Unit I: Meaning of International Relations (IR)

The field of International Relations (IR) is the academic discipline dedicated to the study of the
social, economic, cultural, and political activities that occur across state boundaries. Its meaning
and scope have constantly evolved, largely through a series of foundational academic arguments
known as The Great Debates.
1. The Definitional Core and Scope
The meaning of IR rests on two central concepts: International and Relations.
Component Traditional Meaning Modern/Expanded Meaning
Interaction between sovereign
Any activity that transcends national
International nation-states (the Westphalian
boundaries (Global/Transnational).
unit).
Exclusive focus on political
Inclusion of non-political interactions: economic,
Relations interactions (war, diplomacy,
cultural, societal, and environmental issues.
treaties).
The Modern Scope of IR
The contemporary meaning of IR is exceptionally broad, encompassing four layers of interaction:
1. Inter-State Relations: Official interactions between state governments (e.g., diplomacy,
war, alliances).
2. Trans-Governmental Relations: Interaction between sub-units of governments across
borders (e.g., cooperation between central banks or police forces).
3. Trans-National Relations: Interactions between non-state actors that cross borders (e.g.,
NGOs, terrorist networks, Multinational Corporations—MNCs).
4. Global/World Society: The study of humanity as a single social unit, focusing on global
norms, ethics, and issues (e.g., human rights, climate change).
2. The Historical Evolution: The Great Debates
The meaning of IR as an academic science is defined by its theoretical history, beginning after
the failure of diplomacy in WWI.
Core
Debate Period Actors/Theories Significance to Meaning
Question
What is the Established the core tension
1st Debate: fundamental Idealists (Woodrow between cooperation/law
1920s–
Idealism vs. nature of Wilson) vs. Realists (E.H. (Idealism) and
1940s
Realism world Carr, Hans Morgenthau). conflict/power (Realism) as
politics? the subject matter of IR.
2nd Debate: 1960s What is the Traditionalists (Historical, Established the
Traditionalism proper philosophical, and legal epistemological split in the
vs. method for methods) vs. Behavioralists discipline (Positivism vs.
Behaviorism studying IR? (Scientific, quantitative Classical Theory) and
methods). redefined IR as a potential
 Core
Debate Period Actors/Theories Significance to Meaning
Question
"science."
Cemented the distinction
between theories focused on
What is the Rationalists
material/measurable
4th Debate: nature of (Realism/Liberalism/Game
1980s– causality and those focused
Rationalism vs. knowledge Theory) vs. Reflectivists
Present on ideas/discourse/identity
Reflectivism and reality in (Constructivism, Feminism,
(the
IR? Poststructuralism).
ontological/epistemological
schism).
3. Critical Challenges to the "Meaning" of IR
Contemporary scholarship, particularly from the Global South, argues that the very meaning and
scope of IR are Eurocentric and exclusionary.
A. The Third World IR (TWIR) Challenge
 Critique: IR's meaning is limited because it centers the experiences of "Core" (Western)
states and ignores the Hierarchy of Capabilities that defines relations for the "Non-
Core."
 Redefined Meaning: IR should mean the study of vulnerability, internal security, and
asymmetrical relations, where the domestic and international are completely blurred.
B. The Postcolonial IR (PCIR) Challenge
 Critique: The discipline's core concepts (sovereignty, state, anarchy) are Western-
centric constructs that emerged from, and perpetuate, colonial legacies.
 Redefined Meaning: IR should mean the study of the Knowledge/Power nexus and the
discursive formation of global hierarchy through processes like Othering. The
"meaning" of IR must be found in the everyday life of the marginalized, not in diplomatic
reports.
📑 Unit II: International Relations vs. International Politics
While often used interchangeably in common parlance, the distinction between International
Relations and International Politics is one of the most significant theoretical debates in the
discipline, highlighting different ontological and epistemological commitments.
1. The Conceptual Distinction
The distinction essentially comes down to scope and the role of power.
Term Scope/Focus Theoretical Root Defining Feature
Narrow focus on the exercise of power to
International Conflict and
manage conflict, maintain order, or achieve Realism.
Politics Coercion.
security goals (high politics).
International Broad focus on all interactions, including Liberalism / Cooperation
Relations non-political issues like trade, culture, and English School. and Norms.
Term Scope/Focus Theoretical Root Defining Feature
social development (low politics).
2. International Politics: The Realist/Conflictual View
This perspective, championed by classical realists like Hans Morgenthau and neo-realists like
Kenneth Waltz, posits that Politics is the fundamental and enduring dynamic of the international
system.
 Ontology of Conflict: The international system is defined by anarchy and the struggle
for power. Any instance of "relations" (like trade or culture) is either secondary to the
pursuit of power or a mere reflection of a temporary power balance.
 The Primacy of High Politics: Issues concerning state survival, military power, and
diplomacy (high politics) always trump issues of economics, environment, or human
rights (low politics). The state remains the supreme political actor.
 The Role of the State: The state is a political unit driven by a rational national interest
defined in terms of power. Its actions are political maneuvers in a competitive arena.
 Methodology: This view often uses positivist methodology to study politics because
power, military capabilities, and conflict can be statistically measured and analyzed to
predict political outcomes (e.g., the likelihood of war).
3. International Relations: The Cooperative/Societal View
This perspective argues that the global arena is more than just a political battlefield; it is an
evolving society or a complex web of interactions. This view is central to Liberalism and the
English School.
 Liberalism (Interdependence): Scholars like Robert Keohane argue that economic and
social ties create interdependence among states. This interdependence raises the cost of
political conflict and war, facilitating cooperation through international institutions. Here,
Relations (trade, finance) soften the edges of Politics (power competition).
 English School (International Society): Scholars like Hedley Bull argue that states have
not merely a system (anarchical), but an International Society, a group of states that
share common interests, rules, and institutions (like diplomacy, international law). In this
view, Relations is the broader, sociological context that makes Politics (the pursuit of
power) manageable and bounded by norms.
 Focus on Transnationalism: The existence of transnational actors (MNCs, NGOs)
shows that global interactions are not purely political (state-to-state) but increasingly
social and economic.
4. Critical Synthesis: The Politicization of Relations
Critical theories argue that the distinction between Relations and Politics is false or misleading,
claiming that all relations are inherently political, but in ways the mainstream ignores.
 Postcolonial/Critical IR: Rejects the distinction by asserting that "low politics" issues
are, in fact, "high politics" for the non-core.
 o TWIR: For a weak state, maintaining internal stability (a social/domestic issue) is
its highest political and security priority. The distinction is a luxury of strong,
secure states.
o PCIR: The study of culture and discourse (seemingly non-political relations) is
the most critical form of politics, as it determines how power is legitimized and
who is "Othered" in the global hierarchy. The politics of knowledge is the most
enduring international politics of all.
Conclusion: The choice between studying "International Politics" or "International Relations" is
not semantic; it reflects a fundamental theoretical decision regarding: a) Ontology (is the world
primarily defined by conflict or cooperation?), b) Agency (is the state the only significant actor?),
and c) Normative Goals (should the discipline seek to manage power or foster a global society?).
An Introduction to International Relations
I. The Discipline: Origins, Agendas, and Theory
A. Defining International Relations (IR) and its Study
 IR is an academic discipline that studies the changing nature of international relations in
an era of globalisation.
 It presents a global perspective on the theories, history, developments, and debates that
shape the discipline and contemporary world politics.
 The field is fundamentally shaped by competing traditions of thought, which serve as
the source of our common vocabulary (lexicon) for discussion and analysis.
B. The Great Divide and Core Concepts
 The debate over scientific knowledge underpinned the early concerns of IR scholars in
1919: explaining World War I and finding ways to avoid future mayhem.
 The discipline’s history is defined by a fundamental split, often summarized in the
Realism vs. Liberalism dichotomy.
Core
Theoretical Core Assumption Epistemology (How we Focus
Tradition (Ontology) know) (The
Agenda)
World is characterized
Reality is what 'is'
by anarchy and Traditional Agenda:
(empiricism); focus on
Realism power politics. High politics, strategy,
material power and
Conflict is normal and war, and state survival.
measurable forces.
inevitable.
Possibility of Rational debate and the New Agenda:
cooperation, rule of establishment of Globalisation,
Liberalism law, and progress international interdependence, and
based on individual institutions (e.g., collective problem-
liberty. League of Nations). solving.
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C. Philosophical Foundation: Meta-Theory
 All IR theories rest on fundamental philosophical assumptions, which are often discussed
in Chapter 1 under the terms Ontology, Epistemology, and the Science Question.
 Ontology asks: What is the nature of the reality we study? (e.g., Is the world material
conflict or socially constructed?) .
 Epistemology asks: What counts as valid knowledge, and how can we come to know it?
(e.g., Is knowledge found through scientific measurement or interpretation?) .
 For the most part, the debate over science in IR has been carried out as a debate between
Positivism and its critics. Positivism, often associated with mainstream theories, aims for
a science dealing with reality as it "actually is".

II. Theoretical Approaches (Part 1 of the Text)

The contemporary study of IR is marked by an Age of Critical Diversity, featuring both
mainstream and critical theories:

Theory/Tradition Key Concept/Focus Critical Insight

Power & Anarchy. States are

E.H. Carr's Critique:
divided into 'haves' (status quo
Attacked Liberalism
powers) and 'have-nots'
as utopian and
Realism (Ch. 2) (revisionist powers). The
dangerously naive
absence of world government
for neglecting the
leads to the recurrence of war
factor of power.
and state self-preservation.
Contemporary
Rights, Reason, and Liberal Theory
Institutions. Historical context focuses on the role of
Liberalism (Ch.
rooted in Enlightenment ideas institutions and
3)
of liberty and universal international
principles derived from reason. cooperation to manage
anarchy.
Critique of Capitalism and Neo-Gramscian
Domination. Focuses on the Theory: Carries
Marxism and relationship between the forward and modifies
Critical Theory capitalist world economy and the Marxist legacy to
(Ch. 4) the state system, aiming to offer insights into
eliminate domination, globalisation and
inequality, and exclusion. critical IR.
Feminism (Ch. 5) Gender Bias. Challenges the Asks: "Where are
masculine bias in IR by the women?" to
distinguishing between sex expose the exclusion
(biological) and gender (social of women's
construct). experiences and
perspectives from
Theory/Tradition Key Concept/Focus Critical Insight

traditional high
politics.
Polemical Nature:
Discourse and
Critics argue it is a
Power/Knowledge. Focuses on
'mere meta-theory' that
Postmodernism postmodernity as a historical
is only concerned with
(Ch. 6) period and postmodernism as a
theory, lacking
critical way of understanding
relevance in the real
modernity.
world.
Focuses on norms
Identity and Social
and identity to
Construction. Argues that the
explain change in
Constructivism social world is produced by the
the international
(Ch. 7) way we think about it; states
system, often
and diplomacy exist only
showing tensions
insofar as people accept they do.
with Positivism.
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III. The Traditional Agenda: States, War, and Law (Part 2 of the Text)
This section focuses on the classic 'high politics' issues, largely centered on the sovereign state.
A. The State, Security, and Conflict
 The Modern State (Ch. 9): Examines the concept of sovereignty—the supreme authority
within a territory—and the origins of the modern state.
 Nations and Nationalism (Ch. 10): Distinguishes between 'civic' (based on
'soil'/citizenship) and 'ethnic' (based on 'blood') nationalisms, noting that the latter are
often considered more conflict-prone.
 Security (Ch. 11): The traditional agenda's focus is on security, which involves a deep
dive into its definition, key concepts, and theories.
 Arms Control (Ch. 12): Studies the practice of states engaging in arms control (e.g., the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty - NPT) and why it remains important, especially
regarding nuclear weapons.
B. Warfare and International Society
 The Causes and Character of War (Ch. 13 & 14): Examines the necessary, regular, and
contributory causes of war, and how the nature of warfare is changing, including the
diversity of war, from conventional to contemporary digital battlespaces.
 Ethics and Laws of War (Ch. 15): Analyzes the moral and legal framework for conflict:
o Jus ad bellum: When is it right to fight? (e.g., preemptive self-defense dilemma) .
o Jus in bello: How should war be waged? (e.g., cluster bombs dilemma) .
  International Law (Ch. 16): Modern international law has expanded dramatically,
underpinning areas like international telecommunications, air travel, and trade. Its
development faces contemporary controversies (e.g., criminal jurisdiction over pirates).
 International Society (Ch. 17): This concept argues that states, despite anarchy, share
common rules and norms. However, critics suggest international society may not extend
far beyond the "inner circle" of rich, liberal states (e.g., the G20) whose interests it
serves.

