upon the sender, which is the
same for the receiver.
4. ENCODING: Act of converting data into codes, translate into symbols through signs, pics,
audio-visuals.
5. RECEIVER: The one who has to decode the message.
6. DECODING: Meaningful interpretation of the message conveyed by the sender.
7. FEEDBACK: Reaction, response or reply that the receiver gives - confirms the receipt of the
message - directed towards the sender and completes the communication cycle.

ADVANTAGES:
Confirms receipt of a message. Enables the receiver to clear his doubts. Tells if the receiver is interested
in the communication or not. Make necessary changes. Encourages interactive communication
Completes cycle of communication:
One way: In one-way communication, information flows in a single direction from the sender to the
receiver. There is no feedback loop from the receiver back to the sender.
Two way: two-way communication involves a reciprocal process where information flows back and forth
between the sender and the receiver. Feedback is an integral part of this communication process.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is characterised by several key features that make it a fundamental aspect of human
interaction.
It is a dynamic process, meaning it is constantly evolving and adapting to new situations and contexts.
For example, communication in the IT sector frequently changes as technology and industry practices
develop.
Communication is also a continuous process, one that never truly ends, as individuals and organisations
constantly share and receive information.
It is inherently a two-way process, involving both the sender and the receiver, who exchange messages
and feedback.
Additionally, communication is persuasive and does not occur in isolation; it is often used to influence
others or achieve a specific purpose.
Communication is goal-oriented, meaning it is usually conducted with a particular aim or objective in
mind.
It is also contextual, taking place within a specific framework or environment that influences its form and
content. Ultimately, communication serves to share, impart, and exchange sentiments, ideas, and
information, fostering connection and understanding between individuals and groups.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication serves several essential functions that facilitate interaction and understanding among
individuals and groups.
One of the primary functions is the informative function, which involves sharing information and facts
to increase knowledge or awareness.
Another important function is the directive function, where communication is used to give instructions or
guidelines that help achieve specific outcomes.
The advisory function provides guidance or recommendations to assist others in decision-making.
The educational function of communication involves imparting knowledge or skills, which is crucial in
professional and academic settings, where clear and effective communication contributes to learning and
development.
Additionally, the persuasive function aims to influence others' attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours.
This function can be further divided into two types: personal persuasion, which focuses on convincing
individuals on a personal level, and motivational persuasion, which seeks to inspire or motivate a group
or audience towards a particular action or goal.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication in professional settings is essential because it involves sharing different types of
messages with various people in different situations. We can't use the same message or style of
communication for every situation. Each context requires a unique approach to ensure the message is
clear and effective. For example, the way we talk to a colleague in a casual setting may differ from how
we speak to a client or supervisor. Because of this, communication can be divided into two main types:
verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication includes speaking and writing, where we use words to
convey our thoughts and ideas. Non-verbal communication, on the other hand, includes body language,
facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice, which all help to express feelings and emotions. Both
types are important and work together to help us communicate effectively in various professional
situations. Communication can be divided into 2 groups:
● Verbal communication: Oral communication- anything that is spoken in words. Language plays a
vital role in oral and written communication and, Written communication
● Non Verbal: Physical, body language, pictures, signs.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
1. ORAL COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication provides numerous advantages that make it an effective and valuable mode of
interaction. One of its key benefits is the immediacy it offers, allowing for real-time communication
where messages can be conveyed and understood instantly. This makes it an incredibly fast medium,
especially useful in situations where quick decision-making is required.
Furthermore, oral communication is enriched by non-verbal cues such as body language, facial
expressions, and tone of voice, which can significantly enhance the message being delivered and leave a
lasting impression on the listener.
Another advantage of oral communication is its ability to foster strong interpersonal relationships. The
direct interaction between individuals creates a sense of connection and trust, which can be particularly
important in both personal and professional settings.
The immediate feedback that oral communication allows also plays a crucial role in ensuring that the
message is clearly understood, reducing the chances of miscommunication. This two-way interaction
enables participants to address any misunderstandings or questions on the spot, leading to more effective
communication.
Oral communication often leads to the development of informal relationships, as it encourages a more
personal and less rigid exchange of ideas. This can be especially beneficial in team environments or in
situations where collaboration and cooperation are essential.
Finally, oral communication is a cost-effective method, as it eliminates the need for written materials or
technological tools, thereby saving both time and money.

DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication, while effective in many ways, also has its disadvantages. One significant drawback
is the lack of legal validity, as spoken words cannot serve as official documentation or evidence in legal
matters.
Additionally, oral communication is not well-suited for conveying lengthy or complex messages, as it
can be challenging for the audience to absorb and retain all the details in one go. The effectiveness of oral
communication also relies heavily on the audience's ability to comprehend the message quickly, which
may not always be possible, especially in more intricate discussions.
Moreover, oral communication requires the simultaneous presence of both the sender and the receiver,
limiting its flexibility and convenience. This can be particularly problematic in situations where the
parties involved are in different locations or have conflicting schedules.
Finally, one of the most significant disadvantages of oral communication is the lack of a tangible record.
Without written or recorded proof, there is no way to refer back to the communication in the future, which
can lead to misunderstandings or disputes over what was said.

2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication offers several advantages, making it an essential mode of conveying information.
It is particularly fit for lengthy messages, allowing detailed or complex information to be shared
effectively.
It also holds legal validity, serving as formal documentation that can be used for legal purposes.
Additionally, permanent records can be made, ensuring that the information is preserved for future
reference.
Written messages can be structured clearly so that messages can be made understandable, reducing
the chances of miscommunication.
Unlike verbal communication, the presence of both the sender and the receiver is not required at the
same time, making it highly convenient.
Furthermore, the message can be repeated as many times as the reader wants, facilitating better
understanding. Finally, it allows for mistakes to be fixed before the message is finalised, ensuring
accuracy and professionalism.

DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication, while effective, comes with several disadvantages.
It can be time-taking, as drafting, reviewing, and delivering written messages require considerable effort.
It often involves a huge amount of paperwork, leading to challenges in storage and management.
Additionally, it is a costly means of communication, especially when printing, postage, or digital tools
are involved.
Writing effectively requires practice and patience, making it inaccessible for those lacking these skills.
Unlike verbal communication, it cannot use non-verbal terms such as tone or gestures, which can limit
emotional expression.
Another drawback is that it offers no immediate response, delaying feedback and interaction.
It also fosters no personal relationship, as it lacks the warmth and connection of face-to-face
communication.
Lastly, it is unfit for illiterate persons, excluding those who cannot read or write from its benefits.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Through spoken words Through written medium

Speaker not clear and ambiguous in nature Its clear and to the point

Informal Formal

Quick responses No quick responses

 Fast moving process Slow moving process

Long messages are difficult to convey Long messages are easy to convey

Non-verbal means can be used Non-verbal means cannot be used

Economical Costly as required

Tables, diagrams and pictures cannot be Can be communicated

communicated

Requires the presence of the speaker and receiver Not required.

at the same time.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication involves conveying messages without the use of words, relying instead on
actions, gestures, signs, and other visual or auditory cues. The adage "actions speak louder than words"
highlights how powerful body language, facial expressions, and other non-verbal signals can be in
conveying emotions and intentions. As an ancient form of communication, it has been used for centuries
through gestures and signs, predating written and spoken language. Non-verbal communication can be
both auditory or visual, including sounds, tones, body movements, and visual symbols. It complements
oral communication by reinforcing or adding depth to spoken words, making interactions more
meaningful and effective.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VERBAL AND NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

VERBAL COMMUNICATION NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Structural and easy to study Not structured

Communication is through words Communication is through gestures, signs

Universal signs used Complements oral communication

Fir for formal communication Unfit for formal communication

Legal validity No legal validity

Can be preserved for future references Cannot be preserved for future references

Not possible with illiterate, deaf, dumb, mentally Possible

retarded people
LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATION
Language is one of the most unique possessions of humans, serving as a powerful tool for
communication. It is a system of words and symbols that allows individuals to express their feelings,
emotions, wants, knowledge, and ideas. Language is both conventional and structured, making it an
effective medium for sharing information and connecting with others. It reflects the personality and ideas
of an individual, and its study, known as linguistics, is distinct from the mere use of language itself.
Language varies widely depending on cultural and geographical factors, with each language having its
own persona and style. Over time, some languages evolve and change, known as dynamic languages,
while others remain unchanged and become classified as dead languages. Learning and mastering a
language is a gradual process that develops listening, speaking, reading, and writing (LSRW) skills,
enhancing overall communication abilities and coordination.

WHAT IS NON-VERBAL LANGUAGE?

