Addis Ababa Science and Technology University CHAPTER TWO Distillation

College of Engineering
Lesson Outcome
Mass Transfer Unit Operation  The objective of this chapter is to describe most of distillation in some

CHENG ChEG4113 detail using classification and design schemes.

November 2023
At the end of this topic the students are:
Instructor: Ibsa Neme 1. Able to define distillation, working principles of distillation, classify

Address:- distillation according to procedure, instrument setup and nature of feed.

2. Able to identify major applications of distillations.
Office: 60-00-02 (Ground)
3. Able to identify the design consideration of distillation.
Email:- [Link]@[Link]
4. Able to design distillation columns of theoretical plate number.
Department of Chemical Engineering

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Introduction Introduction
 Distillation is method of separation of components from a liquid mixture In order to have a larger degree of separation,
which depends on the differences in boiling points of the individual multistage contact between the vapor and the
components. liquid phases is arranged in a suitable device
 The liquid mixture may have different boiling point characteristics called a ‚distillation column‛.
depending on the concentrations of the components present in it. Distillation column have five main components
 Therefore, distillation processes depends on the vapor pressure as indicated on the figure.
characteristics of liquid mixtures. 1: The column
2: The feed preheater
 The vapor pressure is created by supplying heat as separating agent. 3: Condenser for the overhead vapour
 In the distillation, the new phases differ from the original by their heat 4: Reflux drum
5: Re-boiler (for bottom liquid)
content. D: Distillate/top product
W: Bottom product (less volatiles)
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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation
Working principles of distillation Working principles of distillation
 A column: having trays/packing and suitable internals  An intimate contact between the down flowing liquid and the up-flowing
 The feed enters at a suitable point of the tower/column. vapour occurs on the trays or on the packing surface.
 A re-boiler: partially vaporizes the liquid received from the bottom of the  Exchange of mass transfer takes place between the liquid and the vapour
column. phases on the trays/packing surfaces.
 The vapour flows up through the trays or through the packing in the  The more volatile components move from the liquid to the vapour phase
column, leaves at the top and enters into an overhead condenser. and the less volatiles move in the reverse direction, from vapour to liquid
 A condenser: to cool the vapor comes from the packing column. phases.
 A part of the condensate is withdrawn as the top product and the rest is  As the result, the concentrations of the more volatiles gradually increase
fed back into the column as reflux which flows down the trays surface. in the vapour as it goes up, and the concentrations of the less volatiles
increases in the liquid as it flows down the column.
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Working principles of distillation Application of Distillation
 The top product drawn from the condenser is rich in the more volatiles.
Distillation is the most common mass transfer operation in the process
 The bottom product has a high concentration of the less volatiles and
industries, particularly the organic process industries.
only small amount of the more volatiles.
The application of distillation may be:
 Generally, the more number of trays (depth packing) and the more the
 Separation of aniline and nitrobenzene in the manufacture of aniline.
reflux ratio is the better separation.
 Recovery of ethanol from its solution in water in the manufacture of
 Big distillation column has 10 m in diameter and having 150 trays in
alcohol.
operation as it reported.
 Drying of commercial benzene for the removal of traces of water
 Distillation is the most energy intensive, techniques of separation of
present in it.
liquid mixtures in small to large capacities.
 Distillation is the most unit operation in petroleum refinery.

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation
Application of Distillation Types of Distillation
A few common examples of application distillation are listed in below There are several types of distillation depending on the procedure and the
Table 2.1. instrument setup.
Feed/Components Industry/Plant Product Each distillation type is used for purification/recovery/separation of
Ethanol/Water Fermentation Ethanol (C₂H₆O) compounds having different properties.
Crude petroleum Refinery Petroleum products
Following are the common types.
Ethylene oxide/Water Petrochemical Ethylene oxide(C2H4O)
Air Air separation plant N2, O2, Ar 1) Simple Distillation

Propylene/Propane Petrochemical Propylene (C3H6) 2) Steam Distillation

Aniline/Nitrobenzene Aniline plant Aniline (C6H5NH2) 3) Vacuum Distillation
Styrene/Ethyl-benzene Petrochemical Styrene (C8H8) 4) Continuous Distillation
Acetic acid/Acetic anhydride Acetic anhydride plant Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) 5) Batch Distillation Based on feed point
6) Semi-Batch Distillation
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Simple Distillation Steam Distillation

 Simple distillation is practiced for a Steam distillation is used for the purification
mixture in which the boiling point of the of mixtures, in which the components are
temperature/heat sensitive; for example, organic
components differ by at least 70°C.
compounds.
 It is also followed for the mixtures In the instrument setup, steam is introduced
contaminated with nonvolatile particles by heating water, which allows the compounds
(solid or oil) and those that are nearly to boil at a lower temperature.
pure with less than 10 percent This way, the temperature sensitive
compounds are separated before
contamination.
decomposition.