IV. The New Agenda: Globalisation and Global Governance (Part 3 of the Text)
The "new agenda" shifts focus to transnational issues, often downgrading material power in favor
of ideas and norms.
A. New Actors and Governance Structures
 The United Nations (UN) (Ch. 21): Analyzed as an actor, a forum, and a resource for
global governance, based on its Charter and principal organs.
 Non-State Actors (Ch. 22): Explores the influence of Multinational Corporations
(MNCs) (transnationalized material power) and International Non-Governmental
Organisations (INGOs) (transnationalized normative power).
 Global Economic Institutions (GEIs) (Ch. 24): These institutions (like the World Bank)
exert considerable, controversial influence over the Global South. They are studied in
terms of their role in global governance, their management of the global economy, and
questions of their legitimacy.
 Religion and Secularism (Ch. 23): Global politics is shaped by the rising prominence of
religion and the politics surrounding the concept of secularism.
B. Global Issues and Human Security
 Global Poverty, Inequality, and Development (Ch. 27): Examines approaches to
poverty, from the Washington Consensus to the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
 Globalisation and Its Critics (Ch. 28): Addresses the various understandings of
globalisation and the scholarly and anti-capitalist critiques it has generated.
 Humanitarianism and R2P (Ch. 31): Humanitarian intervention has flourished,
leading to the argument that force may be necessary to save 'suffering strangers'.
o The principle of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), unanimously embraced by
the UN in 2005, cuts across the traditional notion that state sovereignty means
immunity from external interference.
 Migration and Refugees (Ch. 33): Focuses on the origins of refugee law and the current
situation, noting that developing countries host the majority of the world's displaced
persons (four-fifths of the total population).
 Global Environmental Politics and Climate Change (Ch. 34 & 35): These are viewed
as issues of global scope that are irreducible to material sources of power, often raising
moral considerations.
International Relations – Evolution (Part 1)
This study traces the development of International Relations (IR) from its philosophical roots to
its establishment as a distinct academic discipline and through its early theoretical debates.
I. Origins and Academic Emergence
The study of relations among political units has deep historical roots, but its establishment as a
formal academic subject is relatively recent.
Phase Key Figures / Texts Contribution to IR
Ancient Thucydides: History of Offered early concepts of power and security, often
Foundations the Peloponnesian War. cited as the philosophical origin of Realism.
Chanakya: Provided a realpolitik approach to statecraft,
Arthashastra. emphasizing pragmatic political maneuvers.
Renaissance Niccolò Machiavelli: Established foundational concepts for understanding
Influence The Prince. state relations by separating politics from morality.
IR only became a distinct academic discipline after the
Academic First World War. Previously, it existed as a mere
Post-WWI (1919)
Emergence branch of history, law, philosophy, and political
science.
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II. The First Great Debate: Idealism vs. Realism (1920s–1940s)

The First World War catalyzed the formal establishment of IR as a field seeking to understand
and prevent global conflict, resulting in the foundational clash between Idealism and Realism.
A. The Liberal Approach (Idealism/Utopianism)
The liberal approach emerged immediately after WWI, driven by a desire to rectify the ills of the
international system.
 Key Focus Areas:
o Addressing the ills of the international system.
o Determining "what ought to be done" to avoid future wars.
o Protecting future generations from the "scourge of war."
 Core Assumption: Human beings are rational and can apply reason to international
relations to establish organizations for the benefit of all.
 Prescriptive Solutions: Advocated for Outlawing war, Disarmament, International
Law, and the creation of International Organizations (like the League of Nations).
B. The Realist Approach (The Conservative/Pessimistic View)
Realism emerged as a powerful critique of Idealism, arguing that the liberal approach was
dangerously naive about the nature of world politics.
  Core Argument: Politics is, at bottom, a struggle for power.
 Pessimistic View: Views the international system as based on self-help, where the pursuit
of power is natural and inevitable.
 Key Concept: The National Interest: Realists emphasize the importance of National
Interest (often defined in terms of power) as the sole rational guide for a state's policy.
 Central Figure: E. H. Carr, whose work The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1919–1939) attacked
Idealism as utopian and historically inaccurate.

III. The Second Great Debate: Traditionalism vs. Behaviouralism (1960s)

This debate shifted the focus from what IR should study (power vs. cooperation) to how IR
should be studied, questioning its scientific method.
A. The Traditionalist Approach
 Methodology: Emphasizes historical, legal, and philosophical methods.
 Focus: Believes in understanding the international system through the study of
Diplomacy, History, Political Theory, and International Law.
 Nature of Knowledge: Knowledge is gained through deep textual reading, interpretation,
and moral/political judgment.
B. The Behaviouralist Approach
 Methodology: Advocated for the use of scientific and quantitative methods to study IR.
 Goal: To establish the study of IR as a true science through observable, empirical data,
moving beyond subjective interpretation.
 Influence of Positivism: This approach is deeply influenced by positivism, aiming to
create testable hypotheses, measurable variables, and law-like generalizations about
international behaviour.
C. The Aftermath and Neo-Theories
 Conclusion of the Debate: The Second Great Debate was not decisively won by either
side; the controversies gradually receded.
 Resulting Evolution:
o It led to a reformulation of both Realism and Liberalism, both of which were
highly influenced by behaviouralist methodologies.
o This paved the way for the emergence of new theoretical avatars in the 1970s:
Neo-Realism (structural Realism) and Neo-Liberalism (Neo-Liberal
Institutionalism).
o These Neo-Theories renewed the core conflict, sparking the Third Great Debate
between Neo-Liberalism/Neo-Realism and Neo-Marxism.
Further Understanding: Karl W. Deutsch's Contribution
The sociologist and political scientist Karl W. Deutsch understood the international system not
just through states but as a complex web of social and economic variables. He described it in
terms of:
 "Clusters of settlement, modes of transport, centers of culture, areas of language,
decisions of caste and class barriers between markets, sharp regional differences in wealth
and interdependence."
This perspective was pivotal, as what had been a mere ideological commitment for
Traditionalists became a "devalued hypothesis" to analyze causation in the real political world.
It highlighted the shift toward a more empirical, data-driven analysis of social forces in
international relations.
International Relations – Evolution (Part II)
This section details the theoretical advancements and schisms that dominated the field of IR from
the 1970s onward, moving beyond the classical state-centric debates.
I. The Neo-Theories and the Third Great Debate (Rationalism)
The Second Great Debate (Traditionalism vs. Behaviouralism) paved the way for the "Neo-Neo"
synthesis—a rivalry between refined versions of the two original mainstream traditions.
A. Neo-Liberalism (Neo-Liberal Institutionalism)
Neo-Liberalism represents a renewed take on classic liberal ideas about progress and change, but
critically, it discards the old idealism in favor of scientific (behaviouralist) methods.
 Key Proponents: E. Haas, Robert Keohane, and Joseph Nye led this theoretical
movement.
 Rejection of Realist Simplicity: Neo-Liberals explicitly rejected the realist simplicity
that considered states as the only significant actors in international relations.
 Complex Interdependence (Keohane & Nye): This framework asserts that relations
between societies go beyond purely government relations, encompassing various
connections, including transnational business links.
o It argues that military force is not given much importance in this framework,
contrasting sharply with Realism.
 Focus: Explaining cooperation through the establishment and operation of international
institutions.
B. Plurality of Actors
A central feature of the Neo-Liberal and contemporary landscape is the recognition of multiple
actors operating between the domestic and international spheres, creating a more complex
landscape of international relations.
Actor Type Examples (as listed in the text) Role in IR
Facilitate inter-state
State-Based United Nations (UN), European Union (EU),
cooperation and create
Organizations ASEAN, African Union (AU)
international regimes.
Non-State Actors Multinational Corporations (MNCs), Exert influence across
Actor Type Examples (as listed in the text) Role in IR
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World
borders in economic, social,
(Transnational) Bank, International NGOs (MSF, Amnesty
and humanitarian domains.
International, ICRC)
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II. The Fourth Great Debate: Rationalism vs. Reflectivism
The most recent and enduring debate is a fundamental philosophical clash over the nature of
knowledge itself.
A. The Rationalist Position
This position encompasses the dominant mainstream theories that are rooted in Positivism and
seek law-like, causal explanations.
 The Dominant Theories: The rationalist position is epitomized by the "neo-neo" debate,
continuing the dominance of three core theories: Realism, Liberalism, and Modern
World System theory (a type of Neo-Marxism).
 Positivist Approach: Rationalists attempt to find regularities in human behavior and
explain the social world as a natural scientist would.
 Goal: To establish causal theories that explain why events happen (e.g., why states
choose to cooperate or fight).
B. The Reflectivist Position (Post-Positivism)
Reflectivism is a rejection of the positivist scientific approach and represents the emergence of
non-positivistic theories.
 Defining Feature: Reflectivists emphasize that the world is socially constructed through
ideas, language, and norms, rather than existing as purely objective, material facts.
 Theories: The new voices in IR, identified as post-Positivist approaches, mark the
reflectivist position (e.g., Post-Structuralism, Post-Colonialism, Feminism).
 Goal: To establish constitutive theories.
C. Constitutive Theories and Shaping Perception
Constitutive theories fundamentally differ from causal theories:
 Function: They help construct how we understand and perceive the world. They
focus on how concepts (like "anarchy" or "sovereignty") are created and maintained.
 Nature: They are not external to what they explain; instead, they actively shape our
thinking about the world. This means the way scholars talk about the world constitutes
the world.
 Example (Further Understanding): A causal theory (Rationalist) asks: "Does anarchy
cause war?" A constitutive theory (Reflectivist) asks: "How is anarchy constituted? Is it
constituted by competition, or by cooperation?" (As Constructivist Alexander Wendt
famously argued: "Anarchy is what states make of it.")
III. Conclusion: The Current IR Landscape
The contemporary landscape of IR is defined by the coexistence and friction between these
theoretical positions, marking what is currently identified as the Fourth Great Debate era.
1. Rationalist Dominance: The "neo-neo" debate (Neo-Realism vs. Neo-Liberalism)
continues to form the core of mainstream scholarship.
2. Reflectivist Challenge: The emergence of non-positivistic theories (Feminism, Post-
Positivist approaches) offers a constant critical challenge.
3. The Social Constructivist Position: The development of Social Constructivism (e.g.,
Alexander Wendt) is viewed as an approach seeking rapprochement (a reconciliation)
between the two fiercely opposing rationalist and reflectivist positions.
The era is characterized by these new challenges to established traditions through alternative,
critical approaches.
Unit III: Evolution of International Relations
The evolution of IR is tracked through three major phases: its philosophical roots, its formal
establishment after World War I, and a series of "Great Debates" that define its theoretical
trajectory.
I. Pre-Academic Foundations (Ancient to Renaissance)
The theoretical questions of IR long pre-date the discipline's formal establishment, rooted in
classic works of history and political philosophy.
Period/Figures Key Work / Approach Core Contribution
Ancient Thucydides: History of Provided early, structural concepts of power and
Foundations the Peloponnesian War security (often cited as the origin of Realism).
Chanakya: Outlined a pragmatic, amoral realpolitik approach
Arthashastra to statecraft.
Established foundational concepts for understanding
Niccolò Machiavelli:
Renaissance state relations by separating political action from
The Prince
moral judgment.
IR became a distinct academic discipline only
Academic
Post-WWI after WWI. Prior to this, it was a mere branch of
Emergence (1919)
history, law, philosophy, and political science.
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II. The Great Debates: Defining the Discipline

The evolution of IR is defined by four major theoretical-philosophical clashes, each reshaping the
field's focus, methodology, or ontology.
A. The First Great Debate: Idealism vs. Realism (1920s–1940s)
This was the foundational debate over the nature of world politics and the proper normative
goal of the discipline.
Perspective Core Assumption Key Figure / Text Goal / Prescriptive Solutions
President Focus on "what ought to be
Human beings are rational
Woodrow done." Advocated for Outlawing
Idealism and can apply reason to
Wilson (League War, Disarmament,
(Utopianism) establish organizations for
of Nations International Law, and
the benefit of all.
advocate) International Organizations.
Politics is fundamentally a E. H. Carr: The Rejected Idealism as utopian.
struggle for power; the Twenty Years’ Emphasized National Interest
Realism
system is based on self- Crisis (1919– (defined in terms of power) as the
help. 1939) only rational guide for state policy.
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B. The Second Great Debate: Traditionalism vs. Behaviouralism (1960s)
This debate was a methodological clash over how IR should be studied, heavily influenced by
the rise of Positivism.
Perspective Methodology / Epistemology Goal and Focus
Used historical, legal, and
philosophical methods. Knowledge Focus on the study of Diplomacy,
Traditionalism
is gained through interpretation and History, and Law.
moral/political judgment.
Sought to establish IR as a true science
Advocated for scientific and by creating testable hypotheses,
Behaviouralism
quantitative methods (Positivism). measurable variables, and law-like
generalizations about human behavior.
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The Resulting Evolution (The Neo-Theories): The debate was not decisively won but led to the
reformulation of both Realism and Liberalism, both now influenced by scientific methods. This
paved the way for the Neo-Theories in the 1970s.

