[Soc. Stud.

104] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Module Title Module in Physical Geography (The Basics)

Course Title Physical Geography
Course Number Soc. Stud. 104
Course Description The course provides students with basic geographic
skills and tools utilized in understanding the geography
of the Philippines and the world. The subject explains
the spatial characteristics of the various natural
phenomena associated with the Earth's hydrosphere,
biosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere.
Total Learning Time 3 hours
Pre-requisite None

Overview

The previous module discussed the essence of physical geography and it also
highlights the representation of the Earth’s surface. In this module, you will be dealing
with the shape and size of the Earth as well as the properties and composition of Earth’s
interior, to answer the question, how can we know what conditions are like deep in the
Earth?.

Learning Outcomes:
MODULE 2
The Shape, Size  Describe the layers of the earth.
and Structure of  Determine the shape, size of the earth
the Earth
 Discuss the structure of the earth.

Indicative Content
Shape of the Earth
Size of the Earth
Structure of the Earth
- Crust
- Mantle
- Core

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Pre-Test
I. TRUE OR FALSE.
Directions. Write T if the statement is true and F if otherwise.

1. The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an

onion.
2. The structure of the Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical
properties such as theology, or chemically.
3. The inner core is liquid; the outer core is solid, and the mantle
solid/plastic.
4. Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than
on land.
5. In geology, the crust is the innermost solid shell of a rocky planet.

II. Fill in the blank.

Directions. Fill in the blank with the correct answer,
6. The shape of the Earth is ________________________.
7. ____________ is the science that studies and measures the exact size and
dimensions of the Earth.
8. The layer between the crust and the outer core is ______________.
9. The temperature of the outer core ranges from ________ (8000 °F) in the
outer regions to 6100 °C (11000 °F) near the inner core.
10. ________________are scientists who study earthquakes and planetary
activities as well as their effects, such as tsunamis.

Shape of the Earth

The Earth according to Sir Isaac Newton is a rotating object. Its rotation produces
a centrifugal force which opposes gravity. The earth is slightly flattened at the
Polar Regions. The observation of Newton that the earth is flat at the poles and
bulges at the equator describes the shape of an Earth as an Oblate Spheroid
Size of the Earth

2. Geodesy – the science that studies and measures the exact size and
dimensions of the Earth.

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The latest survey about the dimensions of the Earth are as follows:
Equatorial circumference 40,075.03 km.
Polar circumference 40,007.88 km.
Equatorial diameter 12,756.28 km.
Polar diameter 12,713.51 km.

2. 1 Structure of the Earth

Interior of Earth

The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion.
These layers can be defined by either their chemical or their rheological properties. The
earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is
much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of
Earth's internal structure is based on observations of topography and bathymetry,
observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by
volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth,
measurements of the gravity field of Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at
pressures and temperatures characteristic of Earth's deep interior.
The structure of the Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties
such as theology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere,
asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. The interior of the
Earth is divided into 5 important layers. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust,
upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.
Depth Layer Kilometres Miles 0–60 0–37

Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km) 0–35 0–22 …

Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km) 35–60 22–37 …
Uppermost part of mantle 35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle 100–200 62–125 …
Asthenosphere 35–660 22–410 …
Upper mesosphere (upper mantle) 660–2,890 410–1,790 …
Lower mesosphere (lower mantle) 2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160
Outer core 5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 Inner core
The geologic component layers of the Earth are in the following depths below the surface:

a. Core

Description Composition Temperature and Dynamics

Pressure
Inner core. The inner Based on the The temperature of The Earth's inner core
core of the Earth has relative prevalence the inner core can be is slowly growing as
temperatures and of various chemical estimated by the liquid outer core
pressures so great elements in our considering both the at the boundary with
that the metals are solar system, the theoretical and the the inner core cools
squeezed together hypothesis of experimentally and solidifies due to