Body language, the study of which is known as kinesics, is a major part of non verbal language.
Professionally, there are some limits on the use of body language.
Elements of body language:
Personal appearance: Neat a presentable, hygienic, something that does not bother others like body
odour and skin types. Professional attire and should be well-groomed.
Facial Expressions: Speak less and listen more, have positive feedback but hide the negative feedback to
influence your facial expression. Facial expression should be controlled, something going on in the mind
must not come on the face.
Eye contact: when in a one-to-one conversation, eye contact can be made, but when speaking in front of
the masses, no need to make eye contact.
Head: Nodding, head held high shows confidence but also attitude, but head held low shows respect but
also low confidence.
Posture: Straight, standing erect when actually working, legs close to each other.
Gestures: Movement Of the body, no touching professionally, supplements oral communication, mutual
understanding. If words do not then body language conveys. Interpretation of body language can be
mistaken and misleading, not for the visually impaired, not too good when in culturally different places.
Sign language: Signs, signals, symbols, pictures, drawing etc.
Para language (Tone): how something is said? Not what is said, rather how it is said. Pitch, frequency,
vibration of vocal cords etc.
PROXEMICS
Proxemics is derived from proximity. Distance between persons professionally: 4-12ft Proxemics is the
study of how people use and perceive physical space in communication. It explores the amount of
personal space individuals prefer to keep between themselves and others in different situations. This can
vary based on cultural norms, personal preferences, and the type of relationship between the people
involved. For example, standing close to a friend during a conversation might feel comfortable, while the
same distance with a stranger might feel intrusive. Proxemics helps us understand how physical distance
affects communication, comfort, and social interactions.

CHRONEMICS
Chronemics is the study of how time affects communication and behaviour. It looks at how people
perceive and use time in their interactions, such as being punctual, the amount of time spent in
conversation, or the pace of speech. Different cultures and individuals may have varying attitudes toward
time—some may see being on time as a sign of respect, while others might have a more relaxed approach.
Chronemics helps us understand how our perceptions of time can influence communication, relationships,
and social interactions.

HAPTICS
Haptics is the study of how touch is used in communication. It examines how different types of physical
contact, like a handshake, hug, or pat on the back, convey messages and emotions. The meaning and
appropriateness of touch can vary greatly depending on cultural norms, the relationship between people,
and the context of the interaction. For example, a friendly hug might be acceptable in some cultures but
considered inappropriate in others. Haptics helps us understand how touch can communicate feelings,
establish connections, and influence social interactions.
MODES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a multi-dimensional and multi-directional process that occurs in various ways
depending on the requirement and purpose. It can take different forms to effectively convey messages and
achieve specific goals. In an organisational context, communication is used to fulfil the goals set by the
organisation and is typically categorised into formal and informal modes. Formal communication
follows established channels and structures, such as reports, meetings, and official emails, while informal
communication occurs through more casual interactions, like conversations and social interactions among
colleagues. Both types are essential for ensuring that information is shared effectively and organisational
objectives are met.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal communication is used for official purposes and is characterised by its structured and planned
nature. It occurs between different designations within an organisation and can also take place between
the organisation and external entities. These communication channels are often controlled by individuals,
particularly those in human resources or managerial roles. Formal communication can be oral or written
and includes various forms such as messages, reports, presentations, orders, and face-to-face meetings. It
follows established protocols and procedures to ensure clarity, accuracy, and professionalism in the
exchange of information.
Organisational communication: within or outside the organisation: To further the goals of the
organisation. At different levels, different work takes place thus a proper network is required.

Organisational communication: Internal

Organisational communication within the framework of the organisation focuses on instructing and
guiding people. It typically occurs through channels such as emails and involves various types of
interactions: vertical, horizontal, and diagonal. Vertical communication flows up and down the
organisational hierarchy, involving superiors, peers and subordinates. Horizontal communication takes
place between peers or colleagues at the same level, facilitating collaboration and coordination. Diagonal
communication occurs across different levels and departments, connecting individuals with different roles
and responsibilities. This structure includes a built-in hierarchy, where communication flows between
superiors, peers, and subordinates, ensuring effective instruction and information dissemination
throughout the organisation.

Organisational communication: External

External organisational communication is about interacting with people and groups outside the company.
This includes communicating with competitors, banks and investors, media outlets, and government
agencies. Such communication is usually formal and serves various purposes like managing business
relationships, sharing important information, and handling external matters. It can be done through
different methods, including letters, notices, brochures, phone calls, and press releases. These tools help
organisations present themselves professionally and effectively to the outside world, ensuring clear and
proper communication with external stakeholders. This type of communication is crucial for maintaining
a good image, securing business deals, and staying informed about external developments.
HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
Vertical communication refers to the flow of information between different levels of an organisation's
hierarchy. This type of communication occurs in two directions: upward, where employees share
information, feedback, or reports with their supervisors or higher management, and downward, where
managers or executives convey instructions, policies, or updates to their subordinates.

DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION
Diagonal communication refers to the exchange of information between individuals at different levels
and departments within an organisation, bypassing the traditional hierarchical or departmental lines. This
type of communication connects employees from various levels and functional areas, such as a junior
staff member in one department communicating with a senior manager in another.
PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Personal communication refers to interactions among employees within an organization that occur for
personal reasons rather than official purposes. This type of communication happens between employees,
their families, or within informal groups. It involves sharing personal interests, discussing
non-work-related topics, and building relationships that are not directly related to job responsibilities or
organisational goals. Personal communication helps employees connect on a personal level, fostering a
supportive work environment and creating a sense of community, even though it does not contribute
directly to official work tasks or objectives.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Informal communication involves social interactions that are not official and do not follow any specific
rules or structures. This type of communication happens naturally and spontaneously among employees. It
supplements formal communication by providing a more relaxed and personal way for people to connect,
share ideas, and build relationships. Informal communication helps create a friendly work environment
and can enhance teamwork and collaboration by allowing employees to interact beyond the formal
boundaries of their roles and responsibilities.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

FORMAL COMMUNICATION INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Official Unofficial

Slow moving process Fast moving process

Origin can be known easily Origin difficult to find

Responsibility of mistake can be fixed easily Cannot be fixed easily

Task oriented People oriented

Consists of work related matters Consists of work related matters as well as social
matters.

No space for non verbal means There is space for non verbal means

Has authenticity No authenticity

Message has accuracy No guarantee of accuracy

Purpose is to achieve organisational goals Achieve personal goals

Orderly and systematic Unsystematic and erratic

Flows in fixed directions Can flow in any directions

NETWORK/CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication involves sharing information from one person to another, and this information travels
through specific paths known as networks or channels. A network is a system of intersecting lines or
connections that shows how different people or departments are linked. A channel is the actual path
through which the message travels, such as an email, phone call, or face-to-face conversation. While the
network outlines the overall structure of communication within an organization, the channel is the specific
route used to send the message. Both are crucial for ensuring that information moves efficiently and
reaches the intended recipients. There are various channels of communication in an organization divided
into 2 categories: Formal and Informal.

FORMAL NETWORK
A formal network in an organization is a structured system where information flows through specific,
prescribed paths and is managed by designated office bearers. This network is established based on roles
and goals within the organization. There are various models of the same:

CHAIN MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

In the chain model of a network, information flows in a straight line from one person to the next. Each
person gets the message, adds their part, and then hands it to the next person in the line. This model helps
keep communication organised and ensures everyone in the chain gets the same information, but it can be
slow because each person has to wait for the previous one to finish before they can act.

A↔B B↔C C↔D……

Y NETWORK OF COMMUNICATION
In a Y network of communication, one central person communicates directly with up to three other people
at the same time. This central person acts as the main source of information and shares it with all the
connected individuals in a single step. The setup allows for quick and efficient sharing of information, as
the central person can reach multiple people simultaneously. However, this network is typically limited to
a small number of people—usually up to three.
WHEEL NETWORK OF COMMUNICATION
In a wheel network, a senior or superior person is at the centre and controls all communication. This
central figure is the main point of contact, and everyone else communicates through this person. While
the network can include an unlimited number of people, there is only one central person who manages
and directs the flow of information.

CIRCLE NETWORK OF COMMUNICATION

In a circle network, there is no central person. Instead, everyone can communicate with any other person
directly. This type of network allows for free and open exchange of information between all members,
often in a circular or ring-like pattern. Each person can reach out to any other person, facilitating diagonal
communication across the group. However, this network is typically limited to about 8 people.
STAR NETWORK OF COMMUNICATION
In a star network, there is no formal hierarchy, and everyone can communicate with any other person
directly, allowing for diagonal communication. This setup is also known as a flat platform because it
eliminates levels of authority and promotes open, equal interaction among all members. Each person is
connected to every other person, creating an inter-connected system where information can flow freely
and quickly.