III. The Modern Era: Neo-Theories and Critical Schisms

The evolution continued with the refinement of mainstream theories and the emergence of
radical, critical challenges.
A. The Third Great Debate: Neo-Liberalism vs. Neo-Realism vs. Neo-Marxism
This debate was the resurgence of the conflict between the two mainstream traditions, now
sharing a common scientific (rationalist) methodology.
Key
Theory Core Focus / Distinction
Proponents
Neo-Liberalism Robert Cooperation is possible through International
(Institutionalism) Keohane, Institutions. The core framework is Complex
Joseph Nye Interdependence, which emphasizes transnational
 Key
Theory Core Focus / Distinction
Proponents
business links and rejects the primacy of military force.
Recognized that Non-State Actors (MNCs, IMF, NGOs)
and State-Based Organizations (UN, EU) create a
Plurality of Actors
complex landscape, rejecting the realist simplicity of
states as the only actors.
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B. The Fourth Great Debate: Rationalism vs. Reflectivism (1980s–Present)
This is the current fundamental philosophical schism, dividing the field based on Ontology (the
nature of reality).
Philosophical
Rationalist (Mainstream) Reflectivist (Critical/Post-Positivist)
Position
Theories Neo-Realism, Neo-Liberalism, and Post-Structuralism, Post-Colonialism,
Included Modern World System Theory. Feminism, Critical Theory.
Positivist Approach: Seek law- Non-Positivist Approach: Reject the
like, causal explanations by scientific method; emphasize that the world
Epistemology
finding regularities in human is socially constructed through ideas,
behavior (e.g., A causes B). language, and norms.
To establish constitutive theories that
To establish causal theories that actively shape how we understand and
Goal
explain why events happen. perceive the world (i.e., the theory is not
external to what it explains).
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IV. Critical Challenges to the IR Lexicon
A crucial modern evolution is the challenge to the very terminology and scope of IR, arguing the
traditional focus is Eurocentric and structurally limited.
A. Terminological Expansion
The field has moved from a narrow focus to a broad scope, justifying the shift from "Politics" to
"Relations."
Term Scope/Focus Critique
Considered too specific and
Narrow/Power-Centric: Study of power-
International particularistic as it makes
relations, conflict of purpose, and the
Politics (IP) other factors (economic,
struggle for power.
social) merely incidental.
The most popular term,
Broad/Comprehensive: Study of all
International reflecting the wide and ever
interactions (political, economic, social,
Relations (IR) increasing scope of the
cultural) among nations.
discipline.
Term Scope/Focus Critique
Most Expansive: Reflects the complex nature Coexists with IR/IP. Andrew
of contemporary world affairs and global Heywood notes they are
Global Politics
interconnectedness, integrating non-state actors complementary, not rival
(MNCs, NGOs) into the political dynamic. modes of understanding.
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B. Post-Positivist Critiques (TWIR and PCIR)
These critical theories reject the mainstream's ontology and epistemology by focusing on
structural and discursive inequality.
Challenge Focus Core Argument
Argues that IR's core concepts (sovereignty, anarchy) are
Postcolonial IR Discourse and
Western constructs that emerged from colonialism and
(PCIR) Epistemic Legacy.
continue to perpetuate global hierarchy through Othering.
Rejects the state-as-equal-actor idea. Argues that the
Third World Hierarchy and material reality of the non-core is defined by a hierarchy
IR (TWIR) Vulnerability. of capabilities where the domestic and international
spheres are blurred.
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Synthesis (The Current Landscape): The current era is characterized by the continuing
dominance of the Rationalist "neo-neo" debate alongside a constant, significant critical
challenge from Reflectivist and Post-Positivist approaches (Feminism, PCIR, etc.). The
development of Social Constructivism seeks to find a rapprochement between these two
opposing sides.
Unit IV: Nature, Scope, and Significance of International Relations
I. The Nature of International Relations (IR)
The nature of IR describes its essential characteristics as an academic field and the fundamental
reality it seeks to study.
Feature Description Further Understanding
It is one of the youngest social
IR is not a standalone social science but
sciences, emerging formally after
draws heavily on other disciplines:
WWI. It seeks to explain and
Political Science (governance, power),
Interdisciplinary predict international events, much
Economics (trade, finance), History
like a science, through empirical
(context, patterns), Law, Sociology, and
study and theoretical frameworks
Philosophy (ethics).
(like causal theory).
Power-Centric At its core, IR is often centered around Relations are often cooperative as
the power approach. The interactions well as oppositional (conflict of
between states, especially in the absence interest). Even cooperation is
of a supreme authority, are fundamentally viewed by some as an outcome of
driven by the struggle for power and the a specific balance of power.
pursuit of National Interest (Realist
Feature Description Further Understanding
view).
This complexity justifies the term
The contemporary world is characterized International Relations (the
by global interconnectedness and broad field) over the narrower
Interdependent &
complex interdependence. Domestic International Politics (the power
Complex
policies are constantly affected by struggle), as global affairs involve
external developments. finance, environment, and social
issues.
The nature of the study constantly The discipline's evolution from
changes based on shifts in the world order Idealism to Realism and from
Dynamic and (e.g., from bipolarity to multipolarity) and Positivism to Post-Positivism
Evolving the emergence of non-traditional illustrates its nature as a field
security threats (e.g., terrorism, defined by constant theoretical
environmental degradation). challenge and reform.
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II. Scope of International Relations

The scope defines the broad subject matter and actors that constitute the field of study. It has
expanded immensely since its inception.
Contemporary/Expanded Scope (Post-Cold War
Traditional Scope (Post-WWI Focus)
Focus)
State System: Nation-states are the basic Plurality of Actors: Includes the study of non-
units, focusing on the conflict of interest state actors and state-based organizations
among sovereign states. (IGOs).
National Power: Analysis of the elements and New Security Dimensions: Focuses on non-
determinants of National Power as the major traditional security threats (e.g., climate
determinant of international politics. change, energy crisis, pandemics, terrorism).
High Politics: The study of War and Peace
International Political Economy (IPE): Study
ideologies, Foreign Policy, Diplomacy,
of trade, globalization, North-South debate,
Military Strategies, and Control of Interstate
poverty, and Multinational Corporations
Relations (Balance of Power, International
(MNCs).
Law).
Critical Issues & Identity: Study of ethnic
Historical & Legal Focus: Emphasis on
groups, races of mankind, globalization, and the
modern political world history and the
impact of gender, culture, and religion on world
development of International Law.
politics.
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III. Significance of International Relations

The study of IR is vital for both academic understanding and practical policy-making in the
global arena.
1. Promoting Peace and Cooperation: IR provides frameworks (Liberalism,
Institutionalism) and knowledge to develop strategies for conflict resolution, arms
control (like the NPT), and maintaining peace and security. This fulfills the discipline's
founding mandate after WWI.
2. Understanding Interdependence: It clarifies how international forces—from the global
economy (IMF, World Bank) to global warming—affect the domestic welfare and stability
of every nation.
3. Policy Formulation: IR provides policymakers with theoretical insights and predictive
tools (causal theories) to analyze external threats, determine the National Interest, and
formulate effective Foreign Policy and diplomatic strategies.
4. Informed Citizenship: The study advances public control and oversight of foreign and
military policy by providing citizens with the knowledge to understand, debate, and hold
their governments accountable on global issues.

Relevant International Instrument: Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

The Peace of Westphalia (1648), a series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War, is
universally regarded as the decisive caesura (turning point) that established the foundation for
the modern international system.
1. Key Principles of the Westphalian System
The Treaty codified the shift from the medieval system (dominated by the authority of the
Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Emperor) to a system of independent political units.
Principle Description Significance for IR
The central principle. Each state It created the primary actor of IR (the
has exclusive sovereignty over sovereign state) and established the
State
its territory and domestic fundamental structure of the modern system
Sovereignty
affairs, to the exclusion of all (anarchical, as no higher authority exists
external powers. above the state).
Established the principle of non-
interference in the domestic Underpins the UN Charter's principle of non-
Non-
affairs of other countries. A intervention. It gave the state the monopoly
Interference
sovereign ruler is supreme within on the use of force inside its boundaries.
their borders.
Formally dismantled the remaining universal
Affirmed that political authority is religious and political authority
Territoriality strictly tied to a defined (Papacy/Emperor) and enshrined the concept
territorial border. of the nation-state as the legitimate political
unit.
Legal Equality Established the principle that Created a nominal "democracy of
of States every state, regardless of its size diplomacy," where the minister of a small
Principle Description Significance for IR
or power, has an equal right to state holds the same rank as a minister of a
sovereignty in international law. superpower in diplomatic relations.
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2. Treaty Provisions and Legacy
The Peace of Westphalia provided the structural framework that facilitated the development of
subsequent international law, diplomacy, and the concepts of Balance of Power and Collective
Security.
 Religious Settlement (Cuius Regio, Eius Religio): The settlement confirmed the right of
rulers to choose the official religion (Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism) of their
own state, thereby secularizing state authority and removing religion as the primary cause
of war (though religious tolerance for minorities was also stipulated).
 Legacy for International Law: The language of the treaty is the origin of many key
political ideas, including the principles of state sovereignty, mediation between nations,
and diplomacy. It established the precedent of peace reached by diplomatic congress
rather than hierarchical decree.
 The Westphalian Problem: While it created order, the notion of sovereignty also
produced the framework for rivalry and exclusion rather than a community of states (as
articulated by Realists). It allows states to commit human rights abuses with impunity,
historically justified under the banner of non-interference (a concept challenged today by
principles like the Responsibility to Protect—R2P).
MODULE I: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Unit I: Meaning of International Relations (IR)
International Relations (IR) is the academic discipline dedicated to understanding the complex
interactions that occur across national boundaries in the global system. It studies the changing
nature of these interactions in an era of globalisation.
Key Definitional Points:
1. Scope of Interaction: IR goes beyond simple foreign policy; it encompasses all types of
relationships: political (diplomacy, conflict), economic (trade, finance), social, and
cultural interactions.
2. Actors: While traditionally focused on the Nation-State (the sovereign entity), the
modern definition recognizes a plurality of actors (Unit IV), including:
o States (the primary, sovereign units).
o Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) (e.g., UN, EU, IMF).
o Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs) (e.g., MSF, Amnesty International).
o Multinational Corporations (MNCs) (e.g., Google, Shell).
3. Goal: IR aims to provide a systematic and scientific study of these relationships to
explain international events, manage global interconnectedness, and, fundamentally,
establish peace and avoid conflict.
 4. Interdisciplinary Nature: IR is not a standalone science but is an interdisciplinary field
drawing its theoretical foundations and data from History, Political Science, Economics,
International Law, Sociology, and Philosophy.