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation
Vacuum Distillation Batch Distillation
Vacuum distillation is a special method of separating compounds at pressure lower than
the standard atmospheric pressure.
The compounds boil below their normal boiling temperature.  The oldest operation used for separation
Hence, vacuum distillation is best suited for separation of compounds with higher boiling of liquid mixtures.
points (more than 200°C), which tend to decompose at their boiling temperature.
 Feed is fed from bottom, where includes
For the separation of some aromatic compounds, vacuum distillation is used along with
re-boiler, to be processed.
steam distillation.
 Numbers of accumulator tanks are
connected to collect the main and the
intermediate distillate fractions.

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Continuous Distillation Types of Continuous Distillation
 The mixture which is to be separated is fed
 Continuous columns can be further classified according to the nature of
to column at one or more points.
the feed that they are processing and tray they constructed from:
 Liquid mixture runs down the column
1) Binary distillation column: feed contains only two components
while vapour goes up.
2) Multi-component distillation column: feed contains more than two components the
 Vapour is produced by partial vaporisation number of product streams they have.
of the mixture which is heated in re-boiler. 3) Extractive distillation: where the extra feed appears in the bottom product stream

 Then vapour is partially condensed to earn 4) Azeotropic distillation: where the extra feed appears at the top product stream.
5) Tray distillation column: where trays of various designs are used to hold up the
back the less volatile compounds to the
liquid to provide better contact between vapor and liquid, hence better separation.
column to separate as bottom product.
6) Packed distillation column: where instead of trays, pickings are used to enhance
(reflux)‫‏‬
contact between vapor and liquid.

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium

 Separation of a mixture by distillation is based on equilibrium
Clausius-Claperyon Equation: Antoine Equation:
distribution of the components between the liquid and the vapour phases.
 A knowledge of vapour-liquid equilibrium is therefore essential for
ln  p v   A 
 pv      1 1  B
ln  v        (2.1) (2.2)
understanding the principles of distillation.  p1   R   T1 T  T C
 At equilibrium vaporization and the opposite process of vaporization
called condensation process are same. where pv and pv1 are the vapor pressures in Pascal at absolute temperature
 Vapour pressure of the liquid at equilibrium state depends on the T and T1 in K. λ is the molar latent heat of vaporization which is
independent of temperature. A, B and C are constants obtained from
temperature and the quantity of the liquid and vapour. thermodynamics of vapor pressure and boiling point data.
 Therefore, the vapour pressure can be calculated from Clausius-
Claperyon or Antoine equation.
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Antoine Equation Constant Data Example Phase Diagram

Typical representative values of the constants A, B and C are given in Table  For binary mixture phase diagram only two-component mixture, (e.g. A
below: (more volatile) and B (less volatile)) are considered.
 There are two types of phase diagram:

1) Constant pressure phase diagram and

2) Constant temperature phase diagram

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Constant Pressure Phase Diagram Constant Temperature Phase Diagram

 The Figure below shows a constant pressure phase
diagram for an ideal solution (one that obeys Raoult's  The Figure below shows a constant
Law).
temperature phase diagram for an ideal
 For mixture, the temperature is called bubble point
solution.
temperature when the liquid starts to boil and dew point
when the vapor starts to condense.  The constant temperature phase diagram is
 The upper curve in the boiling point diagram is called the useful in the analysis of solution behavior.
dew-point curve (DPC).  The more volatile liquid will have a higher
 The lower curve in the boiling point diagram is called the
vapor pressure (i.e. PA at xA = 1.0)
bubble-point curve (BPC).
 At each temperature, the vapor and the liquid are in
equilibrium.
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Relative Volatility of Binary Mixture Relative Volatility Binary Mixture