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and are not able to planetary demonstrated the gradual cooling of

move about like a formation, and constraints on the the Earth's interior
liquid, but are forced constraints imposed melting temperature (about 100 degrees
to vibrate in place or implied by the of impure iron at the Celsius per billion
like a solid. chemistry of the pressure which iron is years). Seismologists
The inner core of the rest of the Earth's under at the boundary have found that the
Earth, its innermost volume, the inner of the inner core inner core is not
part, is a primarily core is believed to (about 330 GPa). completely uniform,
solid ball with a consist primarily of These considerations but instead contains
radius of about 1,220 a nickel-iron alloy suggest that its large-scale structures
km (760 mi), known as NiFe, temperature is about such that seismic
according to because the inner 5,700 K (5,430 °C; waves pass more
seismological studies. core is denser than 9,800 °F). The rapidly through some
(This is about 70% of pure iron or nickel, pressure in the Earth's parts of the inner core
the length of the even under heavy inner core is slightly than through others.
Moon's radius.) It is pressures, it is higher than it is at the The existence of the
believed to consist believed that the boundary between the inner core also
primarily of an iron– core also contains outer and inner changes the dynamic
nickel alloy, and to enough gold, cores). Iron can be motions of the liquid
be about the same platinum and other solid at such high in the outer core as it
temperature as the siderophile temperatures only grows and may help
surface of the Sun: elements that if because its melting fix the magnetic field
approximately 5700 extracted and temperature increases since it is expected to
K (5430 °C). poured onto the dramatically at be a great deal more
Earth's surface. pressures of that resistant to flow than
magnitude. the outer core liquid
(which is expected to
be turbulent).

Outer core Temperature Effect on Life

The outer core of The temperature of the Without the outer core, life on
the Earth is a liquid layer outer core ranges from Earth would be very different.
about 2,266 km (1,408 mi) 4400 °C (8000 °F) in the Convection of liquid metals in
thick composed of iron and outer regions to 6100 °C the outer core creates the
nickel which lies above the (11000 °F) near the inner Earth's magnetic field. This
Earth's solid inner core and core. Because of its high magnetic field extends
below its mantle. Its outer temperature, modeling outward from the Earth for
boundary lies 2,890 km work has shown that the several thousand kilometers,
(1,800 mi) beneath the outer core is a low and creates a protective bubble
Earth's surface. The viscosity fluid (about ten around the Earth that deflects
transition between the inner times the viscosity of the solar wind. Without this
core and outer core is liquid metals at the field, a larger proportion of the
located approximately surface) that convects solar wind would directly
5,150 km (3,200 mi) turbulently. strike the Earth's atmosphere.
beneath the Earth's surface. The presumed effect would be
to strip the Earth's atmosphere
away slowly. This is
hypothesized to have
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happened to the Martian

atmosphere, rendering the
planet incapable of supporting
life.

b. Mantle
The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to
have differentiation by density. The interior of the Earth, alike to the other terrestrial
planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the
outer core. The earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) thick
that constitutes about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid. The mantle
encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which occupies about 15% of Earth's
volume.
Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner asthenosphere
composed of plastic flowing rock about 200 km thick, and the lowermost part of the
lithosphere composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km thick. A thin crust, the upper part
of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick.
In some places under the sea the mantle is actually exposed on the surface of the
Earth. There are also a few places on land where mantle rock has been pushed to the
surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands region of GrosMorne National
Park in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador.
Structure
The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from
seismology. These layers (and their thicknesses/depths) are the following: the upper
mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around 7 to 35 km downward to 410
km), the transition zone (410–660 km), the lower mantle (660–2891 km), and anomalous
core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness (on average ~200 km thick).
The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which
was first noted by AndrijaMohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the
"Mohorovičić discontinuity" or "Moho". The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust is
relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of
perhaps 200 km. Below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic.
The transition zone is an area of great complexity; it physically separates the upper and
lower mantle. Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be
relatively seismically homogeneous. The D" layer at the core– mantle boundary separates
the mantle from the core.
Characteristics

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The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its mechanical properties which
is the direct consequence of chemical composition change (expressed as different
mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types,
rheology and seismic characteristics. The crust is a solid product of mantle derived melts,
expressed as various degrees of partial melting products during geologic time.

