COMPUTER PROCESSORS

A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a
computer. The four primary functions of a processor are fetch, decode, execute and writeback.

There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute,
and writeback. The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction from program memory. In
the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of
the CPU. During the execute step various portions of the CPU, such as the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) and the floating point unit (FPU) are connected so they can perform the desired
operation. The final step, writeback, simply writes back the results of the execute step to some
form of memory.

The basic elements of a processor:

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which carries out arithmetic and logic operations on
the operands in instructions.

The floating point unit (FPU), also known as a math coprocessor or numeric coprocessor, a
specialized coprocessor that manipulates numbers more quickly than the basic
microprocessor circuitry can.

Registers, which hold instructions and other data. Registers supply operands to the ALU and
store the results of operations.

L1 and L2 cache memory. Their inclusion in the CPU saves time compared to having to get
data from random access memory (RAM).

Most processors today are multi-core, which means that the IC contains two or
more processors for enhanced performance, reduced power consumption and more efficient
simultaneous processing of multiple tasks (see: parallel processing). Multi-core set-ups are
similar to having multiple, separate processors installed in the same computer, but because the
processors are actually plugged into the same socket, the connection between them is faster.

The two main competitors in the processor market are Intel and AMD.
Processor Characteristics

Number of cores in a single processor

Most current systems come with a processor that has more than one core. Multi-core
processor becomes the main stream in current systems. When we say dual-core processor,
it means it has two processor cores in a single processor package.

If you want to run multiple programs at the same time, you should choose a system
installed with this type of processor. For example, quad-core processor (four processors in
a single package) is better than dual-core processor since it shares its work among all four
processors. The more processor cores you have the better the performance of a computer.

In addition to the number of processor cores in a single computer, you must also check
whether the processor supports Hyper-threading technology. This feature is important
when running multiple programs simultaneously or running multi-threading applications.

Clock speed

Clock speed is a series of electronic pulses created at a predetermined time. The pulses
affect the operation of a processor. The shorter the interval between the pulses, the faster is
the processing activity.

Clock speed is measured in MHz or GHz. The higher the clock speed, the faster. A
processor that operates at 4 GHz is faster than 3GHz and so on. Clock speed is the second
factor you should know to compare computer processors.

Cache memory level, size and speed

Cache memory is a high-speed memory which holds frequently used data by a processor.
It runs nearly the same or equal to the speed of the processor. A processor fetches
information quickly from cache memory than the main memory.

The availability of cache memory is the backbone for fast processor. In the current systems
there are three levels of cache memory: L1, L2 and L3. For better performance, always
look a processor with better cache size and speed.

Front Side Bus (FSB) speed

Front Side Bus (FSB) is a system that connects a processor with the motherboard,
specifically the North Bridge chipset and Memory. If the bus speed is faster, data transfers
quickly between the processor and the chipset which directly affects processor activity
time. The faster the bus speed, the better the performance of a CPU.

Process size

Process size, also called fab(rication) size, is specified in nanometers (nm), and defines the size
of the smallest individual elements on a processor die. AMD and Intel continually attempt to
reduce process size (called a die shrink) to get more processors from each silicon wafer, thereby
reducing their costs to produce each processor. Pentium II and early Athlon processors used a
350 or 250 nm process. Pentium III and some Athlon processors used a 180 nm process. Recent
AMD and Intel processors use a 130 or 90 nm process, and forthcoming processors will use a 65
nm process.

Process size matters because, all other things being equal, a processor that uses a smaller process
size can run faster, use lower voltage, consume less power, and produce less heat. Processors
available at any given time often use different fab sizes. For example, at one time Intel sold
Pentium 4 processors that used the 180, 130, and 90 nm process sizes, and AMD has
simultaneously sold Athlon processors that used the 250, 180, and 130 nm fab sizes. When you
choose an upgrade processor, give preference to a processor with a smaller fab size.

Special features

Different processor models support different feature sets, some of which may be important to
you and others of no concern. Here are five potentially important features that are available with
some, but not all, current processors. All of these features are supported by recent versions of
Windows and Linux:

SSE3

SSE3 (Streaming Single-Instruction-Multiple-Data (SIMD) Extensions 3), developed by Intel and

now available on most Intel processors and some AMD processors, is an extended instruction set
designed to expedite processing of certain types of data commonly encountered in video
processing and other multimedia applications. An application that supports SSE3 can run from
10% or 15% to 100% faster on a processor that also supports SSE3 than on one that does not.

