Fundamentos de la Enseñanza y del Aprendizaje del Inglés 2

Prof. Costa, Ana V.

Module 1: Evolution of second language teaching. An overview

This document explores in greater depth the historical evolution of second language teaching. Building upon
classic references such as Ellis (1999), Harmer (2007), and Richards & Rodgers (1986), this expanded version
analyzes major methods and theories, explaining how each emerged, why it gained traction, and how it
transitioned into the next movement.

Grammar-Translation Method
Place and Period of Origin: Germany and Central Europe, early 19th century (1800-1840)

This method dominated classical language instruction and was used to teach Latin, Greek, and modern languages.
It treated language as a set of grammatical rules to be memorized and applied through translation exercises. As
Richards and Rodgers (1986) explain, 'This method was not so much based on a theory of language as on a classical
tradition of education' (p. 3). Although it trained learners in reading and writing, it neglected speaking and
listening, which led to widespread dissatisfaction among reformers who questioned its practicality for
communication.

Direct Method
Place and Period of Origin: France and Germany, late 19th century (1880-1900)

The Direct Method developed as a response to the failure of grammar-translation to teach oral communication.
Influenced by François Gouin and popularized by Berlitz schools, it emphasized immersion, speaking, and
inductive grammar. Language was taught without translation, relying on realia and demonstration. Harmer (2007)
notes, 'It was a reaction against the artificiality of grammar-translation and tried to bring classroom language
closer to natural acquisition' (p. 63). However, the method struggled to scale due to high teacher proficiency
requirements and lack of theoretical rigor.

Audiolingual Method
Place and Period of Origin: USA, 1940s–1950s

The Audiolingual Method emerged in the context of World War II, as part of the U.S. Army's effort to quickly and
effectively train personnel in foreign languages. It was grounded in structural linguistics and behaviorist
psychology, particularly the theories of B.F. Skinner. In his work Verbal Behavior (1957), Skinner argued that
language learning occurs through stimulus-response associations reinforced by repetition and correction.
Following this view, the Audiolingual Method conceptualized language acquisition as habit formation, where
accuracy and fluency are developed through drills, mimicry, and rote memorization.

Learners engaged in repetitive practice of patterns, dialogues, and sentence transformations, aiming to internalize
correct forms through conditioned responses. As Richards and Rodgers (1986) state, “Audiolingualism was
founded on the belief that language is a system of habits and learning consists of acquiring those habits” (p. 50).
However, this mechanical view of learning was later challenged by cognitive theorists such as Noam Chomsky, who
argued that humans possess an innate language faculty and that language use involves mental rule generation
rather than behavioral conditioning.

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Fundamentos de la Enseñanza y del Aprendizaje del Inglés 2
Prof. Costa, Ana V.
Cognitive Approach
Place and Period of Origin: USA, 1960s

Chomsky's revolutionary critique of behaviorism laid the foundation for the cognitive approach. He argued for an
innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and proposed Universal Grammar (UG), a set of unconscious rules
shared by all humans. This view positioned language acquisition as an internal mental process. Ellis (1999)
highlights that 'the cognitive approach focuses on the internal processes involved in language learning, including
attention, memory, and hypothesis formation' (p. 35). This marked a shift from behaviorist repetition to active
mental processing.

Innatism / Natural Approach

Building on Chomsky’s innatist perspective, Krashen introduced his Monitor Model. He distinguished between
acquisition (subconscious, meaningful exposure) and learning (conscious knowledge). He also proposed the Input
Hypothesis: learners acquire language when exposed to comprehensible input (i+1). Krashen (1982) stated,
'Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious
drill.' The Natural Approach by Krashen and Terrell applied these principles to classroom practice, focusing on
low-anxiety environments and communication over correction.

Communicative Language Teaching

CLT emerged in the 1970s as a response to the limitations of audiolingualism and grammar-focused instruction. It
was inspired by the work of Hymes (1972), who introduced the concept of communicative competence, arguing
that knowing a language means being able to use it appropriately in various contexts. Canale and Swain (1980)
further developed this into four components: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.
CLT emphasized interaction, fluency, and authentic communication over mechanical drills. Richards and Rodgers
(1986) note, 'CLT aims to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and develop procedures
for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication'
(p. 66).