Relative volatility is a measure of the differences in volatility between two  For binary mixture, xB = 1-xA.
components.  Equation (2.3) can be rearranged, simplifying and expressed by dropping
It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be. subscript 'A' for more volatile component as follows:
The relative volatility of component ‘A’ with respect to component ‘B’ in a  avg x
y (2.4)
binary mixture is defined as follows: 1  ( avg  1) x
yA
xA  Equation (2.4) is a non-linear relationships between x and y.
 AB  (2.3)
yB
xB  This Equation can be used to determine the equilibrium relationship (y vs. x)

where, yA = mole fraction of component ‘A’ in the vapor, xA = mole fraction provided the average relative volatility (ɑavg).
of component ‘A’ in the liquid, yB = mole fraction of component ‘B‛ in the
vapor and xB = mole fraction component ‘B’ in the liquid
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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Relative Volatility Binary Mixture Relative Volatility Multi-component Mixture

 If the system obeys Raoult’s law, i.e  Separation of multicomponent mixture rather than binaries is much more common in the chemical
PA = yAP, PB = yBP, the relative volatility can be expressed as: process industries.

PA  Experimental VLE data for most multicomponent mixtures are not available and have to be
xA
 AB  (2.5) computed by using the variable equations.
PB
xB  The calculation becomes pretty simple if we have an ideal multicomponent system so that Raoult's
law is applicable.
where PA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor, PB is the
partial pressure of component B in the vapor and P is the total pressure of  Hydrocarbons of a relative series form nearly ideal solutions.
the system.  For the ith component in an ideal solution, we can write as follows.
n

 Note: if the relative volatility between two components is equal to one, y j  P  p j   x j Pj v and P   p i (2.6)
i 1
 v
pj x j Pj
separation is not possible by distillation. y j   n
(2.7)
p
P 
i
i 1

 The larger the value of ɑ, above 1.0, is the easier the separation. where, Pj* is vapour pressure of component j at the given temperature, xj is liquid composition and
yj* is vapour composition
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Relative Volatility Multi-component Mixture Relative Volatility Multi-component Mixture

 In other expression equation 2.7 can be written as follows.

xj xj  ij xi
y j  n
 n
 n
(2.8)
1
Pj v
xP
i 1
i j
v

i 1
ij xi 
k 1
ki xk

 Once the equilibrium vapour phase mole fractions are known, the partial pressures and the total pressure can
be calculated from equation 2.6
 For hydrocarbon mixtures, a quantity called equilibrium vaporization ration (denoted by Ki for the ith
component) is a extensively used for VLE computation. It is defined as:
yi Pi v
Ki   (2.9)
xi P

 Distillation calculations, including the bubble and dew point calculations, can be done using the K-
values, if available.
 The DePriester chart may be conveniently used to obtain K-values for lower hydrocarbon at
different temperatures and pressures. Figure of DePriester chart- at high temperature range
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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE) Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE)

 VLE is useful for graphical design in determining the number of
theoretical stages required for a distillation column.
►The curved line on this Figure is called
 A typical equilibrium curve for a binary mixture on x-y plot is shown in
the equilibrium line and it describes the
Figure below.
compositions of the liquid and vapor in
 It can be plotted by the Equations (2.4) or (2.5) as discussed earlier section.
equilibrium at some fixed pressure.
 It contains less information than the phase diagram (i.e. temperature is not
►The equilibrium line can be obtained
included), but it is most commonly used.
from the Equation of relative volatility.
 The VLE plot expresses the bubble-point and the dew-point of a binary
mixture at constant pressure.

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE) Azeotropic Mixture

 The non-ideal VLE systems is difficult to separation.  An Azeotropic is a mixture of two or more liquids which displays the
 The most challenging VLE curves are generated by Azeotropic systems. same level of concentration in the liquid and vapour phase.
 An Azeotropic is a liquid mixture when vaporized, produces the same  Simple distillation cannot alter their proportions.
composition as the liquid. For such non-ideal systems the VLE plots  These mixtures can either have a lower boiling point or a higher boiling
shown in Figure below point of the components.
Examples
1) Minimum-boiling azeotropes
• Ethanol-water system (at 1 atm, 89.4 mole %, 78.2 °C;
• Carbon-disulfide - acetone (61.0 mole% CS2, 39.25 °C, 1 atm)
2) Maximum-boiling azeotropes
 Hydrochloric acid - water (11.1 mole% HCl, 110 °C, 1 atm);
 Acetone - chloroform (65.5 mole% chloroform, 69.5 °C, 1 atm)
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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Azeotropic Mixture Note:

 The most distillations are carried out at atmospheric or near atmospheric
An azeotropes cannot be separated by conventional distillation. pressure, it is not uncommon to distill at other pressures.
However, vacuum distillation may be used.  High pressure distillation (typically 3 - 20 atm) usually occurs in
thermally integrated processes.
The Figure below shows the two different types Azeotropic systems.  In those cases the equilibrium curve becomes narrower at higher
pressures as shown in Figure below.
 Separability becomes less at higher pressures.

Figure: VLE curves for azeotropic systems: (a) for maximum boiling point,
(b) for minimum boiling point
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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Batch distillation columns and their process calculations Example 1: Calculation on Batch Distillation
 In batch operation, the feed is introduced batch-wise to the column. A mixture of 40 mole % isopropanol in water is to be batch-distilled at 1 atm
 The concentration changes can be analyzed using the phase diagram, and until 70 mole % of the charge has been vaporized. Calculate the composition
detailed mathematical calculations carried out using the Rayleigh of the liquid residue remaining in the still pot, and the average composition
Equation. of the collected distillate. VLE data for this system, in mole fraction of
 As the process is unsteady state, the derivation is based on a differential isopropanol, at 1 atm are given in Table below:
approach to changes in concentration with time.
 Based on the material balance calculation Rayleigh Equation for batch is:

 L  x1 dx
ln  1    (2.10)
 L2  x2 y  x

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Continuous distillation columns and their process calculations Single Stage Continuous distillation and its process calculations

 A single-stage continuous operation occurs where a liquid mixture is

partially vaporized.
 In contrast to batch, continuous columns process a continuous feed
 The vapor produced and the residual liquids are in equilibrium in the
stream.
process are separated and removed as shown below:
 No interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the column or
surrounding process units.
 They are capable of handling high throughputs. The relationship between the scale of
vaporization and mole fraction of A in vapor
and liquid (y and x) is known as the
Operating Line Equation.

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Single Stage Continuous distillation and its process calculations Single Stage Continuous distillation and its process calculations
 For 1 mole of binary feed mixture, (1- f) is the molar fraction of the feed
that leaves continuously as liquid.
 For a given feed condition, and hence the known
 Hence, based on material balance for the more volatile component (A)
value of f and xF, the Equation (2.7) is a straight
line Equation with slope -(1-f)/f and intercept xF/f
the general equation of single stage continuous distillation is written as:
as shown Figure.
 It will intersect the equilibrium line at the point
(xB, yD).
 From this value, the composition of the vapor and  1 f  xF
yD     xB  (2.11)
liquid leaving the separator can be obtained.  f  f

Graphical presentation of flash vaporization

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Example 2: Single stage continouns distillation Multi-stage Continuous distillation-Binary system

 A general schematic diagram of a multistage counter-current binary

A mixture of 40 mole % benzene and 60 mol% toluene is being flash-
distillation operation is shown in Figure below:
distilled at rate of 10 kmole/h at 1 atm total pressure. The liquid product
 The operation consists of a column containing the equivalent N number
should not contain more than 30 mol% benzene. Calculate the amounts and
of theoretical stages arranged in a two-section cascade; a condenser in
the compositions of the analytical as well as graphically. The relative
which the overhead vapor leaving the top stage is condensed to give a
volatility of benzene in the mixture is 2.5.
liquid distillate product and
 The liquid reflux that is returned to the top stage; a re-boiler in which
liquid from the bottom stage is vaporized to give a liquid bottom
products and the vapor boil off returned to the bottom stage

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Multi-stage Continuous distillation-Binary system Analysis of binary distillation in tray towers

 Heat exchanger where the hot bottoms stream is used to heat up

There are two main methods for the analysis of distillation theoretical
the feed stream before it enters the distillation column.
 The feed enters the column at feed stage contains more volatile trays/plates.
components (called light key, LK) and less volatile components
(called heavy key, HK). 1) McCabe and Thiele Methods
 At the feed stage feed may be liquid, vapor or mixture of liquid 2) Ponchon-Savarit Method
and vapor.
 The section above the feed where vapor is washed with the
reflux to remove or absorb the heavy key is called enriching or
rectifying section.
 The section below the feed stage where liquid is stripped of the
light key by the rising vapor is called stripping section.