64-bit support

Until recently, PC processors all operated with 32-bit internal data paths. In 2004, AMD
introduced 64-bit support with their Athlon 64 processors. Officially, AMD calls this
feature x86-64, but most people call it AMD64. Critically, AMD64 processors are backward-
compatible with 32-bit software, and run that software as efficiently as they run 64-bit software.
Intel, who had been championing their own 64-bit architecture, which had only limited 32-bit
compatibility, was forced to introduce its own version of x86-64, which it calls EM64T
(Extended Memory 64-bit Technology). For now, 64-bit support is unimportant for most people.
Microsoft offers a 64-bit version of Windows XP, and most Linux distributions support 64-bit
processors, but until 64-bit applications become more common there is little real-world benefit to
running a 64-bit processor on a desktop computer. That may change when Microsoft (finally)
ships Windows Vista, which will take advantage of 64-bit support, and is likely to spawn many
64-bit applications.

Protected execution

With the Athlon 64, AMD introduced the NX (No eXecute) technology, and Intel soon followed
with its XDB (eXecute Disable Bit) technology. NX and XDB serve the same purpose, allowing
the processor to determine which memory address ranges are executable and which are non-
executable. If code, such as a buffer-over-run exploit, attempts to run in non-executable memory
space, the processor returns an error to the operating system. NX and XDB have great potential
to reduce the damage caused by viruses, worms, Trojans, and similar exploits, but require an
operating system that supports protected execution, such as Windows XP with Service Pack 2.

Power reduction technology

AMD and Intel both offer power reduction technology in some of their processor models. In both
cases, technology used in mobile processors has been migrated to desktop processors, whose
power consumption and heat production has become problematic. Essentially, these technologies
work by reducing the processor speed (and thereby power consumption and heat production)
when the processor is idle or lightly loaded. Intel refers to their power reduction technology
as EIST (Enhanced Intel Speedstep Technology). The AMD version is called Cool'n'Quiet. Either
can make minor but useful reductions in power consumption, heat production, and system noise
level.

Dual-core support

By 2005, AMD and Intel were both reaching the practical limits of what was possible with a
single processor core. The obvious solution was to put two processor cores in one processor
package. Again, AMD led the way with its elegant Athlon 64 X2 series processors, which feature
two tightly integrated Athlon 64 cores on one chip. Once again forced to play catch-up, Intel
gritted its teeth and slapped together a dual-core processor that it calls Pentium D. The
engineered AMD solution has several benefits, including high performance and compatibility
with nearly any older Socket 939 motherboard. The slapdash Intel solution, which basically
amounted to sticking two Pentium 4 cores on one chip without integrating them, resulted in two
compromises. First, Intel dual-core processors are not backward-compatible with earlier
motherboards, and so require a new chipset and a new series of motherboards. Second, because
Intel more or less simply glued two of their existing cores onto one processor package, power
consumption and heat production are extremely high, which means that Intel had to reduce the
clock speed of Pentium D processors relative to the fastest single-core Pentium 4 models.

All of that said, the Athlon 64 X2 is by no means a hands-down winner, because Intel was smart
enough to price the Pentium D attractively. The least expensive Athlon X2 processors sell for
more than twice as much as the least expensive Pentium D processors. Although prices will
undoubtedly fall, we don't expect the pricing differential to change much. Intel has production
capacity to spare, while AMD is quite limited in its ability to make processors, so it's likely that
AMD dual-core processors will be premium priced for the foreseeable future. Unfortunately, that
means that dual-core processors are not a reasonable upgrade option for most people. Intel dual-
core processors are reasonably priced but require a motherboard replacement. AMD dual-core
processors can use an existing Socket 939 motherboard, but the processors themselves are too
expensive to be viable candidates for most upgraders.

'''HYPER-THREADING VERSUS DUAL CORE'''

Some Intel processors support ''Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT)'', which allows those processors to execute two
program threads simultaneously. Programs that are designed to use HTT may run 10% to 30% faster on an HTT-
enabled processor than on a similar non-HTT model. (It's also true that some programs run slower with HTT
enabled than with it disabled.) Don't confuse HTT with dual core. An HTT processor has one core that can
sometimes run multiple threads; a dual-core processor has two cores, which can always run multiple threads.