INFORMAL NETWORK
The informal network, often referred to as the grapevine, involves the unofficial flow of communication
within an organization. It is driven by personal connections and relationships rather than formal
structures. In this network, information, including rumours and gossip, spreads informally among
employees. Unlike official communication channels, the informal network is created and controlled by the
people themselves, based on friendships and social interactions. The term ‘grapevine’ comes from the
American civil war. It was used because telegraph lines, which carried messages, looked like twisted
grapevines. Just like grapevines spread out in a tangled way, the grapevine communication network
spreads news and rumours informally

CHAINS OF INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Grapevine chain: Regardless of rank, the movement is linear - vertical or horizontal
Gossip chain: Pass information on to numerous individuals, which in turn pass to other individuals and
so on..
Probability chain: An individual’s primary source - then randomly telling people - receiver is not
decided.
Cluster chain: Source of message to numerous people - then told to a pre-selected group. The receiver
here is pre decided.

ADVANTAGES OF INFORMAL NETWORK

Speed: Information spreads quickly and spontaneously, reaching people faster than through formal
channels.
Accessibility: Even passive or less active employees can easily receive information.
Supplementary: It complements the formal communication channels, providing additional ways to share
information.
Expression: It gives employees an avenue to express themselves and share their thoughts and concerns.
Cost: It is an inexpensive way to communicate since it relies on personal interactions rather than formal
systems.
Teamwork: It helps build teamwork by fostering informal interactions and connections among
employees.
Motivation: It can boost morale and motivation by creating a more engaging and supportive environment.
Social Relations: It strengthens social relationships and friendships within the organization.

DISADVANTAGES OF INFORMAL NETWORK

The informal network has some disadvantages. Firstly, it often lacks authenticity since information
shared through this channel can be inaccurate or distorted. This can lead to misunderstandings or the
spread of rumours.
Additionally, it can harm the reputation of the organization if false or damaging information circulates,
affecting how the organization is perceived externally.
Lastly, the informal network can affect employees' morale negatively if it leads to gossip,
misinformation, or exclusion, which may undermine trust and create a toxic work environment.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Barrier means obstacle or any hindrance which comes in the free flow of communication. There are
various obstacles that act as a barrier in the way of the transmission of a message. These barriers slow
down the process of communication and lead the communication to breakdown. They cause confusion,
misunderstanding and conflict. Effectiveness of communication depends upon the presence or absence of
some conditions which can be either favourable or unfavourable. Favourable conditions include proper
facilities, good environment, good weather etc. Unfavourable conditions are opposite of favourable
conditions and they hinder the free flow of communication. They fall under the category of professional
barriers, which can be divided under 6 headings:

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Physical barriers in professional communication are obstacles that disrupt the flow of information.
These barriers can include noise, which can be internal, like distractions within the workplace, or
external, such as traffic sounds or construction noise outside. Distance between the sender and receiver
can also hinder effective communication if they are too far apart to interact easily. Time is another barrier;
if there is a delay in responding to messages or if both parties are not available at the same time,
communication can be disrupted. Lastly, information overload occurs when too much information is
shared at once, making it difficult for the receiver to process and understand everything. In professional
settings, it's important to keep information concise and manageable to avoid overwhelming the audience.

PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
Professionally, psychological barriers can be one of the reasons leading to problems in communications.
Communication breakdown because of the following reasons can be a psychological barrier:
Emotions: anger, anxiety, happiness, sadness etc.
Inattention: Disinterest, when your mind does not accept the current situation, when you are a good
speaker but not a good listener.
Premature Evaluations: When you make impressions too quickly. Try to understand the person, do not
make judgements based on the first impression.
Poor Retention: Mental state of mind is not normal which results in poor retention of messages.
Distrust: When you don’t trust people. Communication can break down when there is a lack of trust
between the sender and the receiver.
Lack of Interest: When you don’t like something to be down. When you are pushed into doing
something that is not your cup of tea.

SEMANTIC BARRIERS
Misinterpretation of words can create semantic barriers in communication, where the meaning of a
message is misunderstood. Several factors can lead to these barriers. Pronunciation or poor expression
can cause confusion if words are not clearly spoken or articulated. The use of technical words or jargon
can also create barriers, especially if the receiver is not familiar with the specialized language being used.
Faulty translations can lead to misunderstandings when a message is not accurately converted from one
language to another, causing a loss of meaning.

CULTURAL BARRIERS
Cultural barriers in communication arise when people from different cultural backgrounds have varying
beliefs, behaviours, and practices. Culture reflects the specific behaviours and traditions of a social group,
and these differences can lead to misunderstandings. For example, each religion and culture has its own
set of values, customs, and restrictions, such as dietary rules or social norms. What is acceptable or
common in one culture might be disapproved of or misunderstood in another. These inter-cultural
differences can create challenges in communication if people are not aware of or sensitive to each other's
cultural norms and values.

ORGANISATIONAL BARRIERS
Organisational barriers are obstacles to effective communication that occur within or outside an
organization. These barriers can include hierarchy, where the layers of management and strict chain of
command can slow down or distort the flow of information, making it difficult for messages to reach all
employees clearly and promptly. Additionally, strict rules and regulations can restrict open
communication, creating a formal atmosphere where people may feel hesitant to share ideas or feedback.
Both of these factors can limit effective communication, leading to misunderstandings and reducing
overall organisational efficiency.

MECHANICAL BARRIERS
Mechanical barriers in communication occur when there are issues with the equipment or tools used to
convey messages. For example, a faulty telephone or other broken communication devices can prevent
messages from being transmitted clearly or at all. Additionally, faulty choice refers to selecting
inappropriate or ineffective communication tools for the task at hand, such as using outdated technology
or the wrong platform for a message. These mechanical issues can disrupt the flow of information,
leading to delays, misunderstandings, or missed communications.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication is required in all walks of professional life, be it business, academics or professional
relations. Effective communication is the blood and soul of any communication because it connects
employees, facilitates changes and drives results. Every organization needs an effective communication
network in order to function properly and achieve the set objectives. Effective communication is directly
proportional to the quality of communication and the ability to convince the customers. Managers need
good communication skills in order to perform their work. Students need good communication skills to
communicate with their teachers. It is crucial for building professional relations and a person who is not
able to communicate properly is taken for granted professionally.

Effectiveness of communication largely depends on the skills of both the sender and receiver. They can be
learned or adopted by adopting certain principles. These principles provide the guidelines for the choice
of consent and style of presentation. These principles were theoretically given by Francis J Bergin “7 Cs
of communication.”. They are:
Completeness: Completing the content in every sense.
Conciseness: Concise the information.
Clarity: Clarity of thought and expression.
Concreteness: Being able to be perceived by the senses.
Consideration: Being empathetic as a sender or receiver.
Courtesy: Graceful, politeness, no offensive words, patient, friendly and polite behaviour.
Correctness: Grammar and right language and being accurate with facts and figures.

OTHER MEANS TO KEEP COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE

To keep communication effective, several practices are essential. Using proper body language—such as
maintaining eye contact and employing appropriate gestures—reinforces the message and shows
engagement.
Choosing appropriate language ensures clarity and helps the receiver understand the message easily.
Providing and seeking feedback clarifies any misunderstandings and confirms that the message was
accurately received.
Participative listening, where you actively engage with the speaker, enhances comprehension and
encourages open dialogue.
Practising self-control helps maintain a respectful communication environment by managing emotions
and reactions.
Well-planned messages, organised clearly and concisely, improve the effectiveness of communication.
Finally, having an openness of mind—being receptive to different perspectives and adaptable—fosters
better understanding and facilitates smoother interactions.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Good communication skills enhance the effectiveness of communication. These skills play a vital role in
the progress of a person. These are acquired through conscious efforts and each skill has its own
importance. LSRW skills are related to each other as listening is directly related to speaking and writing
and to reading. Listening and reading are used for input and speaking and writing are used for expression.

LISTENING
Understanding the spoken language is listening. It involves the understanding of spoken language. It can
be cultivated and developed. It involves reception and decoding of oral messages from another person.
Listening and speaking go hand in hand as one is incomplete without the other. Listening is the process of
receiving and interpreting a message received from the speaker. It involves observation and
comprehension of the message. Listening is more effective than hearing because it involves not only the
comprehension of the message but also the observation of the body movements. You could also say that
listening is the process of physical hearing of the message and taking mental notes. Listening involves the
following 4 steps:
Hearing: Here the listener hears the message with attention.
Interpreting: Trying to understand the meaning of what is heard. This includes body movements.|
Evaluating: Evaluation of the received information.
Responding: Another difference between hearing. How you respond to the message such as positive or
negative.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEARNING AND HEARING

HEARING LISTENING

It is a physical process: a casual act of hearing Physical as well as mental process: listening with
sounds. full attention.

Hearing is a passive process Listening is an active process.