Mantle rocks shallower than about 410 km depth consist mostly of olivine,
pyroxenes, spinel-structure minerals, and garnet; typical rock types are thought to be
peridotite, dunite (olivine-rich peridotite), and eclogite. Below about 650 km, all of the
minerals of the upper mantle begin to become unstable. The most abundant minerals
present, the silicate perovskites, have structures (but not compositions) like that of the
mineral perovskite followed by the magnesium/iron oxide ferropericlase.
The inner core is solid; the outer core is liquid, and the mantle solid/plastic. This
is because of the relative melting points of the different layers (nickel-iron core, silicate
crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the
surface both nickel-iron alloys and silicates are sufficiently cool to be solid. In the upper
mantle, the silicates are generally solid (localized regions with small amounts of melt
exist); however, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively little pressure, the
rock in the upper mantle has a relatively low viscosity. In contrast, the lower mantle is
under tremendous pressure and consequently has a higher viscosity than the upper
mantle. As the pressure exponentially increases, the nickel-iron inner core becomes solid
because the melting point of iron increases dramatically at these high pressures.
Temperature
In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F) at the
upper boundary with the crust; to over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the boundary with the core.
Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting point of the mantle rocks at the
surface (about 1200 °C for representative peridotite), the mantle is almost exclusively
solid.
Movement
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Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core
and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow,
creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material
circulation in the mantle. Hot material upwells, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks
downward. The downward motion of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries
called subduction zones.
Earthquakes at shallow depths are a result of stick-slip faulting; however, below
about 50 km the hot, high pressure conditions ought to inhibit further seismicity. The
mantle is considered to be viscous and incapable of brittle faulting. However, in
subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km.
Exploration
Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land
because of the relative thinness of the oceanic crust as compared to the significantly
thicker continental crust.
The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned
in 1966 after repeated failures and cost over-runs. The deepest penetration was
approximately 180 m (590 ft). In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached 1,416 meters (4,646
ft) below the sea floor from the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution.
Exploration can also be aided through computer simulations of the evolution of
the mantle. In 2009, a supercomputer application provided new insight into the
distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of iron, from when the mantle
developed 4.5 billion years ago.
c. Crust
In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural
satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crusts of the Earth,
our Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated
largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than
their respective mantles.
The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle
is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying
crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the
Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The
crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.
The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the
range from about 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F) at the boundary with the underlying

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mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the
lithosphere. Because of convection in the underlying plastic (although non-molten) upper
mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The
temperature increases by as much as 30 °C (about 50 °F) for every kilometer locally in
the upper part of the crust, but the geothermal gradient is smaller in deeper crust.
Partly by analogy to what is known about our Moon, Earth is considered to have
differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within
about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The
primordial crust was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous plate
tectonics and destroyed by significant asteroid impacts, which were much more common
in the early stages of the solar system.
The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be
about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located
in cartons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less
dense than elsewhere in the earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction.
Formation of new continental crust is linked to phases of intense orogeny; these phases
coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and
Gondwana. The crust forms in part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and
metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle
to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.
Composition
The continental crust has an average composition alike to that of andesite.
Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic sea crust
and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle.

Exercises/Drills (20 pts)

Directions: Choose only one exercise below to answer.

1. Collect clippings about scientific researches on the Earth’s interior and analyze it.
2. Create a graphic organizer about the structure of the earth following the rubrics
below as your guide.
3.

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

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Graphics/Pictures Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics do not

with the text and with the text, but with the text, but go with the
there is a good mix there are so there are too few accompanying
of text and many that they and the graphic text or appear to
graphics. distract from the display seems be randomly
text. "text-heavy". chosen.

Attractiveness & The graphic display The graphic The graphic The graphic
Organization has exceptionally display has display has well- display'
attractive formatting attractive organized formatting and
and well-organized formatting and information. organization of
information. well-organized material are
information. confusing to the
reader.
Content - All facts in the 99-90% of the 89-80% of the Fewer than 80%
Accuracy graphic display are facts in the facts in the of the facts in the
accurate. graphic display graphic display graphic display
are accurate. are accurate. are accurate.