Core names and core steppings

The processor core defines the basic processor architecture. A processor sold under a particular
name may use any of several cores. For example, the first Intel Pentium 4 processors used
the Willamette core. Later Pentium 4 variants have used the Northwood core, Prescott-core,
Gallatin core, Prestonia core, and Prescott 2M core. Similarly, various Athlon 64 models have
been produced using the Clawhammer core, Sledgehammer core, Newcastle core, Winchester
core, Venice core, San Diego core, Manchester core, and Toledo core.

Using a core name is a convenient shorthand way to specify numerous processor characteristics
briefly. For example, the Clawhammer core uses the 130 nm process, a 1,024 KB L2 cache, and
supports the NX and X86-64 features, but not SSE3 or dual-core operation. Conversely, the
Manchester core uses the 90 nm process, a 512 KB L2 cache, and supports the SSE3, X86-64,
NX, and dual-core features.

You can think of the processor core name as being similar to a major version number of a
software program. Just as software companies frequently release minor updates without changing
the major version number, AMD and Intel frequently make minor updates to their cores without
changing the core name. These minor changes are called core steppings. It's important to
understand the basics of core names, because the core a processor uses may determine its
backward compatibility with your motherboard. Steppings are usually less significant, although
they're also worth paying attention to. For example, a particular core may be available in B2 and
C0 steppings. The later C0 stepping may have bug fixes, run cooler, or provide other benefits
relative to the earlier stepping. Core stepping is also critical if you install a second processor on a
dual-processor motherboard. (That is, a motherboard with two processor sockets, as opposed to a
dual-core processor on a single-socket motherboard.) Never, ever mix cores or steppings on a
dual processor motherboard that way lies madness (or perhaps just disaster).
CPU core voltage

The CPU core voltage (VCORE) is the power supply voltage supplied to the CPU (which is
a digital circuit), GPU, or other device containing a processing core. The amount of powera CPU
uses, and thus the amount of heat it dissipates, is the product of this voltage and the current it
draws. In modern CPUs, which are made using CMOS, the current is almost proportional to
the clock speed, the CPU drawing almost no current between clock cycles. n order to help
conserve power and manage heat, many laptop and desktop processors have a power
management feature that allows software (usually the operating system) to adjust the clock
speed and core voltage dynamically.

Often a voltage regulator module converts from 5V or 12 V or some other voltage to whatever
CPU core voltage is required by the CPU.

The trend is towards lower core voltages, which conserve power. This presents the CMOS
designer with a challenge, because in CMOS the voltages go only to ground and the supply
voltage, the source, gate, and drain terminals of the FETs have only the supply voltage or zero
voltage across them.

When a processor is overclocked its clock speed is increased at the cost of system stability. To
withstand higher clocks, the core voltage often needs to be increased at the cost of power
consumption and heat dissipation. This is known as overvolting.[1] Overvolting generally
involves running a processor out of its specifications, which may damage it or shorten CPU life.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESSORS

Brand Names and Manufacturers

Based upon brand and manufacturer names, there are two major types of processors available -
Intel and AMD. Intel's Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Celeron, Pentium II and III Xeon, Pentium M,
Dual Core Xeon, Intel Core and Intel Core 2, Intel Pentium Dual Core, Dual Core Xeon LV,
Pentium Duo, Core 2 Quad and Intel Pentuim 2 Dual Core Processor, are some of the most
popular processors from Intel that are used in their products by a lot of PC and laptop
manufacturers. On the other hand, AMD's Athlon, Duron, Turion, Sempron, Phenom and
Opteron processor ranges are equally popular, especially for those computers and laptops that are
specifically targeted towards prospects who are heavily into multimedia and gaming.
Computer Processor Varieties Based Upon Design Parameters
When it comes to the architectural parameters of processors that affect its functionality, there are
two aspects that determine the processor category - data bus width and number of cores.
Classification Based on Data Bus Width
Do the terms '32 bit processor and 64 bit processor' sound familiar? I'm sure it does! So what are
these bit-figures all about? What functionality of the processor do they point towards? Well,
these figures indicate towards the width of the data bus. The number of bits that a processor is
tagged with refers to how many bits of data and memory address size the data bus can
accommodate at one go. Therefore, a 32 bit processor can process data and memory addresses
that can be laid out in 32 bits, while a 64 bit processor has a data bus that is wide enough to
process data or memory addresses which are capable of being laid out in 64 bits. The more bits
of data and memory address a processor can process at one go, the faster it is considered!
Previously, there were 4 bit processors, 8 bit processors as well as 16 bit processors available.
However, nowadays, we only see and use either 32 bit or 64 bit processors. When you compare
computer processors speed, the wider a data bus is, the faster the processor works. However,
certain other hardware and software upgradations are also required for faster processors to come
up with their best performance.