Hearing is involuntary. Listening is involuntary.

Happens automatically whether you like it or not. Requires conscious efforts.

One-way process 2-way process.

Does not include the speaker’s body movement. Derives meaning from the speaker’s gestures and
expressions as well.

TYPES OF LISTENING
Attentive listening: This means complete attention of the listener i.e. paying attention to every part of the
message and every body movement of the speaker. It is productive and interactive. It requires conscious
efforts and requires constant effort such as concentration, focus, interaction and active involvement. This
kind of listening is carried out in formal meetings, group discussions, job interviews etc.
Selective listening: What most people do in regular life. Only on something interesting do we listen to it
as per our wishes and our choices. We select the desired and ignore the undesired.
Appreciative listening: When you do it for amusement and entertainment.
Evaluative listening: The evaluation of the oral message where the listener extracts and interprets both
the explicit and the implicit meaning of the message. Thus he/she evaluates the message to select
appropriate information. Output can be produced in the form of immediate response. For example,
listening to workshops, seminars etc.
Empathetic listening: Where you evaluate the person through his state of mind and situation by
understanding how it was spoken, observing the body language, intention, attitude and the signals made
by the speaker to emphatically understand the speaker.

SPEAKING
Speech is the first and the foremost activity of any language. The child learns to speak first and develops
the ability to read and write much later. It is the vocalised form of human communication. The speaker
conveys the message through spoken words, the listener decodes the message. It requires knowledge of
pronunciation. It is an interactive process, where both speaker and listener have to participate. Speaking
and Listening go hand in hand. In the case of a mother tongue, these skills are developed at home through
speaking and listening practice. But gradually people require other languages as well formally. It gives
ample opportunity to the speaker to express themselves. Each word is created out of phonetic combination
out of limited vowels, consonants and speed sound movements. While speaking, body language plays an
essential role, it even enhances the effectiveness of messages. It is used in formal as well as informal
situations. Every academic institution and business situation needs a spoken communication, be it
meeting, seminar, symposium. It increases the visibility of the speaker and it enhances the success rate as
well.

TYPES OF SPEAKING
Interactive Speaking: It involves the participation of both the speaker as well as listener, the speaker
speaks and thereafter the speaker may give feedback as well. Conversations, dialogue, GDs, interviews
are some examples.
Partially interactive speaking: In this the speaker speaks more and the listener plays a minor role, he
interacts only to ask questions and clear doubts. Best example is classroom teaching. This can take place
in formal as well as informal situations.
Non-Interactive speaking: One sided, the speaker speaks and the listener listens passively, there is no
scope of feedback. Examples would be the policy announcement, songs, speech by a leader.

READING
It is another communication skill; it is through constant experimentation. It is done through
communicating with symbols and transferring them into meaningful words. It is done by eyes, it is
thought of as a passive process but it is rather an active process, done through graphic symbols as well.
Effective reading requires knowledge of symbols, grammar, pronunciation, etc. Purpose for reading for
everyone is different.

TYPES OF READING
Skimming: You skim when you’re short of time to read the whole text, you look over to get the general
idea, while skipping the details. Example – choosing books to buy.
Scanning: It is done for a specific purpose, the reader doesn’t just run their eyes across the text, he
registers and reads every word carefully, looking for details. If they come across an unfamiliar word in
text, they try to find the word’s meanings and usages from the dictionary. Example – Reading newspaper
Extensive Reading: Reading done for pleasure like novels, comic strips in free time. It isn’t just
enjoyable but it is also informative and knowledgeable. The reader practises rapid reading to get an
overall idea of the text.
Intensive reading: Reading slowly with concentration, to extract specific information from text, the
reader reads carefully and derives meaning of every word, number and fact. Example – reading of reports
and contracts.

WRITING
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium, you use signs and symbols, the script of the
language is used. The stationary is required to do this. The written document is permanent and stored for
ages. You need to have knowledge of spellings specially for students AND professionals writing plays an
important role and any inconsistency here would lead to troubles. You need practice for it. There are
various styles – informal and formal, technical and nontechnical terms, depends upon type of profession
you’re in.

TYPES OF WRITING
General Writing: You don’t need to adhere to grammar, language, structure, done for general
communication.
Technical writing: You do it to explain technical processes. You use the technical terms. You follow a set
pattern, free from grammatical errors, there is usage of jargons and technical terms, learnt through
constant practice. For example – handbooks, user manual etc.
Business writing: This is done for business purposes, less formal in style and nature, its tone is
conversational, it is used for formal as well as informal situations, for example – order letter, brochure. d.
Academic writing: based on analysis, that is analysing an issue, idea, subject, topic, studying the topic,
forming hypotheses, drawing inferences, presenting the information in logical order. Used in formal and
semi-formal situations, done to make complicated ideas easy to understand, you only have to use formal
words and languages. This is further divided under 4 heads –

● Expository writing – It is based on a subject, it is devoid of descriptive details and opinions, it

includes definition, instruction, directions, facts and clarification. The main purpose is to inform,
instruct, explain and describe the subject to the reader. Best use is essays, articles, and textbooks.
It is formal in style in nature.
● Persuasive Writing – Something that can persuade a reader to perform a particular activity, also
to persuade the reader to agree with the writer’s opinion. Such words which convince people are
used. You’ll generally find this writing in articles and essays but it is different from expository
writing as it doesn’t rely only on facts but focuses on opinions and arguments and details. It is
kind of a debate. It is also called argumentative writing.
● Descriptive writing – used to describe a character, place, thing, event in a vivid manner to create
a picture in the reader’s mind. Such writing is used in poems, using literal and metaphorical
phrases as well. Fictional / non fictional characters, diary writing, character sketch would be
descriptive writing.
● Narrative Writing – when you narrate a story or an event, it puts it in sequential manner, it starts
from earlier time and proceeds to present and future. The narrator is believed to be present and
narrating. Example – travelogues, autobiography
INTRA AND INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Intra-personal is when you interact with yourself. It involves the process of feeling and thinking. It
includes introspection. Professionally it helps you overcome emotional distress and negative feelings.
Intra means inside, within.

Intra-Communication: Within the same department (vertical, horizontal)

Inter-Communication: Within departments: Inside, outside

Interpersonal involves several people. Includes message sending and message receiving. It’s the
communication that you do in an organisation. It’s the process of transmitting, exchanging or sharing
information between two or more people. A speech, a conversation, a dialog etc are all examples of
interpersonal communications. It takes place through different modes:
One to One: Going for a cup of coffee, asking the vendor to give you something. Face to face comms
between any two friends, husband and wife etc. It is also called dyadic communication. Other people may
also be present.
Group communication: One person talking to multiple people/ multiple people talking to multiple. a.
Small group comms: When there is a small group which is >2 but <40-50 individuals.
Large group: Size can be from 100-1000. All participants present on the same platform.
Mass communication: Done on a large scale. Mass media is used for this. Helps in communicating when
you are separated geographically. TV, Radio, newspapers, magazines etc. A mediator is often required to
transfer the message. The editor of the mass media acts as the mediator and selects and finalises the
material which is then submitted via mass media. The Internet is also a part of mass comms.
 REPORT WRITING
WHAT IS A REPORT?
It is a major form of technical business and professional communication. All professionals whether they
are lawyers, scientists, managers, administrators etc they all write different types of reports for different
purposes. For example, a scientist will write a report to provide scientific data, a manager will write a
report to evaluate the situation, the lawyer will write a report to write the progress of the case, an admin
will write it to inform his superiors. Thus, a report is written for a specific purpose and for a specific
audience. Reports normally move in an upward direction and are used to inform the superiors but can also
be used for peers and subordinates. They can be presented orally, electronically or in writing. Report can
be a description of an event by a person who witnessed it to the person who was not actually present on
the scene or an analysis of a condition, situation or problem for effective solutions. It is a piece of factual
writing based on evidence and contains organised information. They can be presented in both formal and
informal situations. A report submitted by an official in an organization is called a formal report. It is
always presented in a prescribed format. An informal report is usually in the form of a person to person
communication. It can range from a few lines to several pages and it does not have a fixed format. It is
prepared according to the convenience of the sender and the receiver.A report written on one’s own
initiative is an unsolicited report while a report written on the basis of request, demand or order is a
solicited report.

OBJECTIVES OF A REPORT
To give information about activities, progress, plans, and problems of an individual, organization or
department.

● To record research findings or technical specifications.

● To present the record of an accomplished work.
● To tell the facts of an event for future reference of action.
● To present information to a large number of people.
● To present organised information on a particular topic.
● To recommend the actions that can be considered to resolve the problem.
● To monitor business operations.
● To bring about new policies and procedures.
● To help in decision making.
● To justify a controversial decision.
TYPES OF REPORTS
Reports can be divided into 2 headings: Oral & Written. Written reports can be further divided into formal
and informal types.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN REPORT

ORAL WRITTEN

It is a spoken report It is a written report

They are presented face to face Not necessarily presented face to face, can be
electronically sent or as an evidence

They are easy for the speaker because the They are easy for the reader but difficult for the
preparations are made beforehand but difficult for writer.
the listener.