Constructivism
Place and Period of Origin: Global, 1970S- POPULAR IN 1980S)

Constructivism views learning as an active process of meaning-making. Learners build knowledge through
experience, reflection, and interaction. In language education, this supports inquiry-based, project-based, and
problem-based learning models. Piaget emphasized cognitive development stages, while Vygotsky highlighted the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Harmer (2007) states, 'Constructivist environments allow learners to
explore and personalize language, fostering ownership of learning' (p. 90).

Cooperative Learning
Place and Period of Origin: USA, 1980s–1990s

Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, cooperative learning promotes interaction, scaffolding, and knowledge
co-construction. Learners work in groups to complete shared tasks, developing both linguistic skills and
interpersonal competencies. Johnson & Johnson developed key models for classroom implementation. Harmer
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Prof. Costa, Ana V.
(2007) emphasizes that 'learning is more likely to be effective when learners collaborate and are given the
opportunity to discuss and reflect together' (p. 85).

Learner-Centered Teaching
Place and Period of Origin: Global, 1990s

Drawing from humanistic psychology (Carl Rogers) and constructivism (Piaget, Bruner), learner-centered teaching
places emphasis on learners’ interests, autonomy, and self-awareness. It promotes individualized instruction, self-
assessment, and reflective practice. Ellis (1999) acknowledges that learner factors (e.g., motivation, learning styles,
aptitude) play a critical role in SLA outcomes, advocating for personalized pedagogies.

Task-Based Language Teaching

TBLT emerged as an evolution of CLT, focusing on real-world tasks as the core of language instruction. Influenced
by Prabhu's Bangalore Project and further advanced by Nunan (2004), TBLT proposes that language is best
learned when learners are engaged in meaningful, purposeful tasks. Tasks such as problem-solving, planning, or
reporting promote negotiation of meaning and language use in context. Ellis (1999) highlights, 'Tasks provide a
natural context for language use and acquisition by engaging learners cognitively, affectively, and socially' (p. 244).

CLIL
Place and Period of Origin: Europe, 1990s

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) developed in European bilingual education contexts to address
both language and subject learning simultaneously. Coyle, Hood, and Marsh (2010) defined its four Cs: Content,
Communication, Cognition, and Culture. CLIL aligns with constructivist views and supports language acquisition
through meaningful academic content. It is increasingly implemented in secondary and vocational education across
Europe.

Lexical Approach
Place and Period of Origin: UK, 1990s

The Lexical Approach emerged in the 1990s as a response to the limitations of grammar-focused and function-
based models, including some interpretations of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Michael Lewis
proposed a reconceptualization of language teaching that emphasized vocabulary—especially lexical patterns and
fixed expressions—over isolated grammatical structures.

Although aligned with CLT in aiming for communicative competence, it diverges in methodology and emphasis.

“Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar.”

In other words, grammar emerges from patterns in vocabulary rather than the other way around. It builds upon
the communicative approach but repositions vocabulary as central to communication, compatible with
constructivism: learners build hypotheses about language use based on real input and supports integration with
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and CLIL, as all promote learning through meaningful content and real-life
language use.
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Prof. Costa, Ana V.
The Lexical Approach does not aim to replace other methods but to reorient language teaching toward what is
most frequent and useful in authentic communication. It encourages a pedagogy centered on how language
actually works, helping learners become more fluent and natural in their use of the target language.

Postmethod Pedagogy
Place and Period of Origin: Global, 2000s

Kumaravadivelu (2006) critiqued the limitations of rigid method-based teaching, advocating instead for a
postmethod pedagogy grounded in three principles: particularity, practicality, and possibility. He emphasized
teacher autonomy, context-sensitive decision-making, and pedagogical reflection. This approach empowers
educators to design localized, principled frameworks suited to their learners.

Fill in the table below with the appropriate information discussed in this overview.

Method / Theory Period / Place Key Figure(s) Key Ideas

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Fundamentos de la Enseñanza y del Aprendizaje del Inglés 2
Prof. Costa, Ana V.

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Fundamentos de la Enseñanza y del Aprendizaje del Inglés 2
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References
 Ellis, R. (1999). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
 Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
 Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University
Press.
 Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon.
 Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press.