Types of Processors Based on Number of Cores

What do Dual Core and Quad Core technically mean? I mean, I know they sound really hip and
cool, being the latest jargon to do the rounds of the processors market, but what do they really
mean? Well, a core on a processor is like the brain in the nervous system. This is where the
actual reading and execution of program instructions takes place. Now, imagine yourself having
two or more brains instead of just one - would that make you capable of thinking and acting
faster on a given stimulus in a given situation? Wouldn't those complex differential equations
and calculus sums get solved more accurately and in less time when the problem itself gets
divided among two or three cerebral processing centers? Wouldn't you be able to handle more
tasks than usual? Well, that's exactly what happens when the number of cores on a processor
increases from one to two, four, etc. More processors enable the computer to perform multiple
tasks at the same time, without having to wait for the completion of one task before starting the
next. On these lines, we have single core processors, dual core processors, quadruple core
processors, and so on.

By Number of Cores
Nowadays microprocessors are available with more than one cores typically, but not limited to, 2
or 4 cores. Such multi-core processors are well-suited for multitasking environments because
they offer multiple execution contexts simultaneously. Various factors need to be considered
during selection of a multi-core processor including the cache availability, power consumption
etc. To use the multiple cores effectively, the operating system must support the same which is a
norm for major OS’s lately.

By Type of Cores

In a multi-core processor, the cores inside may be of same or of different architectures.

Symmetrical multi-core processor is the one in which the cores are identical. Asymmetrical
multi-core processor unlike the former will have different cores with different instruction sets,
clock speeds, and have differing memory and programming models. The [Link] from ARM
is an example of this architecture. The key benefit of such a model is that each of the cores is
typically specialized to accomplish a specific type of task; therefore, yielding improved
performance.

The main disadvantage of asymmetrical multi-core is that the application development is

complex and highly application specific, whereas in symmetrical multi-core processors, it is
relatively easier. Similarly the main disadvantage of symmetrical mulitcore is that, because the
cores are designed for general use, they cannot be optimized to perform a particular type of task.

Based on Technology

What does Parallel Processing mean?

Parallel processing is a method of simultaneously breaking up and running program tasks on

multiple microprocessors, thereby reducing processing time. Parallel processing may be
accomplished via a computer with two or more processors or via a computer network.

Parallel processing is also called parallel computing.

A pipelined processor is one whose computational capabilities are divided into several
sequential stages, each of which may be working with an independent set of data at the same
instant of time. Such processors are capable of handling large streams of data at very high rates.

Instruction pipelining is a technique for implementing instruction-level parallelism within a

single processor. Pipelining attempts to keep every part of the processor busy with some
instruction by dividing incoming instructionsinto a series of sequential steps (the eponymous
"pipeline") performed by different processor units with different parts of instructions processed
in parallel. It allows faster CPU throughput than would otherwise be possible at a given clock
rate, but may increase latency due to the added overhead of the pipelining process itself.

Pipelining is concerned with the following tasks:

 Use multi-cycle methodologies to reduce the amount of computation in a single cycle.

 Shorter computations per cycle allow for faster clock cycles.
 Overlapping instructions allows all components of a processor to be operating on a different
instruction.
 Throughput is increased by having instructions complete more frequently.
A superscalar processor is a CPU that implements a form of parallelism called instruction-level
parallelism within a single processor. In contrast to a scalar processor that can execute at most
one single instruction per clock cycle, a superscalar processor can execute more than one
instruction during a clock cycle by simultaneously dispatching multiple instructions to
different execution units on the processor. It therefore allows for more throughput (the number of
instructions that can be executed in a unit of time) than would otherwise be possible at a
given clock rate. Each execution unit is not a separate processor (or a core if the processor is
a multi-core processor), but an execution resource within a single CPU such as an arithmetic
logic unit

Hyper-Threading
Hyper-Threading is a technology used by some Intel microprocessor s that allows a single
microprocessor to act like two separate processors to the operating system and the application
program s that use it. With Hyper-Threading, a microprocessor's "core" processor can execute
two (rather than one) concurrent streams (or thread s) of instructions sent by the operating
system. Having two streams of execution units to work on allows more work to be done by the
processor during each clock cycle. To the operating system, the Hyper-Threading
microprocessor appears to be two separate processors. Because most of today's operating
systems (such as Windows and Linux) are capable of dividing their work load among multiple
processors (this is called symmetric multiprocessing or SMP ), the operating system simply acts
as though the Hyper-Threading processor is a pool of two processors.