Unit II: International Relations vs. International Politics

The discipline grapples with defining its core subject matter, resulting in a debate over which
term—Relations or Politics—is more accurate.
Terminology Core Focus Theoretical Rationale Current Usage
Preferred by Realists
and scholars who view
Struggle for Power and the core reality of the
A specific and
Conflict of Purpose. global system as
International particularistic term used to
Primarily concerned anarchy and the pursuit
Politics (IP) identify the core power-
with power-relations of National Interest.
oriented interactions.
among nations. Views non-political
relations (trade, culture)
as incidental.
The broadest term,
reflecting the discipline's
Comprehensive Web of The most popular term used
wide and ever-
International Interactions (Political, by a large majority of
increasing scope beyond
Relations (IR) Economic, Social, contemporary scholars for the
just power politics (e.g.,
Legal, etc.). entire field.
including climate change
and health).
Reflects the reality that Coexist with IR/IP. They are
power is not solely held considered complementary
Complex by states and that perspectives, where
World/Global
Interdependence and interactions are intensely International Politics is
Politics
Transnational Actors. global and complex, embedded within the broader
justifying the integration context of International
of non-state actors. Relations/Global Politics.
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Conclusion on Terminology: While International Politics captures the pessimistic reality of the
power struggle, International Relations remains the preferred term because it accurately reflects
the dynamic and comprehensive nature of modern global affairs.

Unit III: Evolution of International Relations

The history of IR is marked by four major theoretical debates that have constantly challenged and
refined the field's focus and methodology.
1. Pre-Academic Roots and Formal Birth
Era/Figure Key Idea Contribution
Thucydides (History of the
Established foundational, pessimistic concepts
Ancient Peloponnesian War),
of power, security, and statecraft (realpolitik).
Chanakya (Arthashastra)
Niccolò Machiavelli (The Separated political action from morality,
Renaissance
Prince) essential for understanding state relations.
Established as a distinct discipline, moving
Academic beyond being a mere branch of history/law,
Post-WWI (1919)
Emergence driven by the mandate to prevent future global
conflict.
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2. The Great Debates
Debate Core Conflict Focus / Result Key Concept / Proponent
Idealism: International
First
Law, Organizations
Great Idealism Conflict over Goals (Ontology):
(League of Nations).
Debate (Utopianism) vs. Should IR study "what ought to be"
Realism: National
(1920s– Realism (progress) or "what is" (power)?
Interest, Power (E. H.
1940s)
Carr).
Traditionalism:
Second Conflict over Methodology Diplomacy, History.
Great Traditionalism vs. (Epistemology): Should IR use Behaviouralism:
Debate Behaviouralism historical/philosophical judgment or Positivism, Testable
(1960s) quantitative/scientific measurement? Hypotheses, Law-like
Generalizations.
Refinement of Mainstream Neo-Liberalism:
Third Neo-Realism vs. Theories: Both accepted the Complex
Great Neo-Liberalism Behaviouralist/Scientific method Interdependence,
Debate (The Neo-Neo (Rationalism) but clashed over the Cooperation. Neo-
(1970s) Debate) role of institutions in managing Realism: Systemic
anarchy. Structure (Anarchy).
Rationalist: Neo-Neo
Fourth Clash over Knowledge
Theories. Reflectivist:
Great Rationalism vs. (Ontology/Epistemology): Should IR
Post-Structuralism,
Debate Reflectivism (Post- use causal theories (Positivist) or
Feminism.
(1980s– Positivism) constitutive theories (Socially
Rapprochement Seeker:
Present) Constructed)?
Social Constructivism.
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Key Concept: Constitutive Theories: These theories (Reflectivism) reject the idea that the
social world exists independently of our ideas. They argue that concepts like "anarchy" or
"sovereignty" are actively shaped by our thinking and discourse, focusing on how the world is
constituted, not just why things happen.
Unit IV: Nature, Scope, and Significance of International Relations
A. The Nature of IR
The essential quality of the international system and its academic study is defined by the
following characteristics:
1. Anarchy: The international system lacks a central, supreme authority above the sovereign
state. This reality is the starting point for most theories.
2. Sovereign State-Centric: The nation-state remains the supreme political unit and the
primary actor, possessing supreme authority (sovereignty) within its territory.
3. Power-Based: The environment is fundamentally competitive and driven by the rational
pursuit of the National Interest, often defined in terms of power and security (Realist
core).
4. Interdependent: Despite anarchy, states exist in a web of mutual reliance on issues like
trade, finance, and security, making cooperation (or conflict) unavoidable.
B. Scope of IR (Expansion of the Agenda)
The scope has expanded dramatically from the traditional "high politics" (war and diplomacy) to
a complex "new agenda" of transnational issues.
Traditional Agenda (High Politics) New Agenda (Low Politics / Transnational Issues)
State System, National Interest,
Non-State Actors: MNCs, INGOs, Terrorist Groups.
and National Power.
Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, and International Political Economy (IPE): Trade,
Intelligence. Globalisation, World Bank, IMF, North-South Debate.
Causes and Character of War, Non-Traditional Security (NTS): Climate Change,
Military Strategy. Pandemics, Terrorism, Resource Scarcity.
International Law and Identity and Social Issues: Gender, Religion, Culture,
International Organizations. Human Rights, Humanitarianism (R2P).
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C. Significance of IR
The study of IR is crucial for survival, progress, and understanding in the modern world:
1. Conflict Management & Peace Promotion: Provides theoretical tools to analyze and
anticipate conflicts, allowing for the formulation of strategies for disarmament,
collective security, and peaceful resolution.
2. Policy & Decision Making: Offers policymakers (diplomats, intelligence) the necessary
knowledge to define the National Interest accurately and make informed decisions
regarding external relations.
3. Global Problem Solving: IR is vital for addressing issues of global scope (e.g., global
warming, migration, poverty) that cannot be solved by a single state acting alone.
4. Informed Public: Fosters a critical understanding of the world order, allowing citizens to
exercise greater control and oversight of their government’s foreign policies.
🌐 Relevant Instrument: Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe, is the canonical
event marking the birth of the modern international system and thus serves as the single most
critical historical reference point for IR theory.
Core Principles and Legacy:
1. State Sovereignty (The Cornerstone):
o Principle: Established the doctrine that each ruler possesses exclusive, supreme
authority over the territory and people within their borders.
o Impact: It destroyed the last vestiges of a universal political-religious authority
(the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy), making the sovereign state the
primary, legitimate actor in world affairs.
2. Non-Interference:
o Principle: Codified the rule that external powers should refrain from interfering
in another state's internal affairs (e.g., religion, domestic policy).
o Impact: This principle creates the anarchical structure of the international
system, as states are the final arbiters of force and law within their domain.
3. Legal Equality of States:
o Principle: Established that all sovereign states, regardless of size or power, are
nominally equal under international law.
o Impact: This forms the basis of modern diplomatic protocol and organizational
structures (e.g., the UN General Assembly).
4. Secularization:
o Principle: Recognized the right of rulers to choose the religion of their state
(Cuius Regio, Eius Religio), which was crucial for separating political authority
from religious doctrine.
o Impact: Enabled the formation of secular nation-states and shifted the cause of
major European conflicts away from religion toward territorial and power politics.
MODULE II: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Unit I: Liberalism and Neo-Liberalism in International Relations (IR)
Liberalism is a foundational theory in International Relations that offers an optimistic alternative
to Realism. It centers on the belief that human reason and cooperation can overcome the
constraints of an anarchic international system to achieve a more peaceful and progressive world
order.

I. Classical Liberalism (Idealism)

Concept: The earliest major strand of Liberal IR, dominant after World War I, and often called
Idealism. It sought to consciously construct peace based on moral principles, law, and
international organizations, reacting directly to the tragedy of the war.
Key Concepts & Explanation:
 Human Rationality and Moral Progress:
o Explanation: Individuals are inherently capable of rational free choice and
possess moral values. Bad behavior (e.g., war) is a result of flawed institutions or
ignorance, not a defective human nature.
o Additional Point: This optimistic view suggests that states, composed of rational
individuals, can learn from history and apply reason to foreign policy to avoid
conflict.
 Harmony of Interests:
o Explanation: States and people share common interests (like peace, prosperity,
and stability). Cooperative activities will mutually satisfy these interests, making
cooperation the norm, not conflict.
o Additional Point: This concept was heavily criticized by Realists (like E.H. Carr)
who argued it ignored the reality of conflicting power interests.
 International Institutions & Law:
o Explanation: To secure peace, institutions and legal frameworks must be
established. These provide a platform for cooperation, codify expectations, and act
as a means of collective security.
o Example: The creation of the League of Nations (Woodrow Wilson's vision) after
WWI was the quintessential idealist project.
 Democratic Peace Thesis (Early Roots):
o Explanation: Inspired by Immanuel Kant, the idea that liberal democracies are
inherently more pacific in their relations with one another. Democratic
governance structures (checks and balances, public accountability) make leaders
hesitant to go to war.

II. Neo-Liberal Institutionalism

Concept: A late 20th-century evolution of Liberalism (sometimes just called Neo-Liberalism in
IR) that emerged as a response to Neo-Realism. It accepts the Realist premise of an anarchic
international system and rational, self-interested states, but argues that international
institutions can mitigate the effects of anarchy and facilitate cooperation.
Key Concepts & Explanation:
 Acceptance of Anarchy:
o Explanation: Neo-Liberals agree with Neo-Realists (e.g., Kenneth Waltz) that the
international system lacks a central authority (anarchy). However, they argue that
anarchy does not necessarily lead to constant conflict.
o Additional Point: This concession makes the theory more "scientific" and less
"utopian" than classical Idealism, focusing on institutional effects rather than
moral progress.
  Rational, State-Centric Actors:
o Explanation: The State remains the most significant actor, acting rationally to
maximize its self-interest, similar to Neo-Realism.
o Key Thinkers: Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye (Complex Interdependence,
After Hegemony).
 Absolute Gains vs. Relative Gains:
o Explanation: This is the core distinction from Neo-Realism.
 Neo-Realists focus on Relative Gains (how much a state gains compared
to its rivals; concerned with who gains more).
 Neo-Liberals focus on Absolute Gains (the total increase in a state's
welfare, prioritizing mutual benefit). They argue that institutions help
states manage concerns about relative gains.
 The Role of Institutions (Regimes):
o Explanation: International Institutions (like the UN, WTO, IMF, IEA) are not just
talking shops; they actively facilitate cooperation by:
1. Reducing Transaction Costs: Making negotiation easier and cheaper.
2. Providing Information: Increasing transparency and reducing the fear of
cheating.
3. Extending the Shadow of the Future: Creating a context of ongoing
interaction, making short-term cheating less rational.
4. Enforcing Reciprocity: Establishing clear rules for reciprocal behavior.
o Term: An International Regime is a set of implicit or explicit principles, norms,
rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge
in a given issue-area (e.g., the non-proliferation regime).
 Complex Interdependence:
o Explanation: A theory by Keohane and Nye that describes the post-WWII world
where:
 Societies are connected by multiple channels (transnational and
transgovernmental relations, not just state-to-state).
 There is no clear hierarchy of issues (economic, environmental, and
security issues are all important).
 Military force is not a useful instrument for all problems, especially
between interconnected liberal states.

III. Neo-Liberalism (Economic/Policy Model)

Concept: This distinct use of "Neo-Liberalism" refers to a political and economic policy model
that promotes laissez-faire market principles, which has had a massive global impact since the
1970s. This is distinct from Neo-Liberal Institutionalism in IR, but the two often share a
philosophical lineage.
Key Tenets (Policy Focus):
 Free-Market Capitalism: Advocates for a market free from government interference,
based on the belief that market forces naturally find equilibrium ("invisible hand").
 Deregulation: Removing government rules and restrictions on businesses and financial
markets.
 Privatization: Shifting state-owned enterprises or public services (like healthcare or
transport) to the private sector.
 Fiscal Austerity: Reducing government spending, especially on social welfare programs.
 Globalization/Free Trade: Advocating for the removal of tariffs and protectionist
barriers to maximize economic efficiency.