Graphics/Pictures Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics do not

with the text and with the text, but with the text, but go with the
there is a good mix there are so there are too few accompanying
of text and many that they and the graphic text or appear to
graphics. distract from the display seems be randomly
text. "text-heavy". chosen.

Spelling & No spelling errors No more than 1 No more than 3 Several spelling
Proofreading remain after one spelling error spelling errors errors in the
person other than remains after remain after one graphic display.
the typist reads and one person other person other than
corrects the graphic than the typist the typist reads
display. reads and and corrects the
corrects the graphic display.
graphic display.
4.

Evaluation

Part 1. Post-Test (10 pts)

I. TRUE OR FALSE.
Directions. Write T if the statement is true and F if otherwise. Write your
answer before the number.

1. The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion.
2. The structure of the Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical
properties such as theology, or chemically.
3. The inner core is liquid; the outer core is solid, and the mantle solid/plastic.
4. Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on
land.
5. In geology, the crust is the innermost solid shell of a rocky planet.

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II. Fill in the blank.

Directions. Fill in the blank with the correct answer,
6. The shape of the Earth is ________________________.
7. ____________ is the science that studies and measures the exact size and
dimensions of the Earth.
8. The layer between the crust and the outer core is ______________.
9. The temperature of the outer core ranges from ________ (8000 °F) in the
outer regions to 6100 °C (11000 °F) near the inner core.
10. ________________are scientists who study earthquakes and planetary
activities as well as their effects, such as tsunamis.

Part 2. Essay (20 pts)

1. Differentiate the terms core, mantle and crust.
2. What are the different minerals present in crust, mantle and core?

RUBRICS FOR MAKING A REFLECTION PAPER

CATEGORY 1 2 3 4
Fails to meet this criteria by
Clearly organized obvious disregard for the Easy to read, topic introduced, organiz
Disorganized, leaves reader wondering what Paper has intro, body, and conclusion
introduction, body, expectations stated in the criteria; clearly evident with proper introductio
is being said; abrupt ending but may take a re-reading to understand
conclusion Disorganized and the reader can body, conclusion
not follow the paper at any length

The topic of the paper is not The entire paper’s content relates to the
Student does not clearly identify his/her The student’s reflection about the topi
Does this paper address the addressed at all; Fails to stick to prompt or topic; the student explains
reflections about the topic; may veer from explained in clear language; immediate
prompt or the topic? the topic therefore fails to meet his/her reflections about the topic but
topic interesting and supported with detail
this criteria may take a rereading to understand

Paragraphs are disorganized; ideas are

Paragraph Organization and Each paragraph has a central idea that is Each paragraph has a central idea; idea
Fails to meet this criteria by included which do not relate to the main
Writing Style: Ideas are supported with details; ideas are connected and paragraphs are develop
obvious disregard for the idea; ideas are not connected and have little
clearly connected and make connected and important points make with details; paper is easy to read and
expectations stated in the criteria or no supporting details; one sentence
sense sense “flows” naturally in an organized patte
paragraphs

Paper provides evidence (through the

The paper shows that the student has
Paper is shallow and does not present description, details, and use of literatu
Does this paper show Fails to meet this criteria by thought about the topic although the
detailed evaluation of reflection about the that the student has examined his/her
evidence of deep thought obvious disregard for the written presentation may appear weak
topic; little use of literature to support belief systems and related this to their
about the topic? expectations stated in the criteria or lack clarity; use of literature to
thought current views about the topic; use of n
support thought
literature to support thought

Basic writing expectations:

Between 1-4 grammatical, punctuation
mechanics, spelling, More than 8 grammatical ,
4-7 grammatical , punctuation but they are minor and do not detract No errors whatsoever!
grammar, or punctuation punctuation,
from the paper
errors

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Additional Readings
Websites/Books Titles
[Link] Reading: Inside the Earth
reading-inside-the-earth/
Valenzuela, E (2016). Introduction to World Geography The Solar System and the
(with Geo Politics) Earth

References

Anonymous. (nd). Physical Geography. Rai Technology University. Retrieved from

[Link]

Valenzuela, E (2016). Introduction to World Geography (with Geo Politics).Great

Books Trading

Retrieved from [Link]

[Link]

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