Hyper-Threading

Hyper-threading is a technology developed by Intel Corporation. It is used in certain Pentium 4

processors and all Intel Xeon processors. Hyper-threading technology, commonly referred to as
"HT Technology," enables the processor to execute two threads, or sets of instructions, at the
same time. Since hyper-threading allows two streams to be executed in parallel, it is almost like
having two separate processors working together.

While hyper-threading can improve processing performance, software must support multiple
processors to take advantage of the technology. Fortunately, recent versions of both Windows
and Linux support multiple processors and therefore benefit from hyper-threading. For example,
a video playing in Windows Media Player should not be slowed down by a Web page loading in
Internet Explorer. Hyper-threading allows the two programs to be processed as separate threads
at the same time. However, individual programs can only take advantage of Intel's HT
Technology if they have been programmed to support multiple processors

PROCESSOR SOCKETS

The processor socket (also called a CPU socket) is the connector on the motherboard that houses
a CPU and forms the electrical interface and contact with the CPU. Processor sockets use a pin
grid array (PGA) where pins on the underside of the processor connect to holes in the processor
socket.

In computer hardware, a CPU socket or CPU slot comprises one or more mechanical
components providing mechanical and electrical connections between a microprocessor and
a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows for placing and replacing the central processing
unit (CPU) without soldering.

Common sockets have retention clips that apply a constant force, which must be overcome when
a device is inserted. For chips with a large number of pins, zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets are
preferred. Common sockets include Pin Grid Array(PGA) or Land Grid Array (LGA). These
designs apply a compression force once either a handle (PGA type) or a surface plate (LGA type)
is put into place. This provides superior mechanical retention while avoiding the risk of
bending pins when inserting the chip into the socket.

Pin Grid Array, PGA (Socket) is a chip where the connecting pins are located on the bottom of
the processor, each of these pins are plugged into a socket on a circuit board.

For Pin Grid Array, the contact pins are on the CPU, while the socket on the motherboard
contains holes to secure the CPU. This kind of socket is known as zero insertion force socket,
which means the CPU will be able to drop in without any pressure. CPUs with a PGA (pin grid
array) package are inserted into the socket and, if included, the latch is closed.

Land Grid Array (Slot) is essentially the direct opposite of PGA. All the contact pins are on the
socket, soldered to the motherboard. Instead, equal numbers of contact pads are on the CPU to
make connection. CPUs with an LGA (land grid array) package are inserted into the socket, the
latch plate is flipped into position atop the CPU, and the lever is lowered and locked into place,
pressing the CPU's contacts firmly against the socket's lands and ensuring a good connection, as
well as increased mechanical stability.
CPU sockets are used on the motherboard in desktop and server computers. Because they allow
easy swapping of components, they are also used for prototyping new circuits. Laptops typically
use surface-mount CPUs (soldered to the motherboard), which take up less space on the
motherboard than a socketed part.

Each socket or slot is designed to support a different range of original and upgrade processors.

Comparison – LGA vs PGA

You may be wondering which CPU socket type is better. The answer is NO. There is no definite
answer about choosing LGA or PGA sockets.
Advantages of LGA socket:

 The processors are less likely to be damaged by mishandling and drops, because of no
fragile pins. (More Durable CPU)
 LGA pins are smaller in physical size, allowing for more pins in the same amount of
space. (More Space Efficient)

Advantages of PGA socket:

 The motherboard can hardly be damaged by CPU misalignment. (More Durable
Motherboard)
 It is much easier to repair bent pins on a PGA processors than on a LGA
motherboard. (Slightly Better Repairability)
In conclusion, both LGA and PGA sockets have their respective pros and cons. I personally
prefer using LGA socket because of its ease of use. Although a bent pin will mean the
motherboard is toast, it can be avoided by being extra careful.
Sockets 1, 2, 3, and 6 are 486 processor sockets and are shown together in the figure below so
you can see the overall size comparisons and pin arrangements between these sockets.

Sockets 4, 5, 7, and 8 are Pentium and Pentium Pro processor sockets and are shown together in
the figure below so you can see the overall size comparisons and pin arrangements between these
sockets.