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 CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation
Analysis of binary distillation in tray towers: McCabe Thiele Method Analysis of binary distillation in tray towers: McCabe Thiele Method
McCabe and Thiele developed a graphical method to determine the The information required for the systematic calculation are:
theoretical number of stages required to effect the separation of a binary
mixture (McCabe and Smith, 1976).  The VLE data,

This method uses the equilibrium curve diagram to determine the number  Feed condition (temperature, composition),

of theoretical stages (trays) required to achieve a desired degree of  Distillate and bottom compositions; and

separation.  The reflux ratio, which is defined as the ratio of reflux

It assumes constant molar overflow and this implies that: liquid over the distillate product.

a) molar heats of vaporization of the components are roughly the same;

b) heat effects are negligible.

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CHAPTER TWO Distillation CHAPTER TWO Distillation

Analysis of binary distillation in tray towers: McCabe Thiele Method The steps to be followed to determine the number of theoretical stages by
McCabe-Thiele Method are as follows:
 An important parameter in the analysis of continuous distillation is the
Reflux Ratio. a) Determination of the Rectifying section operating line (ROL).

 It is defined as the quantity of liquid returned to the distillation column b) Determination the feed condition (q).

over the quantity of liquid withdrawn as product from the column, i.e. c) Determination of the feed section operating line (q-line).

R = L/D d) Determination of required reflux ratio (R).

 The reflux ratio (R) is important because the concentration of the more e) Determination of the stripping section operating line (SOL).

volatile component in the distillate (in mole fraction xD) can be changed f) Determination of number of theoretical stage.

by changing the value of (R).

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 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Determination of the Rectifying section operating line (ROL). Determination of the Rectifying section operating line (ROL).

 Consider the rectifying section as shown in the Figure below and from As shown in Figure below. If xn = xD, then◦yn+1 = xD, the operating line
passed through the point (xD, xD) on the 45 diagonal line.
the material balances, the rectifying section operating line (ROL) When the reflux ratio R changed, the ROL will change.
equation also derived below.

 L   D   R   1 
yn1    xn    xD    xn    xD (2.12)
 LD  LD  R 1  R 1

The Equation (2.12) is the rectifying section

operating line (ROL) Equation having slope Figure of representation of the rectifying

R/(R+1) and intercept, xD/(R+1) operating line

Figure of outline graph of rectifying section

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CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Determination the feed condition (q). Determination the feed condition (q).

 The feed enters the distillation column may consists of liquid, vapor or a Table of limitations of q-value as per feed conditions

mixture of both. Feed condition Limit of q-value

 Some portions of the feed go as the liquid and vapor stream to the Cold feed (below bubble point) q>1
Feed at bubble point (saturated liquid) q=1
rectifying and stripping sections.
Feed as partially vaporized 0<q<1
 The moles of liquid flow in the stripping section that result from the
Feed at dew point (saturated vapor) q=0
introduction of each mole of feed, denoted as ‘q’. Feed as superheated vapor q<0
 The limitations of the q-value as per feed conditions are shown in Table Feed is a mixture of liquid and vapor q is the fraction of the feed that
is liquid
below.

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 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Calculation of q-value when feed is partially vaporized Calculation of q-value when feed is cold liquid or superheated vapor

 In case of partially vaporized mixture, the q-value can be obtained from  q can be alternatively defined as the heat required to convert 1 mole of
enthalpy balance around the feed plate. feed from its entering condition to a saturated vapor; divided by the

 By enthalpy balance one can obtain the q-value from the following form molar latent heat of vaporization.

of Equation  Based on temperature enthalpy diagram shown below:

HV  H F
q (2.13)
HV  H L

where HF, HV and HL are enthalpies of feed, vapor and liquid respectively which can
be obtained from enthalpy-concentration diagram for the mixture.

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CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Calculation of q-value when feed is cold liquid or superheated vapor Determination of the feed section operating line (q-line)
 Based on this definition, one can calculate the q-value from the following  Consider the section of the distillation column (as shown on Figure ‚a‛
Equations for the case whereby q > 1 (cold liquid feed) and q < 0 below) at the tray (called feed tray) where the feed is introduced.
(superheated vapor feed) as:  In the feed tray the feed is introduced at F moles/hr with liquid of q
fraction of feed and vapor of (1-f) fraction of feed as shown on Figure ‚b‛
For cold liquid feed For superheated vapor feed: below.