They are temporary or ephemeral in nature. Written reports are a permanent record of
information.

Immediate clarification is possible. Immediate clarification is not possible in the

absence of face to face communication.

They are less accurate and reliable. They are more accurate and reliable.

They are informal They are formal.

INFORMAL REPORT
Informal Report: The purpose of an informal report is to fulfil an immediate requirement which does not
require an elaborate analysis or presentation. They are shorter than formal reports. For instance if the
managing director wishes to know the current status of production or performance of employees in a
particular department, the information can be presented in an informal report. They are of two types: letter
report & Memo.

[Link] REPORT

Name SLS NOIDA Pin code

Email of the organization SECTOR 62, NOIDA Telephone number

THE DIRECTOR
SIBM NOIDA

DATE
Dear Madam
Good Morning
SUBJECT
 INTRODUCTION
FINDINGS
CONCLUSION
Thanking You
Yours Sincerely
(Sign)

[Link] (INTRA-ORGANISATION)
It is a prescribed form which is used to send important information within an organization. It is used to
convey information regarding routine business matters such as sending information from one department
to another announcing a change in the policy matters intimating the minor administrative changes that are
to be done etc. It deals with minor problems and provides facts of routine nature using the inter office
memorandum format and is called a memo report. Since it is meant to be circulated within the
organization, it is more informal in style as compared to letter reports.

SLS NOIDA
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
INTRODUCTION PARAGRAPH:
MAIN TEXT:
CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH:
SIGN: C/C

FORMAL REPORTS
These are periodic reports which can be submitted annually, quarterly, monthly, weekly or at any other
prescribed intervals in the routine of business affairs. In these reports usually some columns are given in a
Performa where some ticks are to be put and if something has to be written it is written briefly. Formal
reports are divided into Routine, Informative and interpretive

ROUTINE REPORTS
Progress report: Reports the status/progress of a particular project undertaken by an organization during
a specific period.
Lab reports: Students of engineering, science, psychology, biology all make use of this. Lab reports for
various organisations are mostly structured and recorded on a performa
Inventory report: This is normally computer generated and requires the user to put in relevant data.
Often this report is computer generated and requires the user to put in relevant data regarding the stock on
hand.
Inspection Report: They are also routine reports that are compiled after thorough inspection of a subject.
Annual Confidential report of employees: This is submitted by controlling officers annually for their
subordinates. It evaluates work performance and behaviour in respective departments.
INFORMATIONAL REPORTS
The term informational is generic for any report whose primary purpose is to convey information. These
reports develop an understanding of the aims, objectives, organization, policies, regulations, procedures,
problems and future outlook of a company. . These reports mainly convey information so as to serve
various purposes such as making a discussion, determining a course of action and coordinating the
operation of an organization.

INTERPRETIVE REPORTS
Also called analytical or investigative reports. It helps the reader to analyse, interpret and evaluate facts
and ideas. The major emphasis is on the analysis of the results of an investigation or the proposed solution
to the problem.

STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
A report is divided into 3 parts:
1. Front Matter
2. Body
3. Back Matter

FRONT MATTER

COVER PAGE
It contains the title of the report (capital and bold letters)

TITLE PAGE
Replica of cover page (only first letter capital)
Name of the author
organisation, people for whom the report is prepared
Approved by:
Report Number: (Unique number for the report)

FORWARDING LETTER
It forwards a report to the primary recipient of the report. It serves as a record of transmission of the
report. It is not bound in the report, but is to be kept with the report.

PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
What made you rewrite on the given topic or do the research. Get to know the intentions.
Acknowledgement can be added if it is small. Different heading for acknowledgement, if there is a large
list of people, and divide it in 5 groups: Courtesy sake, Real help, emotional help, technical help.

FRONTISPIECE
This is not required in legal field, and is majorly used by people involved in designing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents to start from the abstract.
Headings: Serial number, topic, page number
If the table of content is too big, more than 2 pages, then it is to be named index, and to be added in Back
matter, or too small, then as footnotes

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
When there are more than 12 illustrations used in a report, this is prepared like the table of contents. In
this list the page numbers are also provided so that the reader may quickly locate a specific illustration
that he or she wishes to refer to. Not to be added if there are less than 12 illustrations.

ABSTRACT
Not more than 250-300 words
Catches essence of the entire report
Reader decides to go ahead with the research or not
Relevant information: Main purpose, main design point, methodology, eye catching results
Prepared after finishing the report

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Entire report in a nutshell: what is the report about and what does it explore
Objectives, major findings, overview of subject matter, method of analysis, recommendation

ABSTRACT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Very brief More elaborate

Relevant only when report for people are from Relates to all
same domain knowledge

Only essence of report Presents report in a nutshell

Cannot help in taking decisions Helps in a quick decision

No illustrations May have 1-2 illustration

MAIN BODY

INTRODUCTION
Effective curtain raiser to its contents, significance, methods adopted, clear picture of the problem and
gets the attention of the reader. It throws light on the exact state of affairs and factors responsible. It has
the following parameters:
1. Background information: setting of paper
2. Problem statement: specify the problem to be solved
3. Reference to authorisation: request with reference to memos, or meeting in which it was asked to
write
An introduction should include the following:
1. Purpose and scope
2. Significance
3. Methodology
4. Procedure
5. Basic principles or theories involved
6. Summary of the findings
7. General plan of the work

DISCUSSION
The discussion part is divided into different chapters as per the case. These chapters discuss different
aspects of the problem. It includes various illustrations to substantiate discussions, for example tables and
graphs. The text is also divided in several sections/chapters. The topics are organised in the proper
manner in sub topics. It provides detailed analysis. Do not insert recommendations here.

CONCLUSION
Recapitulate the problem, the approach adopted, results based on analysis, written in points or separate
paragraphs. Without introducing new ideas or detailed discussion. Give references in a crisp and tidy
manner.

RECOMMENDATIONS
State the actions that according to the author are required to be taken according to the conclusions and
findings. Suggest solutions, ideas or recommendations. Include answers to questions: what, why, how,
where and when.

BACK MATTER

APPENDICES
This section is for references, additional charts, questionnaires etc. Material closely related to your topic
but not absolutely essential for it and any experimental result, detailed calculations, statistical data, etc
can also be included.

DOCUMENTATION
APA: for sociological work
IEEE: for technical work
MLA: for liberal arts
CHICAGO: sociological work
Documentation also includes various sources like, references, bibliography, footnotes, glossary index

List of references: This section includes the bibliographical details of the books and sources from which
certain ideas, facts, and data has been borrowed as it is. These sources are mentioned so that the readers
may get to know the specific location of the idea if they wish to refer to it further.

Footnotes: If there are less than 6 footnotes, then they must be starred (*) to indicate it.
Bibliography: List of sources referred to such as websites, newspapers, or whatever consulted. They
must be alphabetically arranged.

Glossary: list of terms

Index: If the table of content becomes more than 2 pages, then it becomes an index and is extended from
the front matter to the back matter.