Intel Sockets: LGA 775, LGA 1156, LGA 1366, And LGA 1155

Socket LGA 775

Socket LGA 775 (also called Socket T) is used by the Core 2 Duo/Quad processors, the most
recent versions of the Intel Pentium 4 Prescott processor and the Pentium D and Pentium
Extreme Edition processors. Some versions of the Celeron and Celeron D also use Socket LGA
775. Socket LGA 775, unlike earlier Intel processor sockets, uses a land grid array format, so the
pins are on the socket, rather than the processor.
LGA uses gold pads (called lands) on the bottom of the processor to replace the pins used in
PGA packages. It allows for much greater clamping forces via a load plate with a locking lever,
with greater stability and improved thermal transfer (better cooling). The first LGA processors
were the Pentium II and Celeron processors in 1997; in those processors, an LGA chip was
soldered on the Slot-1 cartridge. LGA is a recycled version of what was previously
called leadless chip carrier (LCC) packaging. This was used way back on the 286 processor in
1984, and it had gold lands around the edge only. (There were far fewer pins back then.) In other
ways, LGA is simply a modified version of ball grid array (BGA), with gold lands replacing the
solder balls, making it more suitable for socketed (rather than soldered) applications. Socket
LGA 775 is shown in the figure below.

The release lever on the left raises the load plate out of the way to permit the processor to be
placed over the contacts.

Socket LGA 1156

Socket LGA 1156 (also known as Socket H) was introduced in September 2009 and was
designed to support Intel Core ix-series processors featuring an integrated chipset northbridge,
including a dual-channel DDR3 memory controller and optional integrated graphics. Socket
LGA 1156 uses a land grid array format, so the pins are on the socket, rather than the processor.
Socket LGA 1156 is shown in the figure below.
Because the processor includes the chipset northbridge, Socket LGA 1156 is designed to
interface between a processor and a Platform Controller Hub (PCH), which is the new name used
for the southbridge component in supporting 5x series chipsets. The LGA 1156 interface
includes the following:
 PCI Express x16 v2.0—For connection to either a single PCIe x16 slot, or two PCIe x8 slots
supporting video cards.
 DMI (Direct Media Interface)—For data transfer between the processor and the PCH. DMI
in this case is essentially a modified PCI Express x4 v2.0 connection, with a bandwidth of 2
GB/s.
 DDR3 dual-channel—For direct connection between the memory controller integrated into
the processor and DDR3 SDRAM modules in a dual-channel configuration.
 FDI (Flexible Display Interface)—For the transfer of digital display data between the
(optional) processor integrated graphics and the PCH.
When processors with integrated graphics are used, the Flexible Display Interface carries digital
display data from the GPU in the processor to the display interface circuitry in the PCH.
Depending on the motherboard, the display interface can support DisplayPort, High Definition
Multimedia Interface (HDMI), Digital Visual Interface (DVI), or Video Graphics Array (VGA)
connectors.
Socket LGA 1366

Socket LGA 1366 (also known as Socket B) was introduced in November 2008 to support high-
end Intel Core i7-series processors, including an integrated triple-channel DDR3 memory
controller, but which also requires an external chipset northbridge, in this case called an I/O Hub
(IOH). Socket LGA 1366 uses a land grid array format, so the pins are on the socket, rather than
the processor. Socket LGA 1366 is shown in the figure below.

Socket LGA 1366 is designed to interface between a processor and an IOH, which is the new
name used for the northbridge component in supporting 5x-series chipsets. The LGA 1366
interface includes the following:
 QPI (Quick Path Interconnect)—For data transfer between the processor and the IOH. QPI
transfers two bytes per cycle at either 4.8 or 6.4 GT/s, resulting in a bandwidth of 9.6 or 12.8
GB/s.
 DDR3 triple-channel—For direct connection between the memory controller integrated into
the processor and DDR3 SDRAM modules in a triple-channel configuration.
LGA 1366 is designed for high-end PC, workstation, or server use. It supports configurations
with multiple processors.

Socket LGA 1155

Socket LGA 1155 (also known as Socket H2) was introduced in January 2011 to support Intel’s
Sandy Bridge (second-generation) Core ix-series processors, which now include Turbo Boost
overclocking. Socket LGA 1155 uses a land grid array format, so the pins are on the socket,
rather than the processor. Socket LGA 1155 uses the same cover plate as Socket 1156, but is not
interchangeable with it. Socket LGA 1155 is also used by Intel’s Ivy Bridge (third-generation)
Core ix-series processors. LGA 1155 supports up to 16 PCIe 3.0 lanes and eight PCIe 2.0 lanes.
Socket LGA 1155 is shown in the figure below.