C p , L (Tbp  TF )   C p ,V (Tdp  TF )
q (2.14) q (2.15)
 

where Tbp is the bubble point, is the latent heat of vaporization and Tdp is the
a) b)
dew point of the feed respectively.


55 56
 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Determination of the feed section operating line (q-line) Determination of the feed section operating line (q-line)
 From overall material balance around the feed tray and  Different values of q will result in different slope of the q-line.
 Component balances for the more volatile component in the rectifying  Different q-lines for different feed conditions are shown in Figure below.
and stripping sections.
 The feed section operating line Equation is given as follows:

 q   1 
y x  xF (2.16)
 1  q   1 q 

 For a given feed condition, xF and q are fixed, therefore the q-line is a
straight line with slope -q / (1-q) and intercept xF/(1-q).
 At y = xF condition the q-line passes through the point (xF, xF) on the 45◦
diagonal. Figure: Different q-lines for different feed condition
57 58

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CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Determination of the stripping section operating line (SOL) Determination of number of theoretical stage
 The stripping section operating line can be derived from the material
balance around the stripping section of the distillation column.  Once the three lines (ROL, SOL and q-line) are drawn;
 The stripping section of a distillation column is shown in Figure below.
 The re-boiled vapor is in equilibrium with bottoms liquid which is  The number of theoretical stages required for a given separation is then
leaving the column.
the number of triangles that can be drawn between these operating lines
 L'   B 
y ' x  '  xB (2.17)
L B L B and the equilibrium curve.

 The last triangle on the diagram represents the re-boiler.

SOL of equation which is a straight line with
slope ( L' / L' - B) and intercept ( BxB / L' - B ).
 A typical representation is given in Figure below.

Figure of schematic of the stripping section

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 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Determination of number of theoretical stage Reflux Ratio (R)

 Suppose a column is to be designed for the separation of a binary mixture where the feed has a
concentration of xF (mole fraction) of the more volatile component and  The separation efficiency by distillation depends on the reflux ratio.
 A distillate having a concentration of xD of the more volatile component whereas the bottoms
having a desired concentration of xB.  For a given separation (i.e. constant xD and xB) from a given feed
condition (xF and q), higher reflux ratio (R) results in lesser number of
required theoretical trays (N) and vice versa.
 So there is an inverse relationship between the reflux ratio and the
number of theoretical stages.
 The ROL moves closer to the equilibrium curve as R decreases until point
Fig.: A typical representation of identifying
Q is reached.
number of theoretical stages.
 Point Q is the point of intersection between the q-line and the equilibrium
curve as shown in Figure below.
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CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Reflux Ratio (R) Reflux Ratio (R)

 From the Equation (2.12), when R increases (with xD constant), the slope  As shown on the figure above at the point of intersection the driving force
of ROL becomes steeper, i.e. (R/R+1) and the intercept (xD/R+1) decreases. for mass transfer is zero. This is also called as Pinch Point.
 At this point separation is not possible.
 The R cannot be reduced beyond this point.
 The value of R at this point is known as the minimum reflux ratio and is
denoted by Rmin.
 At the total reflux ratio, the ROL and SOL coincide with the 45 degree
diagonal line.
Fig.: Representation of minimum reflux ratio  At this condition, total number of triangles formed with the equilibrium
curve is equal minimum number of theoretical stages.
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 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Tray Efficiency Overall Efficiency

 For the analysis of theoretical stage required for the distillation, it is  Overall efficiency is applied for the whole column.
assumed that the vapor leaving each tray is in equilibrium with the liquid  Every tray is assumed to have the same efficiency.
leaving the same tray and the trays are operating at 100% efficiency.  The overall efficiency depends on the:
 In practice, the trays are not perfect.
a) Geometry and design of the contacting trays,
 There are deviations from ideal conditions.
b) Flow rates and flow paths of vapor and liquid streams,
The deviation from the ideal condition is due to: c) Compositions and properties of vapor and liquid streams
1) Insufficient time of contact
 The overall tray efficiency (EO) is defined as:
2) Insufficient degree of mixing.
Number of theorotical trays
Eo  (2.18)
 The concept of tray efficiency may be used to adjust the actual number of Number of actual trays
trays required.
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CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method