STYLES OF REPORTS
1. Provide complete and accurate information.
2. Use plain, familiar and concrete words i.e. words that are used in day to day life. No ornamentation to
the language. Example- The committee will decipher the facts responsible for the lack of synergy between
the two departments. You should rephrase this into the committee will find out the facts responsible for
the lack of coordination between the two departments.
3. Avoid wordiness and redundancy. Example: Keeping in mind the objective of facilitating and having
smooth operation for timely processing of rebate requests, it appears that more employees are required.
Rephrase to: To fulfil the requests timelier, we need more employees.
4. Judiciously use active and passive voice. Use active more and avoid passive voice as passive requires
more words. Example- You have not yet informed me about the latest marketing strategies that you are
likely to follow from this month onwards. Active: I have not yet been informed about the latest marketing
strategies that you are likely to follow immediately from this month.
5. Empathetic word order and follow the emphatic word order: Emphatic means that the stressing on
certain words should be at the beginning or at the end of the report. Example: In the months to come, a
proper order and mechanism to tackle the problem of absenteeism would be in place. Emphatic: To tackle
the problem of absenteeism, a proper order and mechanism would be in place in the months to come.
6. Prefer using verbs to long nouns. Example: After a careful revision of the suggestions made, a
consideration for their implementations is likely to follow. We are likely to implement the suggestions
after carefully considering and revising them.
7. Careful use of abbreviations: The difference between an abbreviation and an acronym is that an
acronym is the shortened phrase like AIDS and an abbreviation is a shortened word like Mrs, pvt. etc.
Acronyms are always written in all caps.
8. Avoid clichés: Overusing an expression gets cliched, hackneyed thus making the expression drab and
repetitive. Ex- Last but not the least let me thank the management---. Rephrased: (Firstly, Lastly etc are
no actual words in English) Finally I would like to thank the management.
9. Avoid circumlocution: Beating around the bush
10. Maintaining unity in paragraphs: Structuring a paragraph needs practice, revision and concentration.
Often reports are criticised because they are not coherent and don’t progress systematically. Thus, the
unity of paragraphs should always be maintained. Avoid punctuation and grammatical errors.
 INDIANISMS
Words such as by-walk used by Indians are incorrect and on foot is the correct usage.
I hail from Punjab is actually incorrect. Correct: I belong to---
Incorrect: Cut Jokes. Correct: Crack Joke
Incorrect: Your good name? correct: Your name?
Incorrect: I will give you a tight slap. Correct: I will give you a hard slap.
Marriage ceremony is incorrect; the correct version is wedding ceremony.
Incorrect: Get down on the next station. Correct: Get off on the next station.
Incorrect: Switch on/off the light. Correct: Turn on---
Inc: Biodata and jack(sources). Correct: Resume and sources
Inc: Purchase. Correct: Bought. Purchase is actually done only on huge things.
Inc: Purchase. Correct: Bought. Purchase is actually done only on huge things.
Inc: Time is over. Correct: Time is up.
Inc: Lesson is delivered. Correct: Lesson is given.
Inc: Pin drop silence. Correct: Perfect/ complete silence.
Inc: Yesterday evening. Correct: Last evening.
Inc: Footpath. Correct: Pavement for pedestrians.
Inc: Expire (Death) Correct: Passed away. Expire is for products.
Inc: Better half. Correct: Just spouse.
Inc: What is your Misses/Mister doing nowadays? Correct: Wife/husband
Inc: I’m going to see someone at 5:15. Correct: Quarter past 5
Inc: its ok. Correct: Alright.
Inc: How do you do? Correct: How are you?
Inc: August Audience Correct: Distinguished audience.
Inc: Colony. Correct: Locality. A colony also has people belonging to the same group of people belonging
from the same place where every segment will be included.
Inc: Stop by at the hotel for food. Correct: Restaurant for eating food.
Inc: wheatish complexion. Correct: Fair complexion.
Inc: Too good. Correct: very good.
Inc: Even I liked the movie very much. Correct: So did/do I.
Inc: The movie was time-pass. Correct: Average.
Inc: Give an exam. Correct: Take an exam.
Difference between guest and visitor: You specifically invite the guests whereas the visitors come by on
your own will.
Inc: I don’t mind. Correct: Sure.
Inc: Mixy. Correct: Mixer.
Inc: I'll revert back. Correct: Reply/respond back. Revert actually means back to going to the former state.
Inc: heater. Correct: Blower.
Inc: Bed Tea. Correct: Early morning tea/ the first tea in the morning.
 ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTIONS
1. To look at the bright side of things: Optimist.
2. One who looks at the dark side of things: Pessimist.
3. One who does not believe in god: Atheist.
4. One who believes in god: Theist.
5. One who knows everything: Omniscient
6. One who is present everywhere: Omnipresent
7. One who is all powerful: Omnipotent
8. One who cannot read and write: Illiterate
9. One who acts against religion: heretic.
10. One who offers one’s services: volunteer.
11. One who is unable to pay off one’s debts: bankrupt
12. One who loves mankind: Philanthropist.
13. One who hates mankind: Misanthrope.
14. One who is out to destroy the government: Anarchist.
15. One who eats human flesh: cannibal
16. One who lives on flesh: Carnivore.
17. One who lives at the same time: Contemporary.
18. One who is more than a 100 years old: centenarian.
19. One to whom the world is a home: cosmopolitan.
20. One who is indifferent to pain and pleasure: stoic.
21. One who champions the cause of women: Feminist.
22. One who is given to the pleasures of flesh: Epicure.
23. One who lives on others: Parasite.
24. One who is sympathetic to mankind: Humanitarian.
25. One who walks on foot: Pedestrian
26. One who studies things of the past: Antiquarian.
27. One who is gifted with multiple talents: Versatile.
28. One who is new to a profession: novice.
29. One who is a habitual drunker: Sot, toper.
30. One who settles in another country: Immigrant
31. One who knows many languages: polyglot
32. One who cuts precious stones: lapidist.
33. One who deals in cattle: drover.
34. One who cures eye diseases: an oculist.
35. One who sells sweets and pastries: Confectioner.
36. One who collects posted stamps: philatelists.
37. One who loads and unloads ships: stevedore.
38. One who compiles a dictionary: Lexicographer.
39. One who walks in one’s sleep: somnambulist.
40. One who talks in one’s sleep: soliloquist.
41. One who has an irresistible tendency to steal: kleptomaniac.
42. One who breaks images or church ornaments: iconoclast.
43. One who retires from society to live a solitary life: recluse
44. One who is given to the sensual pleasures of the body: Voluptuary.
45. One who pretends to be what he is not: hypocrite.
46. One who imitates the voice and gestures of another: Mimic.
47. A professional horse rider: jockey.
48. A place with gambling tables: casino
49. A number of sailors working on a ship: Crew
50. A collection of flags: a bunting.
51. A number of battleships: Fleet
52. A cluster of houses In a village: hamlet.
53. A number of stars grouped together: constellation
54. The house of an eskimo: igloo.
55. The house of an arab: dowar
56. The place for manufacturing beer: brewer
57. A place for the collection of medicinal and aromatic plants: herbarium.
58. A building for lodging of soldiers: barracks
59. A place where money is coined: mint.
60. An institution for reforming young offenders: Reformatory.
61. A place for improving one’s health: Resort. Previously made for TB patients.
62. A case in which a sword is kept: Sheathe
63. A substance that destroys germs: antiseptic
64. A substance which produces insensitivity: anaesthetic
65. A medicine to counteract poison: antidote.
66. Free from infection: Immune.
67. A cure for all diseases: panacea.
68. A place where dead bodies are kept: Mortuary.
69. A place where dead bodies are entered: Symmetry.
70. A place where dead bodies are kept for identification: Morgue.
71. Examination of a dead body: Post mortem.
72. Occuring after death: Posthumous.
73. An inscription on a tomb: epitaph.
74. Dead body of an animal: carcass.
75. The science of colours: Chromatics
76. The sciences of the human body structure: anatomy.
77. The art of effective speaking: elocution
78. The study of mankind: anthropology.
79. The study of the human mind: psychology.
80. Study of physical life: biology.
81. study of plants: botany.
82. Study of animals: zoology.
83. Study of rocks: Geology
84. The study of birds: Ornithology,
85. study of mountains: orology
86. Study of language: philology.
87. Study of stars: Astronomy.
88. The study of origin of words: etymology.
[Link] study of ancient writing systems and their deciphering: Palaeography.
90. The art of beautiful handwriting: calligraphy
91. The art of preserving skin: Taxidermy.
92. The Government by nobility: Aristocracy.
93. The government by a small group of people for their own interests: Oligarchy.
94. The government by departments of state: bureaucracy.
95. The right of self-government: Autonomy