Socket LGA 2011

Socket LGA 2011 was introduced in November 2011 to support high-performance versions of
Intel’s Sandy Bridge (second-generation) Core ix-series processors (Sandy Bridge-E), which
now include Turbo Boost overclocking. LGA 2011 supports 40 PCIe 3.0 lanes, quad-channel
memory addressing, and fully-unlocked processor multipliers.
Socket LGA 2011 uses a land grid array format, so the pins are on the socket, rather than the
processor. Socket LGA 2011 is shown in the figure below.
AMD Sockets: AM2/AM2+/AM3/AM3 And F/FM1/FM2

Socket AM2/AM2+/AM3/AM3+

In May 2006, AMD introduced processors that use a new socket, called Socket AM2 (see figure
below). AM2 was the first replacement for the confusing array of Socket 754, Socket 939, and
Socket 940 form factors for the Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, and Athlon 64 X2 processors.

Although Socket AM2 contains 940 pins—the same number that Socket 940 uses—Socket AM2
is designed to support the integrated dual-channel DDR2 memory controllers that were added to
the Athlon 64 and Opteron processor families in 2006. Processors designed for Sockets 754, 939,
and 940 include DDR memory controllers and are not pin compatible with Socket AM2. Sockets
939, 940, and AM2 support HyperTransport v2.0, which limits most processors to a 1 GHz FSB.
Socket AM2+ is an upgrade to Socket AM2 that was released in November 2007. Although
Sockets AM2 and AM2+ are physically the same, Socket AM2+ adds support for split power
planes and HyperTransport 3.0, allowing for FSB speeds of up to 2.6 GHz. Socket AM2+ chips
are backward compatible with Socket AM2 motherboards, but only at reduced HyperTransport
2.0 FSB speeds. Socket AM2 processors can technically work in Socket AM2+ motherboards;
however, this also requires BIOS support, which is not present in all motherboards.
Socket AM3 was introduced in February 2009, primarily to support processors with integrated
DDR3 memory controllers such as the Phenom II. Besides adding support for DDR3 memory,
Socket AM3 has 941 pins in a modified key pin configuration that physically prevents Socket
AM2 or AM2+ processors from being inserted (see figure below).

Socket AM3+ is a modified version of AM3 designed for the new “Bulldozer” processors. It has
938 pins, and also supports processors made for AM3 sockets. The table below shows the
essential differences between Socket AM2, AM2+, AM3, and AM3+:
Socket Pins Supported Memory

AM2 940 DDR2 (dual-channel)

AM2+ 940 DDR2 (dual-channel)

AM3 938 DDR3 (dual-channel)

AM3+ 938 DDR3 (dual-cahnnel)

Here is a summary of the compatibility between AM2, AM2+, AM3, and AM3+ processors and
motherboards:
 You cannot install Socket AM2 or AM2+ processors in Socket AM3 motherboards.
 You can install Socket AM2 processors in Socket AM2+ motherboards.
 You can install Socket AM3 or AM2+ processors in Socket AM2 motherboards; however,
the BIOS must support the processor, the FSB will run at lower HT 2.0 speeds, and only
DDR2 memory is supported.
 You can install Socket AM3 processors in Socket AM2+ motherboards, but the BIOS must
support the processor, and only DDR2 memory is supported.
 You can install Socket AM3 processors in Socket AM3+ motherboards, but the BIOS must
support the processor.
Although you can physically install newer processors in motherboards with older sockets, and
they should theoretically work with reductions in bus speeds and memory support, this also
requires BIOS support in the specific motherboard, which may be lacking. In general, you are
best off matching the processor to a motherboard with the same type of socket.

Socket F (1207FX)

Socket F (also called 1207FX) was introduced by AMD in August 2006 for its Opteron line of
server processors. Socket F is AMD’s first land grid array (LGA) socket, similar to Intel’s
Socket LGA 775. It features 1207 pins in a 35-by-35 grid, with the pins in the socket instead of
on the processor. Socket F normally appears on motherboards in pairs because it is designed to
run dual physical processors on a single motherboard. Socket F was utilized by AMD for its
Quad FX processors, which are dual-core processors sold in matched pairs, operating as a dual
socket dual-core system. Future versions may support quad-core processors, for a total of eight
cores in the system. Due to the high expense of running dual physical processors, only a limited
number of nonserver motherboards are available with Socket F.