Overall Efficiency Murphree Efficiency

 Specifically overall tray efficiency (EO) can be calculated as follows:  The Murphree tray efficiency has been used for a long time to relate the

The Drickamer-Bradford empirical correlation: theoretical number of stages with the actual trays in a distillation
column or absorber.
Eo  13.3  66.8log (  ) (2.19)
 This efficiency can be based upon the liquid or the vapor composition on

The correlation is valid for hydrocarbon mixtures in the range of 342 K < T < a particular stage at its conditions of temperature and pressure.

488.5 K, 1 atm < P < 25 atm and 0.066 < µ < 0.355 cP  For a given component, it can be expressed as:

The O'Connell correlation: Based on vapor phase: Based on liquid phase:

yn  yn 1 xn  xn 1
Eo  50.3( ) 0.226 (2.20) EMV  (2.21) EML  (2.22)
yn  yn 1 xn   xn 1

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 CHAPTER TWO McCabe-Thiele Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

EXAMPLE PROBLEM Background Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method

A liquid mixture of benzene toluene is being distilled in a fractionating
 The method is concerned with the graphical analysis of calculating the
column at 101.3 k Pa pressure. The feed of 100 kmole/h is liquid and it
contains 45 mole% benzene (A) and 55 mole% toluene (B) and enters at 327.6 theoretical stages by enthalpy balance required for desired separation by
K. A distillate containing 95 mole% benzene and 5 mole% toluene and a
distillation process.
bottoms containing 10 mole% benzene and 90 mole% toluene are to be
obtained. The amount of liquid is fed back to the column at the top is 4  In this method, the enthalpy balances are incorporated as an integral part
times the distillate product. The average heat capacity of the feed is 159
of the calculation however it is not considered in the analysis separation
KJ/kg mole. K and the average latent heat 32099 kJ/kg moles.
Calculate: by distillation process by McCabe-Thele method.
1) The kg moles per hour distillate, kg mole per hour bottoms
2) No. of theoretical stages at the operating reflux.  This procedure combines the material balance calculations with enthalpy
3) The minimum no. of theoretical stages required at total reflux
4) If the actual no. of stage is 10, what is the overall efficiency increased at operating balance calculations.
condition compared to the condition of total reflux?
 This method also provides the information on the condenser and re-boiler
duties.
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CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Background Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method

Fromm overall material balance for the distillation column, component  Comparing the Equation (2.23) with the points plotted on Figure below,
the material balance around the column and overall enthalpy balance for it is found that the left hand side of the Equation (2.23) represents the
the column yields. The heat balance on the column is derived as follows: slope of the straight line between the points (xB, HB-QR/B) and (xF, HF).

xF  xB xD  xF  The right hand side of the Equation (2.23) represents the slope of the
 (2.23)
 Q   QC  straight line passing through the points (xF, HF) and (xD, HD-QC/D).
HF   HB  R   HD    HF
 R   D 

where H is the enthalpy of the liquid stream (energy/mol), QR is the

heat input to the re-boiler (J/s) and QC is the heat removed from
condenser (J/s). Fig. Representation of feed, distillate and
bottom streams on the enthalpy-concentration

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 CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method

 Consider the theoretical stage shown in Figure (a) and the principle by

 The amount of distillate as per Equation (2.23) is proportional to the which it operates is described in the enthalpy-composition diagram as

horizontal distance and the amount of bottoms is proportional to shown in Figure (b).

the horizontal distance , then from the overall material balance it (a) (b)

can be interpreted that the amount of feed is proportional to the

horizontal distance .
 Based on this principle, the analysis of distillation column is called
Enthalpy-composition analysis or Ponchon-Savarit analysis of distillation
column.