96. The government by a rich and powerful class: Plutocracy.
97 A council of clergy men: Synod
98. A ceremony at which a man becomes a priest: ordination
99. Violating religious things: Sacrilege
100. One who is intolerantly devoted to a particular creed: bigot.
101. One who has more than one wife at a time: polygamist.
102. A woman who has two or more husbands at the same time, polyandrist.
[Link] of women: Misogynist.
104. One who is vowed to unmarried life: celibate.
105. A man whose wife is dead: widower.
106.A woman whose husband is dead: Widow.
107. Engaged to be married: betrothed.
108. An instrument for recording the revolutions of the earth: gyroscope.
109. An instrument for measuring electric current: ammeter.
110. Smuggled goods: Contraband.
[Link] act of spying: espionage.
112.A knife fixed on the end of a gun: bayonet.
113. Soldiers on horses: cavalry.
[Link] on foot: infantry.
115. A book of accounts showing debit and credit: ledger.
116. A book containing info on all sides of knowledge: Encyclopaedia.
117. An account of one’s life written by oneself is autobiography and when written by someone else is
biography
118. A speech by a dramatist at the beginning of a play: prologue
119. A speech by a dramatist at the end of a play: epilogue.
120. A poem of mourning: elegy.
121. A hollow space in a wall for a statue: niche
122. Language that has been used too much: hackneyed
123. The science that deals with correct spelling: orthography
124. A very private room: sanctum
125. A place where idols of gold are kept: sanctorum
126. A war of religion: crusade
127. A lover of books: bibliophile
128. Animals that live in water: aquatic
129. A written declaration made on an oath: affidavit
130. A game or battle where no party wins: draw
131. A person’s first speech: maiden speech
132. Killing a man: homicide
133. Killing one’s king: regicide
134. Killing one’s mother: matricide
135. Killing one’s father: patricide
136. Killing one’s brother: fratricide
137. Killing oneself: suicide
139. Animals that suckle their young: mammal
140. A speech made without preparation: extempore
141. A decision in which all agree: unanimous
142. A writer who steals ideas from others: plagiarist
143. A medicine that loosens the bowels: laxative
144. A person’s last utterance: swansong
145. Asking everyone for an opinion: referendum
146. Separation from other people to avoid infection: quarantine
147. an imaginary ideal: utopia
148. a thing kept in memory of an event: souvenir
149. That which can be heard: audible
150. Which cannot be heard: inaudible
151. That which can be read: legible
152. Can’t be read: illegible
153. Liable to catch fire easily: inflammable
154. which can be eaten: edible
155. That which can be carried: portable
156. Incapable of being corrected: incorrigible
157. Commonplace remarks: platitudes
158. The animals of a certain region: fauna as in flora and fauna
159. Incapable of being burnt: incombustible
160. A disease that ends in death: fatal
161. A person suffering from neurosis/ unreasonable fears or ideas about the outside world and troubled
relationships with people: neurotic
162. A book or paper written by hand: manuscript
163. A government which honours all religions: secular
164. A word no longer in use: obsolete
165. An instrument for detecting earthquakes: seismograph
166. An instrument for measuring gases: manometer
167. The property left to someone by a will: legacy
168. Promise given by a prisoner not to escape: parole
169. An exaggerated statement: hyperbole
170. A nation that goes to war: belligerent
171. A person who lives in another country: alien
172. Too much of official formality: red tapism
173. List of things to be discussed at a meeting: agenda
174. unduly attached to one’s own opinion: opinionated
175. One who is completely self-satisfied: complacent
176. simple and easily deceived: gullible
177. One who has delusions of one’s grandeur: megalomaniac
178. The most capable part of a group, town or place: elite
179. one who flaunts newly acquired wealth: parvenu also called upstart
180. The intelligent and educated group or class of a society: intelligencia
181. Shy, timid and unwilling to face a situation: diffident
182. One who looks at everything from a personal point of view: egocentric
183. One who gets pleasure in other’s troubles and pain: sadistic
184. The act of enjoying or having an experience indirectly: vicariously
185. The tendency to postpone things to the future: procrastination
186. To relax in a countryside far away from the humdrum of town: rustic
187. To spend life without purpose and initiative: vegetate
188. One who is interested in the welfare of other people: altruist
189. One who believes in keeping things as they are: conservatives
190. A tall, strong, masculine kind of a woman: amazon
191. A turbulent, noisy, domineering kind of a woman: virago
192. A traitor who can sell out even his friend: Judas
193. A person whose manner and taste are bad: vulgarian
194. A person who flaunts learning all the time: pedant
195. Understanding without the interference of feelings: empathy
196. An embarrassing mistake: faux pas
197. A heterogenous mixture of great variety: potpourri.
198. A language of a region having its own way: dialect
199. A payment not legally binding but for which some moral obligation is felt: ex- gratia
200. One who gives directions from behind the scene on the stage: prompter
201. The washing or cleaning of the body especially in a religious ceremony: ablution
202. Something perfectly neat and tidy: immaculate
203. A legal defence by which an accused person tries to show that he was somewhere else when the
crime was committed: alibi
[Link] money for the divorced wife who is legally separated: Alimony
205. mental derangement confined to one idea: monomania.
206. An aeroplane with one pair of wings: Monoplane.
207. Exclusive possession or control of any one thing: monopoly
208. The group especially in arts regarded as being the most experimental: avant garde
209. Words or actions showing deliberate contempt for sacred things: blasphemy
210. An official bulletin: communic
211. A solemn agreement entered between two or more parties: covenant
212. A person with a showy character: flamboyant
213. The art of painting on a plastered surface: fresco
214. That which foretells the coming of something: harbinger
215. Imagined symptoms of illness: hypochondria
217. Not planned ahead of time: impromptu
218. To compensate a person for a loss or damage: indemnify
219. Originating or occurring naturally in the place or country where found: indigenous
220. A time between periods or events: interim
221. A plan or the route to be followed for a journey: itinerary
222. A group of people who band together for some secret purpose especially for political intrigue: junta
223. A short journey for pleasure: jaunt
224. A written attack using humour to provoke contempt: lampoon
225. That which cannot be pacified: implacable
226. A false written statement to damage a person’s reputation: libel
227. A phrase or sentence that is comical or nonsensical because the speaker used the wrong word
because it sounded similar to the correct word: malapropism
228. An instruction from an electorate to its representative: mandate
229. A full sized model of a complete or partial human figure: mannequin
230. Personal remembrances in a narrative form: memoir
231. The manner of operating or proceeding: modus operandi
232. A long, wandering journey: odyssey 233. An authoritative decree or order of the government:
ordinance
234. A person having authority to enquire into grievances of citizens against public authorities:
ombudsman
235. A lover, especially one who unlawfully takes the position of a wife or a husband: paramour
236. An expression of the popular will concerning some important questions given by a direct vote of the
people: plebiscite
237. The presentation to the people of a proposed bill for decision by vote: referendum
238. Retired on account of age usually with pension: superannuated
239. A substitute surrogate existing only in name: titular
240. A closed watch kept over someone: surveillance
241. A place where a monk lives: monastery
 MANIAS
1. Mania is an obsession with/addiction to.
2. Obsession with personal cleanliness: Abbastomania
3. Obsession with cats: Ailuromania
4. Obsession with flowers: Anthomania
5. Obsession with books: Bibliomania
6. Obsession with sex: Crotomania/Nymphomania/Satyromania
7. Obsession with dogs: Cynomania
8. Obsession with crowds: Demomania/Ochlomania
9. Obsession with alcohol: Dipsomania
10. Obsession with travelling: Dromomania/Hodomania/Poriomania
11. Obsession with exaggerating oneself: Egomania
12. Obsession with work: Ergomania
13. Obsession with bridges: Gephyromania
14. Obsession with pleasure: Hedonomania
15. Obsession with horses: Hippomania
16. Obsession with stealing: Kleptomania
17. Obsession with talking: Logomania/Verbomania
18. Obsession with power: Megalomania
19. Obsession with a single idea or thing: Monomania
20. Obsession with lying: Mythomania
21. Obsession with drugs: Narcomania
22. Obsession with dead bodies: Necromania
23. Obsession with eating: Phagomania/Sitomania
24. Obsession with fire: Pyromania
25. Obsession with religion: Theomania/Cathcomania
26. Obsession with death: Thanatomania
27. Obsession with surgery or undergoing surgery: Tomomania
 PHOBIAS
Irrational or excessive fear of something is a phobia.