IV. Additional Points for Better Understanding

Theory/Concept Core Idea Key Proponents
Immanuel Kant,
Republican Democracies are inherently peaceful (Democratic Peace
Michael Doyle,
Liberalism Thesis).
Bruce Russett.
Commercial Economic interdependence (trade, finance) creates Adam Smith,
Liberalism incentives for peace, as conflict becomes too costly. Richard Cobden.
Transnational relations (people-to-people contact,
Sociological James Rosenau,
NGOs, global civil society) increase understanding and
Liberalism Karl Deutsch.
cooperation.
Reinhold Niebuhr's idea of combining the "wisdom of
Synthesis with the Realists" (acknowledging power) with the
Realism "optimism of the Idealists" (striving for peace) is a
classic attempt to move past the dichotomy.
Liberalism is often criticized as "utopian," failing to
Criticism
account for the dominance of powerful states and the
(Realist)
constant security dilemma inherent in anarchy.
The key difference to be well-versed in is that the IR theory Neo-Liberal Institutionalism is a
state-centric, rational-choice model that focuses on cooperation under anarchy, while the
economic/policy model Neo-Liberalism is primarily about free-market dominance and minimal
state intervention.
You can find more on the development of these ideas in international politics: The Development
of Liberalism in International Relations.
Sources
UNIT II: Realism and Neo-Realism
Realism is the oldest and arguably most enduring theory in International Relations (IR). It offers
a pessimistic, cautionary view of world politics, arguing that power and competition are the
fundamental and recurring realities of the anarchic international system.

I. Classical Realism
Core Concept: International politics is a continuous "struggle for power" driven by flawed
human nature. The behavior of states is simply the behavior of individuals (who are self-
interested, fearful, and power-seeking) writ large onto the international stage.
A. Key Concepts & Explanation (The "3 S's" + 1)
Term Clear Explanation Key Proponent
The State is the principal and legitimate actor. Sovereignty
Statism grants the state supreme authority within its borders. Other actors Hans Morgenthau
(like NGOs or IGOs) are secondary or tools of the state.
The paramount goal of every state. All other goals (economic,
Thomas Hobbes
Survival cultural, ideological) are secondary to ensuring the state's
(State of Nature)
physical integrity and independence.
In the absence of a world government (anarchy), states cannot
Self-Help rely on anyone else for protection. They must provide for their Thucydides
own security, primarily through amassing power.
The root cause of conflict. Man is inherently egoistic, self-
Human
interested, and driven by an animus dominandi (a desire for Hans Morgenthau
Nature
dominance or power). This inherent flaw projects onto the state.
B. Morgenthau's Six Principles of Political Realism (Core Memorization)
Hans Morgenthau systematized classical realism in Politics Among Nations (1948).
1. Politics is governed by objective laws rooted in immutable human nature.
2. The national interest is always defined in terms of power. Power is the means and the
immediate end of foreign policy.
3. The meaning of power is dynamic and changes over time (e.g., from military strength
to economic dominance).
4. Universal moral principles cannot be applied to state actions. The survival of the state
is the highest moral imperative (ethics of responsibility).
5. The moral aspirations of a particular nation are not universal moral laws. (Beware of
crusades or idealism).
6. The political sphere is autonomous. It must be analyzed separately from economic,
legal, or moral considerations.
C. Examples for Classical Realism
 The Melian Dialogue (Thucydides): The 5th century B.C. exchange between Athens and
the island of Melos. Athens demanded subjugation, stating, "The strong do what they
 can and the weak suffer what they must." This perfectly captures the realist view that
justice and morality have no place when survival and power are at stake.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The standoff between the US and the USSR was not
resolved through shared moral values or international law, but through a terrifying, zero-
sum balance of power that demonstrated the vital importance of military capability and
resolve.

II. Neo-Realism (Structural Realism)

Core Concept: Pioneered by Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics (1979). It shifts
the primary cause of conflict from flawed human nature (Classical Realism's "First Image") to
the anarchic structure of the international system (the "Third Image").
A. Key Assumptions (Waltz's Model)
Comparison to Classical
Term Explanation and Significance
Realism
No central authority exists above the states. This is Same assumption, but
Anarchy is the
the permissive cause of war. Because there is no anarchy is the cause of
Ordering
higher protection, survival becomes the primary state behavior, not human
Principle
goal. nature.
Simpler view; ignores
States are States are treated as single decision-making units domestic politics (regime
Unitary, that calculate costs and benefits to achieve their type, leaders' character)
Rational Actors goals (primarily survival) as efficiently as possible. which Classical Realists
considered important.
Actions taken by one state to increase its own
The structural result of
security (e.g., building up arms) are unavoidably
Security anarchy, it makes long-
interpreted as threatening by other states, leading
Dilemma term trust and cooperation
them to increase their own arms, resulting in a
highly difficult.
spiral of insecurity.
The arrangement of power (military and economic)
among great powers is the key variable Focuses on material
Distribution of
determining outcomes. Bipolarity (two great power and its distribution,
Capabilities
powers, like the Cold War) is considered the most not just power as an
(Polarity)
stable, while Multipolarity (three or more) is less ambiguous goal.
stable and more prone to miscalculation.
States are concerned with how much power they
gain relative to other states, not just the overall Directly opposes Neo-
Relative Gains (absolute) gain. This fear of a rival gaining more Liberalism's focus on
severely limits the scope for international Absolute Gains.
cooperation.
B. Split within Neo-Realism: Defensive vs. Offensive
Neo-Realists agree on the causes (anarchy, self-help) but disagree on how much power states
seek.
Feature Defensive Realism (Waltz) Offensive Realism (Mearsheimer)
Security Maximizers: States seek Power Maximizers: States seek
enough power to maintain the Balance Hegemony (dominance) because the only
Goal of
of Power and ensure survival. Over- way to be truly secure in an anarchic
States
expansion is viewed as strategically system is to be the most powerful state in
foolish as it provokes counter-balancing. the system (or at least your region).
States usually favor the status quo States are revisionist (always looking for
View of
(unless directly threatened) because the opportunities to gain power) because
Status
international system often balances there's no guarantee that another state won't
Quo
against aggressors. attack.
Key
Kenneth Waltz John Mearsheimer
Thinker
C. Examples for Neo-Realism
 The Cold War (Bipolarity): Waltz's ideal example. The US and the USSR were
constantly competing, but the clear, simple structure (two main powers) and the deterrent
of nuclear weapons made the great power relationship highly stable and predictable,
avoiding direct war.
 China's Rise (Offensive Realism): Offensive Realists like Mearsheimer argue that as
China's capabilities grow, it will inevitably seek regional hegemony (dominance in Asia)
and push the US out of its "backyard," not because Chinese leaders are evil, but because
the anarchic structure compels them to maximize power for security.
 NATO Expansion (Defensive Realism): A defensive realist might argue that the post-
Cold War expansion of NATO was seen by Russia not as a benign democratic move, but
as a direct threat to its security buffer zone, forcing Russia to react defensively (e.g., the
Ukraine War) to restore a regional balance of power.
UNIT III: Dependency Theory
Core Concept: Dependency Theory (emerged in the 1960s, primarily from Latin American
scholars) argues that the underdevelopment of poor countries is not a natural state or a
temporary phase (as Modernization Theory claims), but is rather a direct consequence of their
integration into the global capitalist system. The wealth of the developed world is built on and
structurally requires the poverty of the developing world.
I. The Core-Periphery Structure
Dependency theory models the global economy as a rigid, exploitative structure based on two
main groups of states:
Component Description Economic Role
Economically dominant nations with Manufacture and export high-
Core Countries advanced industrial bases, high-tech value finished goods; extract
(Metropolis) manufacturing, capital, and financial power. capital and resources from the
(e.g., USA, Western Europe, Japan). periphery.
Periphery Economically dependent nations, primarily Export low-value raw
Countries in the Global South, with weak industrial materials and cheap labour;
Component Description Economic Role
bases and reliance on a few primary import high-value finished
(Satellites)
commodities (raw materials, cash crops). goods from the core.
The Vicious Cycle of Dependency:
II. Key Tenets and Concepts
Concept Explanation Proponents
The core exploits the periphery through trade. The Raúl Prebisch &
value of manufactured goods (Core exports) Hans W. Singer
Unequal Exchange
increases over time relative to the value of raw (Prebisch-Singer
materials (Periphery exports). Thesis)
Underdevelopment is not a lack of development; it
The Development of is a condition actively created and sustained by Andre Gunder
Underdevelopment the core's economic dominance and historical Frank
exploitation (colonialism).
Local ruling classes (political, economic elites) in
the periphery who maintain the dependent structure
Internal Comprador Fernando H.
because their own personal interests (wealth,
Elites Cardoso
power) align with and benefit from the relationship
with the core.
The global economic structure prevents the
periphery from achieving true, autonomous
Theotonio Dos
Structural Constraint development. Attempts at industrialization are
Santos
thwarted by reliance on foreign technology and
capital.

III. Proposed Solutions and Real-World Examples

Dependency theorists generally advocate for strategies that reduce reliance on the core:
Strategy Description Example/Focus
The periphery nation should substitute
Popular in Latin America in
Import-Substitution imported manufactured goods with
the mid-20th century (e.g.,
Industrialization domestically produced ones, often using
Brazil, Argentina) to foster
(ISI) high tariffs to protect nascent local
self-sufficiency.
industries.
A more radical strategy advocating a
Advocated by radical Marxists
reduction of ties with the global capitalist
Delinking/Self- like Samir Amin and pursued
system and a focus on developing
Reliance by some nations (e.g., China
internal markets and resources to serve
pre-1970s).
the local population.
🌍 Examples of Dependency Dynamics
 1. "Banana Republics": Historically, nations in Central America that became economically
and politically dominated by US-based fruit companies (e.g., United Fruit Company).
Their economies were warped to produce a single cash crop, making them entirely
dependent on the price fluctuations and whims of the core country's market.
2. The Debt Crisis of the 1980s (Latin America): Decades of borrowing capital
(technology/finance) from Core institutions (IMF, World Bank, Western banks) led to
massive, unsustainable debt. The resulting Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)
imposed by the Core forced countries to dismantle state protections (like those from ISI)
and prioritize debt repayment over social welfare, reinforcing the core's financial control.