73 74

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CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Principle of Ponchon-Savarit Method Stepwise procedure to determine the number of theoretical

trays For Ponchon-Savarit Method
• The vapor entering to the tray (n), Vn+1 is a
(b) saturated vapor of composition yn+1 where Step 1: Draw the equilibrium curve and the enthalpy concentration diagram for
as the liquid entering to the tray is Ln-1 of the mixture to be separated
composition xn-1.
• The point P in this Figure represents the Step 2: Calculate the compositions of the feed, distillate and bottom products.
total flow to the tray. Locate these compositions on the enthalpy-concentration diagram.
• The point P lies in a straight line joining xn-
1 and yn+1. Step 3: Estimate the reflux rate for the separation and locate the rectifying section
• The distance is proportional to the difference point as ΔR as shown in Figure below. Point y1 is the intersection point
quantity Ln-1 and the distance is
proportional to the quantity Vn+1 as per of line joining point xD and ΔR and HV-y curve.
lever rule. Hence, Step 4: Locate the stripping section difference point Δs. The point Δs is to be
Ln 1 yn 1 P
 (2.24) The sum of the liquid and vapor leaving the plate located at a point where the line from ΔR through xF intersects the xB composition
Vn 1 xn 1 P must equal the total flow to the plate.
So the tie line must pass through the point P which coordinate.
represents the addition point of the vapor Vn and
liquid Ln leaving the tray. 75 76
 CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Stepwise procedure to determine the number of theoretical Stepwise procedure to determine the number of theoretical
trays For Ponchon-Savarit Method trays For Ponchon-Savarit Method
Step 5: Step off the trays graphically for the rectifying section. Then the point of
composition x1 of liquid of top tray is to be determined from the equilibrium
relation with y1 of vapor which is leaving the tray and locate it to the HL-x curve.
Then the composition y2 is to be located at the point where the line of points ΔR
and x1 intersects HV-y curve. This procedure is to be continued until the feed plate is
reached.
Step 6: Similarly follow the same rule for stripping section. In the stripping section,
the vapor composition yB leaving the re-boiler is to be estimated from the
equilibrium relation. Then join the yB and ΔS to find the xN. The vapor composition
yN is to be determined by extending a tie line to saturated vapor curve HV-y. The Fig. Representation of estimation of no of stages by Ponchon-Savarit Method
procedure is to be continued until the feed tray is attained. 77 78

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CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Determination of the reflux rate Under Ponchon-Savarit Determination of the reflux rate Under Ponchon-Savarit
Method Method
 The reflux rate can be calculated from the energy balance around the  The internal reflux ratio between any two stages in rectifying section can
condenser as: be expressed as:
V1 HV ,1  LD H D  DH D  QC (*)
Q
Ln ( H D  C )  HV ,1  R HV , n 1
 By substituting V1 = LD + D into Equation (*) and rearranging, it can be  D  (2.25)
Vn 1 ( H  QC )  H  R H L ,n
written as: D D L ,n

QC
LD ( H D  D
)  HV ,1  H Whereas in the stripping section it can be expressed as:
  R V ,1 (**)
D HV ,1  H D HV ,1 H D
Q
Lm 1 ( HV ,m  ( H B  R )
 B (2.26)
Where and are the lengths of lines between points ΔR and HV,1 and HV,1 and Vm QR
( H L , m 1  ( H B  )
B
HD.

79 80
 CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Overall Material Balance Under Ponchon-Savarit Method Minimum number of trays in Ponchon-Savarit Method
 The relationship between the distillate and bottom products in terms of  In this method, if D approaches zero, the enthalpy coordinate (HD +QC/D) of the
compositions and enthalpies can be made from the material balance difference point approaches infinity.

around the overall column which can be written as:  Other way it can be said that Qc becomes large if L becomes very large with
respect to D.
FH F  QR  DH D  BH B  QC (2.27)  Similarly enthalpy coordinate for stripping section becomes negative infinity as
 Overall material balance F = D + B combining with Equation (2.27) yields B approaches zero or liquid loading in the column becomes very large with
respect to B.
QR
D H F  (H B  B  xF  S
)  Then the difference points will locate at infinity. In such conditions, the trays
 (2.28)
B ( H  QC )  H xF  R required for the desired separation is referred as minimum number of trays.
D D F

 The thermal state of the feed has no effect on the minimum number of trays
required for desired separation.
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CHAPTER TWO Ponchon-Savarit Method

Minimum reflux in Ponchon-Savarit Method

 The minimum reflux for the process normally occurs at the feed tray. END OF THE CHAPTER
 The minimum reflux rate for a specified separation can be obtained by
THANK YOU!
extending the tie line through the feed composition to intersect a vertical
line drawn through xD.
 Extend the line to intersect the xB composition line determines the boil up
rate and the re-boiler heat duty at minimum reflux.

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