Socket FM1

Socket FM1 was introduced by AMD in July 2011 for use by accelerated processing units (APUs
– CPU plus GPU) and CPUs based on the Llano core. These include the Ax-3xxx series APUs
and some Athlon II CPUs, as well as the E2-3200 APU. FM1 has 905 pins in a 31-by-31 grid
and uses a PGA socket similar to those used by previous AMD processors. Socket FM1 supports
DDR3 memory. It was replaced by Socket FM2.
Socket FM2

Socket FM1 was introduced by AMD in September 2012 for use by its Trinity series of APUs.
These include the Ax-5xxx series APUs. FM2 has 904 pins in a 31×31 grid and uses a PGA
socket similar to those used by previous AMD processors. Socket FM2 supports DDR3 memory.
The figure below illustrates Socket FM2:

Processor installation

Open up your computer case. In order to access your processor, you'll need to open your case.
Shut down the computer and unplug all of the cables. Set the computer on its side with the back
connectors resting closest to the table. Remove the side panel using a Phillips screwdriver or the
thumbscrews.

Ground yourself. Make sure you are properly grounded before working inside your computer.
Attach an antistatic wriststrap to the bare metal of your computer case, or touch a metal water
tap.
Locate the CPU cooler. Virtually all processors will have a CPU cooler installed on top. This is
typically a metal heatsink with a fan attached. You will need to remove this in order to access the
processor.
Remove any cables or components blocking access. The inside of a computer can be a pretty
crowded space, and there may be cables or components that are blocking part or all of the CPU
 cooler. Detach anything you need to in order to access it, but make sure you remember where
everything was plugged in
Remove the CPU cooler. Unplug the cooler from the motherboard and then detach it. Most
stock coolers have four prongs that can be undone with your fingers or a flathead screwdriver.
Some CPU coolers have a bracket on the back of the motherboard that must be removed first.
 After popping the cooler off of the motherboard, it will likely still be attached to the processor
because of the thermal paste. Gently twist the heat sink back and forth until it comes free of the
processor.
 If you're going to be reusing the CPU cooler on the new processor, wipe off the excess thermal
paste from the bottom of the cooler with rubbing alcohol.
Detach the lever on the side of the CPU socket cover. This will pop the socket cover up and
allow you to remove the CPU.
Gently lift the CPU straight out. Grip the CPU on the sides and make sure to lift the CPU
straight up so as not to damage any of the delicate pins. You may have to angle the processor a
little bit to get it out from under the socket cover, but make sure you are clear of the pins before
doing so.
 If you want to save your old CPU, make sure to store it in an antistatic bag. If you are storing an
AMD CPU, try to press the CPU into antistatic foam as well to avoid damaging the pins.
Ground yourself. Double-check that you are grounded before removing your new processor
from the packaging. An electrostatic discharge can easily fry the processor, making it worthless.
 Touch a metal water tap again if you aren't sure.
Remove the new processor from its protective bag. Be sure to grip it by the edges and avoid
touching any pins or contacts.
Line up the notches or triangle on the processor with the socket. Depending on the processor
and socket you are using, you may have several notches around the edges or a small triangle in
one corner. These guides are designed to ensure that you are installing your CPU in the correct
position.
Gently lay the processor into the socket. After ensuring that you have the processor oriented
correctly, gently place the processor directly in the socket. Do not insert it at an angle.
 You should never need to force the processor into place. If you apply pressure, you may bend or
break the pins, rendering the processor inoperable.
Relatch the socket cover. once the processor has been properly inserted, close the socket cover
over it and relatch it so that the processor is securely held in place.
 pply thermal paste to the processor. Before installing the CPU cooler, you'll want to apply a
thin layer of thermal paste to the top of the CPU. This helps conduct heat from the processor to
the CPU cooler by removing any imperfections on the contact surfaces.
Secure the CPU cooler. This process will vary depending on the type of cooler you are
installing. Stock Intel coolers connect to the motherboard using four prongs, while stock AMD
coolers are installed at an angle in metal tabs.
 Make sure to plug the CPU cooler into the CPU_FAN connector on your motherboard. This will
provide power to the cooler's fan.
Plug in or reattach anything you disconnected earlier. Before closing up your computer,
make sure everything that you detached in order to reach the CPU has been properly reattached.
Close up your case. Return the sidepanel to its position and secure it with screws. Place your
computer back at your desk and connect all of the cables to the back.

Try powering your computer on. If you just changed the processor but kept the same
motherboard, there's a good chance that your computer will boot normally. Open CPU-Z or your
System Properties window ( ⊞ Win + Pause ) to ensure that your new processor is recognized.