IV. Criticisms of Dependency Theory

While highly influential in shaping post-colonial thought, the theory faces significant critiques:
 Neglects Internal Factors: Over-emphasizes external (global) structures while largely
ignoring critical internal factors for underdevelopment, such as political corruption, poor
governance, ethnic conflict, and bad policy choices within the periphery state itself.
 Failure to Explain Success Stories: It cannot adequately explain the rapid, export-
oriented development of the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) like South Korea
and Taiwan, which grew by integrating into the global economy, not by delinking from it.
 Too Deterministic: The theory can be overly pessimistic, implying that development for
the periphery is virtually impossible as long as the core exists, failing to account for
shifting global power balances (e.g., the rise of China and India).
 Lack of Empirical Rigour: Critics argue that it often uses overly broad categories
(Core/Periphery) and lacks the precise, testable hypotheses necessary for a robust social
scientific theory.
UNIT IV: World-Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein)
I. Foundational Concepts
World-Systems Theory (WST) shifts the unit of analysis from the individual nation-state to the
"world-system" itself. It is a historical, macro-sociological approach that seeks to explain global
inequality by focusing on the evolution of a single, continuous Capitalist World-Economy that
emerged around the 16th century.
A. Key Assumptions
1. The System as the Unit: The appropriate unit of study is the world-system, not
individual countries. A country's internal conditions cannot be understood without
reference to its position within the global system.
2. Capitalist World-Economy: The modern world-system is fundamentally capitalist,
driven by the ceaseless accumulation of capital and the pursuit of profit across state
boundaries.
3. Historical and Dynamic: The system is constantly evolving through long cycles of
expansion and contraction (Kondratieff waves) and shifts in hegemony (dominance by a
single core power).
II. The Tripartite Global Division of Labor (The Three Zones)
WST's most distinctive feature is its three-tiered hierarchy, which defines the global division of
labor and patterns of economic exchange.
Zone Economic Role/Production Characteristics & Power Examples
Dominates global trade,
possesses strong state
High-skill, capital-intensive
institutions, high wages, high USA, Canada,
Core production (advanced
profit, and exerts political and Western Europe,
(Metropolis) technology, financial services,
military hegemony. Exploits Japan, Australia.
high-value manufacturing).
both Semi-Periphery and
Periphery.
Mix of core-like and Occupies an intermediate
China, India,
periphery-like activities position; serves as a buffer and
Brazil, Mexico,
Semi- (medium-skill manufacturing, often a source of political
South Africa,
Periphery resource extraction, but also stabilization for the system.
South Korea,
some technological Exploits the Periphery while
Taiwan.
innovation). being exploited by the Core.
Most countries in
Low-skill, labor-intensive Weak state institutions,
Sub-Saharan
Periphery production (raw materials, dependent on the Core for capital
Africa, parts of
(Satellites) agricultural commodities, and markets, low wages, high
Latin America,
simple assembly). exploitation, and low profit.
and parts of Asia.
A. The Role of the Semi-Periphery
The Semi-Periphery is crucial because:
 Stabilizer: It provides the Core with a reliable base of intermediate-level manufacturing
and keeps the Periphery's anti-systemic forces in check by offering the possibility of
upward mobility.
 Mobility: Countries can move up or down the hierarchy. The Semi-Periphery represents a
path for successful Periphery states (upward mobility) or declining Core states (downward
mobility).

III. Dynamics of Exploitation and Stratification

WST asserts that global stratification is a permanent feature of the capitalist world-economy,
reproduced through several key mechanisms:
1. Unequal Exchange: Similar to Dependency Theory, the core extracts a surplus from the
non-core by paying low prices for raw materials and cheap labor, and charging high prices
for manufactured goods and high-tech services. This is not simply unequal trade; it's a
systemic transfer of value.
2. Monopoly Rents: Core states maintain their dominance by ensuring their key industries
(e.g., advanced technology, finance) operate under conditions of near-monopoly,
allowing them to command higher prices and profits.
 3. State Intervention: Core states use their strong state apparatus (military, diplomatic
pressure, international organizations like the IMF/World Bank) to maintain and enforce
the unequal terms of exchange and protect the interests of their Core-based capital.
4. Hegemonic Cycles: The world-system experiences periods where one Core state achieves
Hegemony—a decisive advantage in production, commerce, and finance (e.g., the
Netherlands in the 17th century, Britain in the 19th century, the U.S. post-WWII).
Hegemons set the rules of the system, but their dominance is temporary, eventually
declining due to overextension and the rise of rival Core states.

IV. WST vs. Other Development Theories

Unit of
Theory Cause of Underdevelopment Mobility/Change
Analysis
Internal flaws (traditional Possible for all: Development is a
Individual
Modernization culture, lack of linear process; poor countries
Nation-State
technology/investment). can follow the path of rich ones.
Relationship Exploitation by the wealthy Very difficult/impossible within
Dependency (Core- Core; structural constraint the capitalist system; requires
Periphery) of the global market. delinking or revolution.
Possible but rare: Systemic shifts
The hierarchical structure (upward or downward mobility)
The Single
World-Systems and dynamics of the only for a few countries at a time
World-System
Capitalist World-Economy. (Semi-Periphery). The structure
remains.

V. Critical Assessment
A. Strengths
 Macro-Historical Scope: Provides a powerful, long-term historical analysis that
contextualizes current inequalities (a key improvement over non-historical models).
 Explains Mobility: The concept of the Semi-Periphery effectively explains cases like
South Korea and China, which Dependency Theory struggled with, by accounting for
limited, non-system-altering shifts in the hierarchy.
 Systemic View: Offers a comprehensive critique of global capitalism as a single,
exploitative system, transcending the limits of purely national analysis.
B. Weaknesses
 Economic Determinism: Critics argue that WST is too heavily focused on economic
factors and unequal exchange, neglecting the role of culture, politics, and ideology in
shaping outcomes.
 Neglect of Internal Factors: Like Dependency Theory, it is criticized for under-
emphasizing the importance of internal political choices (corruption, policy failures,
civil war) in Periphery countries.
  Vague Definitions: The precise empirical criteria for categorizing a country into a
specific zone (Core, Semi-Periphery, Periphery) can be ambiguous and subject to debate.
 Lack of Predictive Power: By focusing on long-term historical patterns, WST offers
little guidance for immediate policy action or prediction of short-term events.
The World-Systems Theory: Core-Periphery Structure video provides an overview of
Wallerstein's tripartite division of the global economy. Modernization, Dependency & World
Systems Theory: How They Explain Global Inequality
Relevant International Instruments
The agreements you listed are foundational texts that establish the legal, political, and economic
framework of the modern international system, largely reflecting the post-World War II order.
I. Foundational Legal & Political Framework (The Westphalian System)
These instruments establish the principles of state sovereignty, peace, security, and international
cooperation.
Relevance to IR/Global
Instrument Year Core Function & Significance
Governance
Foundation of Modern International
Law. Establishes the UN's four purposes:
Defines the roles of the
maintaining peace, developing friendly
Charter of the Security Council (collective
relations, achieving cooperation, and being
United Nations 1945 security) and the General
a center for harmonizing actions. Codifies
(UN Charter) Assembly (deliberative
the principle of sovereign equality of
body).
states and the prohibition on the use of
force (Article 2(4)).
Core of International Humanitarian
Regulates the conduct of war
Law (IHL). Sets legal standards for
(jus in bello). Nearly
Geneva humane treatment in war, protecting those
1949 universally ratified, making
Conventions not (or no longer) participating in
its rules customary
hostilities: wounded soldiers, prisoners of
international law.
war, and civilians.
Ensures effective
Vienna communication between
Codification of Diplomatic Immunity
Convention on states by protecting diplomats
and Protocol. Establishes the rights,
Diplomatic 1961 from coercion or arrest,
privileges, and immunities of diplomatic
Relations underpinning the daily
missions (embassies) and their personnel.
(VCDR) functions of international
relations.

II. International Economic & Financial Architecture

These agreements established the global liberal economic system and its key institutions after
World War II.
 Relevance to IR/Global
Instrument Year Core Function & Significance
Economy
Created the International Monetary Established the post-war
Fund (IMF) and the International liberal economic order,
Agreement
Bank for Reconstruction and ensuring the stability of
Establishing the
Development (IBRD - World Bank). exchange rates and providing
IMF and World 1944
The IMF's original goal was to stabilize capital for development.
Bank (Bretton
global currencies; the World Bank's was Criticized by Dependency
Woods)
to finance post-war reconstruction and, theorists for promoting Core
later, development. state interests.
A multilateral treaty aimed at reducing
General Laid the groundwork for
tariffs and other trade barriers to
Agreement on global trade liberalization and
1947 encourage free trade. Based on the
Tariffs and Trade was the primary mechanism
principles of Most-Favored-Nation
(GATT) until replaced by the WTO.
(MFN) and National Treatment.
Established the World Trade Strengthened the global trade
Organization (WTO), replacing regime, transforming trade
GATT. Created a permanent rules from a provisional
WTO Agreements 1995
institutional framework for trade agreement (GATT) into a
negotiations and, crucially, a binding robust, enforceable legal
dispute settlement mechanism. system.
Affirms the right of newly A key instrument championed
UN Resolution on independent states to control their by developing countries (the
Permanent natural wealth and resources. States Global South) against former
Sovereignty over 1962 that the right to nationalize or colonial powers, seeking to
Natural Resources expropriate resources is recognized, challenge economic
(UNGA Res. 1803) provided it is done for reasons of public dependency and reinforce
utility and compensation is paid. economic sovereignty.

III. Military & Security Pacts

This instrument represents the core of the Western collective security arrangement.
Instrument Year Core Function & Significance Relevance to IR/Security Studies
The primary Western military
Created the North Atlantic Treaty
alliance formed during the Cold War.
North Atlantic Organization (NATO), a system of
It functions as a classic example of
Treaty (NATO 1949 collective defence where an attack
realist collective security, binding
Treaty) against one member is considered an
member states to mutual defense
attack against all (Article 5).
obligations.
MODULE III: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Unit I: World War I - Comprehensive Notes
World War I (1914–1918), known as the Great War, was a global conflict triggered by a complex
web of long-term causes and immediately ignited by the July Crisis. It fundamentally reshaped
the 20th century, leading to the collapse of empires, the rise of new ideologies, and the eventual
seeds of World War II.

I. Long-Term Causes (M.A.I.N. Factors)

The war was not inevitable, but the foundational issues made a major European conflict highly
probable.
A. Militarism and the Arms Race
 Definition: The policy of building up large, highly trained armies and navies, coupled
with a popular belief that international problems could only be solved through force.
 Armament Race (1870–1914): Military spending across Europe increased by an average
of 300%.
o Conscription: Most continental powers introduced mass conscription, creating
large reserve armies.
o New Technology: Development and stockpiling of modern weapons like machine
guns, long-range artillery, and poison gas.
 Naval Race (Britain vs. Germany):
o 1900: Britain established the world's largest navy.
o 1906 (HMS Dreadnought): Britain launched the revolutionary HMS
Dreadnought, setting a new standard for heavily armed battleships.
o 1908: Germany immediately responded by launching its own dreadnought,
escalating tensions as German global ambition directly challenged British naval
supremacy.
B. Alliance Systems and Secret Diplomacy
 Entanglement: The network of defensive treaties meant a local conflict was almost
guaranteed to escalate into a continental war (the "campism" effect).
 Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Italy later defected in
1915).
 Triple Entente (1907): France, Russia, and the United Kingdom (formed from the
1904 Entente Cordiale between France and Britain).
 Secret Diplomacy: The public and even members of Parliament (e.g., in Britain) often
did not know the full extent of military assurances their governments had secretly made to
allies, making war declarations sudden and inevitable once the "dominoes" began to fall.
C. Imperialism and Economic Competition
 Definition: The policy of expanding power by gaining control over new territories
(colonies) to create an empire.
 Economic Motive: Industrialized nations needed new markets to sell surplus products,
invest excess wealth, and secure raw materials.
  Scramble for Colonies: The intense competition, particularly the "Scramble for Africa"
in the late 19th century, created deep rivalry between European powers (especially
Britain, France, and Germany).
 Commercial Rivalry: England and Germany's commercial competition intensified in
the early 20th century, making armed conflict seem increasingly unavoidable.
D. Nationalism and Territorial Disputes
 Definition: A fierce loyalty to one's nation, often coupled with a belief in its superiority
and a desire for self-determination or territorial expansion.
 French Resentment: The demand for Alsace-Lorraine (ceded to Germany after the
1870 Franco-Prussian War) was a major national rallying cry in France.
 Italian Irredentism: The movement to reclaim Italian-speaking territories like Trentino
and Trieste from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
 Balkan Nationalism (The "Powder Keg"):
o Greater Serbia: Serbia's nationalistic vision was to unite all Balkan Slavs under
Serbian rule, directly threatening the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire.
o Russian Ambition: Russia sought to contain Austria-Hungary's expansion and
gain strategic access through the Black Sea into the Mediterranean.
o Balkan Wars (1912–1913): These conflicts significantly enlarged Serbia (80%
territorial gain), increasing its confidence and regional instability.