1. Aerophobia - Fear of aeroplanes or flying

2. Zoophobia - Fear of animals
3. Melissophobia - Fear of bears
4. Ornithophobia - Fear of birds
5. Haemophobia/Hematophobia - Fear of blood
6. Gephyrophobia - Fear of bridges or crossing of bridges
7. Taphephobia - Fear of burial alive
8. Ailurophobia - Fear of cats
9. Paedophobia - Fear of children
10. Pnigophobia - Fear of choking
11. Cynophobia - Fear of cold
12. Claustrophobia - Fear of confined spaces
13. Demophobia/Ochlophobia - Fear of crowds
14. Scotophobia/Nyctophobia/Logophobia - Fear of darkness
15. Necrophobia/Thanatophobia - Fear of death or dead bodies
16. Bathophobia - Fear of depths and deep places
17. Xerophobia - Fear of deserts or dry places
18. Rupophobia - Fear of dirt
19. Cynophobia - Fear of dogs
20. Dipsophobia - Fear of drinking or drunkenness
21. Phobophobia - Fear of being alarmed
22. Pyrophobia - Fear of fire
23. Xenophobia - Fear of foreigners
24. Doraphobia - Fear of fur
25. Microbiol Phobia - Fear of germs
26. Phasmophobia - Fear of ghosts
27. Thermophobia - Fear of heat
28. Acrophobia/Hypsophobia/Acrionophobia - Fear of heights
29. Hippophobia - Fear of horses
30. Nosophobia - Fear of illness
31. Traumatophobia - Fear of injury
32. Entomophobia - Fear of insects
33. Astrophobia - Fear of lightning
34. Monophobia - Fear of madness
35. Androphobia - Fear of men and boys
36. Gynophobia - Fear of women and girls
37. Mursophobia - Fear of mice
38. Onomatophobia - Fear of the same or particular word
39. Nyctophobia - Fear of night
40. Panophobia - Fear of noise
41. Agoraphobia/Lenophobia - Fear of open spaces or going out in public
42. Algophobia/Odynophobia - Fear of pain
43. Topophobia - Fear of a particular place
44. Toxicophobia/Iophobia - Fear of poisoning
45. Thalassophobia - Fear of the sea
46. Galcophobia - Fear of sharks
47. Hyprophobia - Fear of sleep
48. Ophidiophobia - Fear of snakes
49. Talophobia/Glossophobia - Fear of speaking or public speaking
50. Tacophobia - Fear of speed
51. Dromophobia - Fear of streets or street crossing
52. Cragsiophobia/Tomophobia - Fear of surgery
53. Brontophobia/Tonitrophobia - Fear of thunder
54. Siderodromophobia - Fear of trains
55. Hodophobia - Fear of travel
56. Hydrophobia/Hygrophobia/Aquaphobia - Fear of water or wetness
57. Helminthophobia - Fear of worms
 THE ART OF NEGOTIATION
THE ART OF NEGOTIATION
Successful negotiation is an art that comes naturally to some but must be developed by most. There are
many types of negotiation people do. For example, negotiation for salary with the HR team. Negotiation
is a part of everyday life, but in business it is absolutely vital for success. You must have observed that
while buying a car, furniture or house all of us try to bargain. Even during HR interviews candidates have
to negotiate for a better salary. Poor negotiations in fact affect the total health of the company as it might
cripple its growth and result in losing key customers or bring in great losses in business deals. At the
workplace you negotiate with clients, other organisations, or government agencies to obtain their support
and cooperation for business and vice-versa.
According to [Link] “negotiation is the act or process of conferring act or process of
conferring or discussing to reach agreement in matters of business or state.” This means it is a kind of
bargain with others for a treaty or a contract, for expansion of business, maximisation of profits, or better
growth of the state.
Etymologically, the word negotiation comes from the 15th century French word ‘negociacion’ which
means business and trade. And also from the Latin work ‘negotiationem’ which means traffic and
business.
Since emotions, luck and magic have no place in a successful negotiation, it is important to know what
steps are involved in the negotiation process and how to go about to develop better negotiation skills in
order to be successful. The process of negotiation has the following 6 stages:
1. Relationship building
2. Information gathering
3. Strategy formulation
4. Win-win solution with a persuasive tone
5. Concessions and agreements
6. The final offer for closing the deal

TYPES OF NEGOTIATIONS
Kenneth W. Thomas, a famous researcher on the art of negotiation has identified five styles of
negotiations. According to him, negotiators can be soft, they can be hard, they can be principled, they can
have strong dispositions towards various styles, but these styles keep changing over time. The styles
depend upon how far the negotiators are relationship oriented and deal oriented.

The first style is Accomodating. Such individuals enjoy solving the other party’s problems and
preserving personal relationships. They are sensitive to emotional states, body language and verbal signals
of the other party with whom they negotiate for business purposes. In this style, the negotiator feels
comfortable when the other party also values and lays emphasis on building relationships. They are soft
bargainers and the offers that they make are not in their best interests, they yield to the other’s demands,
avoid confrontations and their perception is one of friendship, and the goalie agreement and relationship
building.
Second is Avoiding. These people do not negotiate unless necessary. They tend to defer, dodge, or evade
the confrontational aspects of negotiating. They avoid contests of wills and insist on agreements. They are
perceived as tactful and diplomatic because of their reserved behaviour.

Third is Collaborating. Such individuals enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in
creative ways. They are good at using negotiations to value the concerns and interests of the other parties.
They can however, create problems, by transforming simple situations into more complex ones because of
their creative and innovative approach. They are principled bargainers and place their choices on
objective criteria rather than power or pressure. This criteria may be drawn from moral standards,
principles of fairness, professional standards, traditions, and so on.

Fourth is Competing. These negotiators are the ones who enjoy negotiations because they present an
opportunity to win something. They have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiations and are often
strategic. They often neglect the importance of relationships. Such people use contentious strategies to
influence and curt phrases like “this is my final offer, take it or leave it.” They make threats, are
distrustful of others, insist on their position, and also exert pressure on others to negotiate. Their ultimate
goal is victory and they treat others as opponents.

Fifth is Compromising. Such negotiators are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal for
all parties involved in the discussion/negotiation. They can be useful when there is limited time to
complete the deal. However, they unnecessarily rush the negotiation process, making concessions too
quickly, and as a result, suffering losses often.

TIPS FOR WIN-WIN NEGOTIATIONS

➢ Preparation is the key: SWOT analysis of the opposite party. You can find out with others about
how they negotiate.
➢ Have a strategy: The first offer should be bold and aggressive. You have to be well read.
➢ Read body language and understand the speech pattern: You have to be vigilant, watch out
for positive traits in the body language and then proceed for the deal.
➢ Find a leverage: Find the weakness of the opposite party and exploit it.
➢ Making the final offer: Note down the specifics during the discussion and make the final offer.
➢ Know your BATNA (Best alternative to a negotiated agreement)
➢ Pay close attention to closing the deal
➢ Keep the discussion result oriented: Keep the focus on negotiation, especially on what is best in
the long-term for both the parties.
➢ Be wise and concerned
➢ Put your concerns on the table
➢ Avoid “I” statements: The interest should be mutual, not “I, me, myself”.
➢ Exercise your right to negotiate
➢ Other tips: Language and cultural understanding of the fellow negotiator, socialisation, humour,
listening skills, business etiquettes, shared experience and other communication competencies.

DON'TS
➢ Never lean back on the chair
➢ Never use terms like “take it or leave it.”
➢ Never sound dominating while presenting your deal
➢ Never be lazy in gathering information about the other party
➢ Don't bring unrealistic prices
➢ Never be shy about the formalities
➢ Never overlook information
➢ Never avoid eye contact
➢ Never give a subtle head shake for saying no.
➢ Never give extended pauses, as it means that the opposite party is hesitant.
➢ Never burn your bridges
 PHONETICS

INTRODUCTION
Some speakers of the English language attract us with their good command of the language. Amongst
other things, it is their pronunciation that creates the right kind of impact on us listeners. There is a
marked difference between the British and American english.
There is always a doubt with the educated Indians, as to which English would be of greater acceptability
in the world of business, finance, science and technology.
A practical side to the issue, which may be taken into consideration, is the Oxbrid style of English that has
been taught in our schools for more than 200 years . However, we have been trained from our primary to
the middle school through the classical British style of English curriculum in our LSRW (listening,
speaking, reading, writing) skills. The national daily newspapers follow the same pattern. So, there is no
need to acquire the American mannerisms in speech, nor do we need to put up artificial accents, stress
patterns or American spellings.
What is uttered naturally and readily communicates the authenticity and sincerity of the speaker. Since we
are not native speakers of English, there exists a problem with regards to pronunciation of Indian English
speakers. We often come across alternate pronunciation and mispronunciation.

REASONS FOR THE ABOVE:

From early stages children learn to respond to sound and tones which their elderly habitually use while
talking to them. In due course the children start learning English, while in English speaking countries they
speak in their mother tongue accent, but in our country where English is used as 2nd language, children
listen to wrong sounds and tones spoken by teachers, grown ups etc and pick up faulty pronunciation.
This happens mainly due to lack of sufficient exposure to the right way of English.
We speak English as we speak our mother tongue, and then tend to commit mistakes due to its influence.

RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION
One native regional accent that has gained social prestige is called received pronunciation (RP) and is
now equated with correct pronunciation of English. Now these standard sounds in English are put
together with standard symbols and these symbols are called international phonetic alphabet and they are
coined in the international phonetic association (IPA).

According to the IPA, there are 44 sounds and 26 alphabets in the English language.
● SOUNDS (44):
○ VOWEL (20)
■ PURE VOWEL (12)
■ DIPHTHONGS (8)
○ CONSONANT (24)

VOWEL SOUND
Vowel sounds, such as "ah," are produced with an open vocal tract. There is no significant constriction or
closure of the airflow, allowing the sound to resonate freely.
CONSONANT CLUSTER
In a word a group of 2 or more consonants with no vowels in between them, the consonant sound before
the vowel is onset, after the vowel coda, and the one that comes between the two vowel clusters, medial.

SYLLABLE
Basic unit of spoken language, it consists of the uninterrupted sound that can be used to make up words.
A syllable always has one vowel sound.
One syllable: none
Two: Di
Three: Tru
Four: Quadre
Five: Penta
Six: Hexa
Seven: Septa

RULES FOR COUNTING SYLLABLE

1. Count the vowel sound in the word
2. Subtract any silent vowel
3. Count Diphthongs One sound
4. No. of vowels sorted = sound