II. The Immediate Cause: The July Crisis (1914)

The assassination provided the spark that ignited the existing political tinderbox.
Date Event Significance
Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, assassinated Archduke
June 28, Assassination at
Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) and
1914 Sarajevo
his wife, Sophie.
Germany offered unconditional support to Austria-Hungary
July 5–6,
The "Blank Cheque" for whatever action it took against Serbia, ensuring the crisis
1914
would escalate.
A deliberately harsh ultimatum demanding a judicial inquiry
July 23, Austria-Hungary's into the assassination, including Austrian-Hungarian
1914 Ultimatum to Serbia investigators. Serbia accepted all but the demand violating its
sovereignty.
Britain's proposal for an international conference was rejected
July 26,
Failed Diplomacy by Germany, illustrating the failure of the existing diplomatic
1914
system.
July 28, Austria-Hungary One month after the assassination. Serbia immediately turned
1914 Declares War on to its ally, Russia.
Date Event Significance
Serbia
July 30– Russia mobilized its army to protect Serbia. Germany
Mobilization
31, 1914 demanded Russia stop.
August 1, Germany Declares
The alliance system begins to pull in the major powers.
1914 War on Russia
August 3, Germany Declares
Germany invades Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan.
1914 War on France
August 4, Britain Declares War Britain, bound by treaty to protect Belgian neutrality (and
1914 on Germany fearing German control of the Channel ports), enters the war.

III. The War of Movement (1914)

A. The Schlieffen Plan (Germany)
 Conception (1905): Developed by Alfred von Schlieffen to avoid a two-front war by
achieving a swift knockout blow against France before slow-mobilizing Russia could pose
a threat.
 Strategy: Swing German forces through neutral Belgium to encircle Paris and defeat
France in six weeks.
 Implementation/Failure:
1. Diplomatic Miscalculation: Violating Belgian neutrality immediately brought
Britain into the war.
2. Modification: General Moltke modified the plan, weakening the decisive right
hook.
3. Resistance: Stronger-than-expected Belgian and British Expeditionary Force
(BEF) resistance.
B. The Eastern Front: The Battle of Tannenberg
 Date: August 26–30, 1914.
 Event: Russian forces, mobilizing faster than expected, invaded East Prussia.
 Outcome: A crushing German victory over the Russian Second Army, leading to over
90,000 Russians captured and the suicide of Russian General Samsonov.
 Significance: Secured East Prussia, boosted German morale, but forced Germany to
commit troops to the East, further guaranteeing the failure of the Schlieffen Plan in the
West.
C. The Battle of the Marne (September 1914)
 Date: September 6–12, 1914.
 Event: German forces reached within 48 km of Paris. French and British forces launched
a coordinated counterattack.
  "Miracle of the Marne": French reserve troops were rushed to the front, famously using
6,000 Parisian taxis.
 Significance: The failure of the Schlieffen Plan. The German retreat led to the "Race to
the Sea" as both sides attempted to outflank each other, ultimately resulting in a
continuous line of trenches from the Swiss border to the English Channel.

IV. The War of Attrition (1915–1917)

A. The Western Front: Trench Warfare
 Stalemate: The development of defensive weapons (machine guns, barbed wire, artillery)
was far ahead of offensive tactics, conferring a huge advantage to the defender.
 No Man's Land: The exposed ground between opposing trenches that infantry had to
cross, leading to horrific casualties.
 First Battle of Ypres (Oct–Nov 1914): Ended in a stalemate, but the Allies secured the
Channel ports, ensuring a critical supply route for the British. The BEF was virtually
destroyed, necessitating a massive recruitment drive.
B. The Great Offensives of Attrition (1916)
Battle Date Purpose & Outcome Casualties (Total)
German plan (Operation
Feb– Judgment) to "bleed France white" 976,000 (542k
Verdun Dec by attacking a symbol of French French, 434k
1916 morale. French held, supplied via German)
the "Sacred Way."
1.12 Million
Jul– Allied counter-offensive to relieve
(420k British,
The Somme Nov pressure on Verdun. Known for the
200k French, 500k
1916 first use of tanks by Britain.
German)
Significance: These battles failed
to break the stalemate, resulting in
colossal human cost and
cementing the war as a deadly
grind.
C. The Eastern Front: The Brusilov Offensive (June 1916)
 Purpose: To relieve the French at Verdun and the Italians.
 Event: Russian General Alexei Brusilov launched a major offensive, initially capturing
96 km and fatally crippling the Austro-Hungarian Army.
 Significance: While a huge tactical success, it cost Russia nearly a million men, further
destabilizing the home front and contributing to the February Revolution of 1917.
D. The Italian Front and Caporetto (October 1917)
  Battle of Caporetto: Austro-Hungarian and German troops launched an offensive against
Italy.
 Outcome: A crushing Italian defeat, with at least 300,000 Italian casualties. Britain and
France had to rush reinforcements to prevent a complete collapse.
E. The Gallipoli Campaign (Ottoman Front)
 Date: February 1915–January 1916.
 Goal: Proposed by Winston Churchill to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war and
open a supply route to Russia via the Dardanelles.
 Event: Naval assault failed, followed by massive amphibious landings (including
ANZAC forces) that quickly stalled into trench warfare.
 Significance: A total strategic failure that prolonged the war, led to Churchill's
resignation, and became a defining moment of national identity for Australia and New
Zealand (ANZAC Day).

V. Key Turning Points (1917–1918)

A. The United States Enters the War (April 6, 1917)
 Previous Neutrality: The US remained neutral but traded heavily with the Allies, loaning
large amounts of money.
 Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (USW): Germany used U-boats to sink any ship
trading with the Allies.
o May 7, 1915: The sinking of the liner RMS Lusitania killed 1,198 passengers,
including 128 Americans, turning public opinion.
o Resumption of USW: Germany resumed USW in 1917, accepting it would bring
the US into the war, gambling that Britain would be starved out first.
 Zimmermann Telegram: Discovery of evidence that Germany was encouraging Mexico
to invade the US.
 Significance: US entry tipped the balance of material superiority and manpower
decisively in favor of the Allies, providing the resources needed to win the war.
B. The Russian Collapse (1917–1918)
 February Revolution (1917): The Tsar was overthrown due to war failures, hunger, and
political dissatisfaction, replaced by a weak Provisional Government.
 October Revolution (1917): The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power, driven by an
ideological opposition to the "imperialist war."
 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918): The Bolsheviks signed a punitive peace with the
Central Powers.
 Significance: The collapse of the Eastern Front allowed Germany to transfer up to 50
divisions to the West, setting the stage for one final desperate push.
C. The German Final Offensive (Ludendorff Offensive - Spring 1918)
  Date: March 21–July 1918.
 Purpose: A last-ditch effort by General Ludendorff to achieve victory before American
forces arrived in strength.
 Tactics: Employed hurricane barrages and new infiltration tactics using small, fast-
moving stormtrooper units.
 Initial Success: Germany advanced a rapid 65 km in the first week.
 Failure: The advance lost momentum due to a lack of reserves and supplies, and Allied
counterattacks using new combined arms warfare (tanks and aircraft).
D. The Allied Counteroffensive (Hundred Days Offensive)
 Battle of Amiens (August 8, 1918): Allied forces (using tanks and airpower effectively)
advanced over 7 miles on the first day, marking the "Black Day for the German
Army."
 Significance: This string of Allied victories proved the German Army's vulnerability,
leading Ludendorff to accept defeat.
E. Collapse of the Central Powers
 September 29, 1918: Bulgaria signs an armistice (first Central Power to exit).
 October 30, 1918: The Ottoman Empire signs the Armistice of Mudros.
 Late October 1918: The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapses as various nationalities
declare independence.
 November 9, 1918: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates, and the German Republic is proclaimed.
 November 11, 1918: At 5:00 am, the German delegation signs the Armistice in a railway
carriage. Fighting formally ceased at 11:00 am (the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th
month).

VI. Consequences and Peace Treaties

A. Human and Economic Cost
 Deaths: Over 9 million soldiers killed; an estimated 13 million civilians died from war-
related causes, including the Spanish Flu epidemic (1918–1919).
 Economic Devastation: Massive debt, inflation, and infrastructure destruction across
Europe.
 Technological Shift: Showcase of new technologies (tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons)
that would define future warfare.
B. Political and Geopolitical Impact
 Collapse of Empires: Dissolution of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and
Ottoman Empires.
 Creation of New States: New successor states were created based on the principle of
self-determination (e.g., Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland).
  Shift in Power: Decline of Britain and France; emergence of the United States as the
dominant world power.
C. The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles (1919)
 Aims of the "Big Three":
o Wilson (USA): A just and lasting peace based on the Fourteen Points and the
creation of the League of Nations.
o Clemenceau (France): Harsh punishment to ensure French security and prevent
future German threats.
o Lloyd George (UK): Weaken Germany but allow it to recover sufficiently for
trade.
 Key Terms (Diktat - Dictated Peace):
o Article 231 (War Guilt Clause): Germany forced to accept full responsibility for
the war, providing the moral basis for the other terms.
o Reparations: Germany ordered to pay £6.6 billion for war damages.
o Disarmament: Army limited to 100,000 men; navy limited to 6 battleships; no air
force, submarines, or tanks.
o Territorial Losses: Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France; loss of colonies (placed
under the Mandate System); creation of the Polish Corridor.
 Fatal Flaw: The treaty annoyed the Germans but did not leave them too weak to
retaliate later, creating a dangerous combination of resentment and residual power that
paved the way for Nazism and WWII.
This detailed, point-by-point breakdown provides the depth and structure necessary to write an
extensive, well-argued exam answer covering all aspects of World War I.
World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Impact on International Relations (1914–1918)
World War I (WWI), or the Great War, was a catastrophic global conflict that erupted in 1914,
fundamentally reshaping the geopolitical landscape of the 20th century. It stemmed from deep-
rooted issues among European powers and resulted in severe consequences that irrevocably
altered international relations.

I. Causes of World War I

The war resulted from a complex interplay of long-term structural factors and a short-term crisis.
A. Long-Term Structural Causes (MAIN)
1. Militarism: The aggressive build-up of massive armies and navies, coupled with the
popular belief that force was the only solution to international disputes.
o Arms Race: Military spending across Europe increased significantly. The
competition between Britain and Germany over naval dominance (specifically the
launch of the HMS Dreadnought in 1906) was a major source of tension.
 2. Alliance Systems: Europe was divided into two rigid, opposing blocs, ensuring that a
local conflict would escalate into a general war ("campism").
o Triple Entente: France, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
o Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Italy later joined the
Entente in 1915).
3. Imperialism: The intense economic and territorial competition for colonies and
resources, particularly in Africa and Asia, fueled distrust and rivalry among industrial
powers like Britain, France, and Germany.
4. Nationalism: A fervent sense of national pride and identity, often demanding unification
or territorial expansion.
o Revanchism: France's desire to regain Alsace-Lorraine from Germany.
o Pan-Slavism: Russia's support for the Slavic movement, which encouraged
Serbia's ambition to unite all South Slavs into a "Greater Serbia," directly
threatening the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire (A-H).
B. Immediate Cause (The July Crisis)
 The Spark: On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the A-H throne) was
assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist.
 Escalation: Germany gave A-H the infamous "Blank Cheque" (unconditional support),
ensuring A-H would pursue a punitive war.
 War Declarations: When A-H declared war on Serbia on July 28, Russia mobilized to
support Serbia. Germany's subsequent declarations of war on Russia and France, followed
by the invasion of neutral Belgium (to execute the Schlieffen Plan), pulled Britain into
the conflict on August 4.

II. Consequences of World War I

The war resulted in staggering human, political, and economic costs.
A. Human and Social Cost
 Casualties: Approximately 17 million total casualties, including over 9 million soldiers
killed.
 Psychological Trauma: The war introduced brutal trench warfare and new technologies
like poison gas and tanks (first used at the Battle of the Somme in 1916), resulting in
mass psychological trauma (shell shock) across Europe.
 Pandemic: The global Spanish Flu pandemic (1918–1919) was exacerbated by troop
movements, killing millions worldwide.
 Role of Women: The necessity of women working in factories and essential services
fundamentally changed societal views, accelerating the women's suffrage movement in
many countries.
B. Political and Territorial Changes
  Collapse of Empires: Four major imperial dynasties collapsed: the German Empire
(Hohenzollern), the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Habsburg), the Russian Empire
(Romanov), and the Ottoman Empire.
 New States: New nation-states were created in Central and Eastern Europe based on the
principle of self-determination (e.g., Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland).
 Russian Revolution (1917): War failures and economic distress led to the Bolshevik
Revolution and the establishment of the world's first communist state, fundamentally
altering global political ideology.
C. Economic Consequences
 Debt and Inflation: European powers incurred massive war debts, shifting the global
financial center from London to New York.
 Reparations: The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to pay £6.6 billion in
reparations, which severely crippled its economy and fueled deep resentment.

III. Impact on International Relations

WWI completely transformed the traditional European-centric system of diplomacy and power.
A. The End of the Concert of Europe and Traditional Diplomacy
 Power Shift: The decline of Britain and France as dominant powers and the emergence of
the United States as a major world power (despite its immediate return to isolationism).
 Ideological Split: The rise of Communism in the Soviet Union introduced a new,
adversarial ideology into international affairs, challenging the capitalist-democratic world
order.
B. The League of Nations and Collective Security
 Wilsonian Idealism: US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)
championed principles like open diplomacy, disarmament, and self-determination.
 The League of Nations (LON): Established in 1920 as the first intergovernmental
organization dedicated to promoting international cooperation and achieving collective
security (the idea that an attack on one is an attack on all).
o Structural Flaws: The LON's effectiveness was immediately undermined by the
US Senate's refusal to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League,
depriving it of a major economic and military power.
o Failure: The LON's eventual failure in the 1930s to stop Japanese, Italian, and
German aggression highlighted the weaknesses of collective security without
mandatory enforcement and unanimous decision-making.
C. The Legacy of the Paris Peace Treaties
 Treaty of Versailles (1919): Designed primarily by France to ensure security and exact
punishment.
 o The Diktat: Germany viewed the treaty as a humiliating "dictated peace" that
violated the spirit of Wilson's points. The War Guilt Clause (Article 231) was
particularly resented.
o Seeds of WWII: The treaty left Germany economically crippled, politically
humiliated, but still structurally intact. This unstable combination of resentment
and residual power created fertile ground for the rise of revanchist movements,
most notably Nazism, directly setting the stage for World War II.
In summary, WWI destroyed the balance of power, replaced secret diplomacy with the aspirations
of collective security, and ushered in an era defined by ideological conflict and the struggle to
prevent another global war.
World War II: Comprehensive Detailed Notes (1939–1945)
World War II was the deadliest and most widespread conflict in history. It arose directly from the
failures of the post-World War I international order and resulted in a profound realignment of
global power and ideology.

I. Causes of World War II

The conflict was rooted in the punitive peace of 1919 and the rise of aggressive totalitarian
regimes.
A. The Treaty of Versailles: Seeds of Resentment
1. War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for WWI,
fueling deep national humiliation.
2. Disarmament: Severe military restrictions were seen as hypocritical, as other powers did
not fully disarm.
3. Economic Reparations: Crippling financial penalties (£6.6 Billion) severely hampered
German economic recovery.
4. Territorial Losses: Loss of significant territory and colonies (Mandates), which Hitler
later exploited using the Problem of National Minorities (e.g., Germans in
Czechoslovakia and Poland).
B. Failure of International Institutions
1. League of Nations (LON) Failure: The LON failed to maintain collective security.
o Lack of American Support: The US did not join, depriving the LON of essential
economic and military power.
o Ineffective Response to Crises: The LON failed to take action against the
Manchurian Occupation (1931) by Japan and the Abyssinian Crisis (1935) by
Italy, signaling its impotence.
2. Failure of Disarmament Efforts: Allied powers broke their promise to pursue general
disarmament, leading all nations back into an Arms Race by the mid-1930s.
C. The Rise of Aggressive Totalitarianism
Nation Leader & Ideology Key Aggressive Actions
Adolf Hitler (Nazism): Based on Volk
Rearmament (1935); Anschluss with
Germany supremacy, Lebensraum (living space),
Austria (1938); Dismemberment of
(Axis) and racial purification ("Aryan Master
Czechoslovakia (1938-1939).
Race").
Benito Mussolini (Fascism): Stressed Invasion of Abyssinia (1935);
Italy (Axis) extreme nationalism and state interests over intervention in the Spanish Civil War
individuals (Il Duce). (1936–1939).
Militarism & Imperialism: Sought the
Japan Occupation of Manchuria (1931);
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
(Axis) Second Sino-Japanese War (1937).
to secure vital resources (oil, rubber).
Joseph Stalin (Communism): Established a
Soviet Signed Soviet-Nazi Pact (1939) to gain
totalitarian state through Five-Year Plans
Union territory and security.
and purges (costing 8–13 million lives).
D. Policy of Appeasement
 Definition: Britain and France's policy of conceding to Hitler's demands in the hope of
avoiding a larger war, often driven by anti-communist sentiment.
 Climax: The Munich Agreement (September 1938), where Britain and France allowed
Germany to annex the Sudetenland (German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia).
 Failure: Hitler broke his promise and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939,
proving that appeasement only emboldened aggression and demolished the concept of
collective security.
E. The Immediate Cause
 Soviet-Nazi Pact (August 1939): A nonaggression pact where Hitler and Stalin secretly
agreed to divide Eastern Europe (specifically Poland and the Baltic states).
 Invasion of Poland: On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland using Blitzkrieg
(lightning war) tactics.
 Declaration of War: Britain and France, honoring their guarantee to Poland, declared
war on Germany on September 3, 1939.

II. Major Military Events and Operations (1939–1945)

A. The Axis Dominance (1939–1941)
1. Fall of Western Europe:
o The Phony War/Sitzkrieg: A period of inactivity after the Polish invasion along
the Maginot and Siegfried Lines.
o Blitzkrieg Success: Germany rapidly conquered Denmark and Norway (April
1940), then used a strategic deception through the Ardennes Forest to bypass the
Maginot Line and crush France (May-June 1940).
 o Dunkirk Rescue: Allied forces, trapped near Lille, were miraculously evacuated
by a fleet of 850 ships, saving 338,000 soldiers (May 26 - June 4, 1940).
o France Falls: Paris was taken on June 14, 1940; Northern France was occupied,
and a puppet Vichy Government was set up in the south.
2. Battle of Britain (Summer 1940–May 1941):
o Hitler's attempt to gain air superiority before a land invasion.
o The Royal Air Force (RAF) successfully defended Britain, aided by Radar and
the intelligence gained from decoding the German Enigma machine.
o After heavy civilian bombing (The Blitz), Hitler was forced to abandon daylight
raids by October 1940, marking the first time Hitler's attacks were successfully
blocked.
3. Operation Barbarossa (Eastern Front, June 22, 1941):
o Massive German invasion of the USSR, violating the Nazi-Soviet Pact.
o Scorched Earth Policy: The Soviets retreated, burning all resources.
o Siege of Leningrad: German forces cut off the city in September 1941, leading
to the starvation of nearly one million people during the first winter.
o Stalled at Moscow: The German advance was halted just 125 miles from
Moscow by the bitter Soviet winter and a fierce counterattack, costing 500,000
German lives.
4. North Africa and the Balkans: Italy's failed invasion of Egypt forced Hitler to send the
Afrika Korps under General Erwin Rommel ("Desert Fox") to reinforce the Italians.
Hitler also seized the Balkans (Yugoslavia, Greece) in April 1941 to secure his southern
flank.
B. The War Becomes Global: US Entry
1. US Neutrality Ends: The US initially supported the Allies through Cash and Carry
(1939) and the Lend-Lease Act (March 1941), lending or leasing arms to countries "vital
to the U.S."
2. Pearl Harbor Attack: Japan, threatened by US oil embargoes imposed after invading
Indochina, sought to cripple the US Pacific Fleet.
o On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, sinking
or damaging 19 ships and killing over 2,300 Americans.
o Consequence: President Roosevelt declared the date would "live in infamy," and
the US entered WWII.
3. Japanese Triumphs: Japan quickly seized Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines (forcing
MacArthur to evacuate), Malaya (taking 130,246 Allied casualties), Singapore, and the
Dutch East Indies (securing oil and rubber).

III. The Turning Tide (1942–1943)

A. The Pacific Turning Point
 Doolittle Raid (April 1942): While small, the bombing of Tokyo was a crucial
psychological victory, showing Japan's vulnerability.
 Battle of Midway (June 1942): The decisive turning point in the Pacific. Allied code-
breaking allowed Admiral Chester Nimitz to ambush the Japanese fleet, destroying 4
aircraft carriers and over 330 planes. This ended Japan's offensive advance.
 Island-Hopping: General Douglas MacArthur's strategy of bypassing heavily fortified
islands and seizing less-defended ones.
o Guadalcanal (August 1942–February 1943): The first major Allied offensive,
resulting in a six-month "Island of Death" struggle before the Japanese withdrew.
B. The European and North African Turning Points
 North Africa (Operation Torch): British General Bernard Montgomery ("Monty")
defeated Rommel at the Battle of El Alamein (October 1942). Simultaneously,
Operation Torch landed 100,000 US troops under General Eisenhower in
Morocco/Algeria. Rommel's Afrika Korps was finally crushed in May 1943.
 Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942–February 1943): The true turning point on the
Eastern Front. Hitler's Sixth Army was ordered to take the city but became trapped by a
Soviet counter-offensive. 90,000 starving German troops surrendered out of an army of
330,000.
o Significance: The Wehrmacht was permanently put on the defensive, with the
Soviets beginning their push westward.
 Invasion of Italy (July 1943): Allied forces invaded Sicily, leading to the overthrow and
arrest of Mussolini. Italy surrendered in September 1943, though fighting continued
against German forces in the north.

IV. The End of the War (1944–1945)

A. Victory in Europe (V-E Day)
1. The Home Front: Allied factories converted to wartime production (e.g., automobile
plants making tanks), and 17–18 million US workers joined the war effort. Propaganda
was used heavily, but it also led to the unjust Japanese American Internment
(February 1942).
2. D-Day (Operation Overlord): June 6, 1944. Eisenhower commanded the largest land
and sea attack in history on the beaches of Normandy, France. Over 2,700 American
troops died on the beaches alone, but the Allies established a firm foothold.
3. Liberation: The Allies broke through German lines (Saint-Lô) and quickly liberated
France, Belgium, and Luxembourg by September 1944.
4. Battle of the Bulge (December 1944): Hitler's final desperate counterattack on a 75-mile
front in the Ardennes failed due to lack of reinforcements, ensuring the collapse of the
Western Front.
 5. Germany's Surrender: Soviet forces (6 million troops) surrounded Berlin in April 1945.
Hitler committed suicide on April 30. Germany's unconditional surrender was accepted
on May 7, 1945. V-E Day was officially celebrated on May 9, 1945.
B. Victory in the Pacific (V-J Day)
1. Island Battles: The US tightened the ring around Japan with savage, costly battles:
o Leyte Gulf (October 1944): Eliminated the Japanese fleet as a fighting force.
o Iwo Jima (March 1945): Costly capture of an island 760 miles from Tokyo.
o Okinawa (April–June 1945): Japanese lost over 100,000 troops (US lost
12,000), showing the high cost of a mainland invasion.
2. The Atomic Bomb: Advised that an invasion of Japan could cost half a million Allied
lives, President Harry Truman authorized the use of the atomic bomb (developed by the
Manhattan Project).
o August 6, 1945: Bomb dropped on Hiroshima, killing 70,000–80,000
immediately.
o August 9, 1945: Second bomb dropped on Nagasaki, killing over 70,000
immediately.
3. Surrender: Japan surrendered unconditionally on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS
Missouri.

V. Consequences and Global Impact

1. Human and Material Cost: Approximately 50 million people were killed (3% of the
world population). Entire cities and industries in Europe and Asia were destroyed.
2. The Cold War: The immediate consequence was the breakdown of the US-Soviet
alliance. The world polarized into two superpower blocs (Capitalist West and
Communist East), leading to the decades-long Cold War.
3. Decolonization: The war severely weakened European imperial powers, accelerating
independence movements in Asia and Africa (e.g., India, Indonesia).
4. Establishment of the United Nations (UN): Created in 1945 to replace the failed LON,
with enhanced authority and mandatory security roles for its permanent members (P5).
5. War Crimes Accountability: The Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials established the principle
of individual accountability for war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against
humanity.