Behaviorism

Study notes from Ormrod's Human Learning

[ref: Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.]

Definitions and perspectives of learning:

Two definitions of learning:
Behaviorist:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
This refers to a change in behavior, an external change that we can
observe.

Cognitive:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental associations due to
experience. This definition focuses on a change in mental associations,
an internal change that we cannot observe.

BEHAVIORISM: Assumptions | History | Contemporary views | General

implications | Summary |
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING | OPERANT CONDITIONING
---------------------------------
Overview of Behaviorism:

Assumptions of behaviorism:

1. The primary means of investigating learning is by observation.

2. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and to different

species of animals. Behaviorists typically state that human beings and other
animals learn in similar ways.

3. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is
on stimuli and responses. Typically learning is described as a stimulus and
response relationship, S = R.

4, Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study.

5. Learning involves a behavior change. Some behaviorists proposed that if no

observable change happens, then no learning has happened.

6. Organisms are born as blank slates. Organisms are not born with any
predispositions to be made in certain ways. Since each organism has a different
experience with the environment, each will have a different set of behaviors.

7. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. Behaviorists tend to use

the term conditioning instead of learning to reflect this. The most useful theories
tend to be universal ones.

8. The learning of all behavior is best explained by as few learning principles as

possible.

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History of Behaviorism:
Ivan Pavlov:
Pavlov developed the theory known now as classical conditioning through the
study of dogs. From his perspective learning begins with a stimulus response
connection. In this theory a certain stimulus leads to a particular response.
Edward Thorndike:
Thorndike introduced a theory of learning now called connectionism. Thorndike
emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of
stimulus response connections. He postulated, "Responses to a situation that are
followed by satisfaction are strengthened, responses that are followed by
discomfort weakened. " Thorndike so proposed that practice influences s = r
connections as well. His idea that rewards promote learning continues to be a
key component of behaviorist theory today.
John Watson:
Watson introduced the term behaviorism and was a vocal advocate in the early
part of the 20th century. Watson called for the use of scientific objectivity and
experiment in to the study of psychological phenomena. He also proposed a law
of frequency that stressed the importance of repetition.
"The more frequent a stimulus and response to occur in association with each
other, the stronger that habit will become."
Watson's law of recency: "The response that has most recently occurred after a
particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that
stimulus."
Edwin Guthrie:
Edwin Guthrie proposed a contiguity theory: "A stimulus that is followed by a
particular response will, upon its recurrence, tend to be followed by the same
response again. This stimulus response connection gains in its full strength on
one trial." Guthrie conducted little research on his ideas; therefore doubt has
been cast upon his theories through later research.
Clark Hull:
Clark Hull introduced the idea that characteristics can be unique to different
organisms. He also proposed that intervening variable unique to each organism
and affects the strength of the response. He modified the stimulus response
theory to stimulus organism response, S-O-R. One intervening variable
influencing the occurrence of a response is habit strength. A second intervening
variable is the organism’s drive, which is an internal state of arousal that
motivates its behavior. Clark also proposed that inhibitory factors could decrease
the likelihood of a response. He also proposed a habit family hierarchy, which
means an organism will, when given the chance, usually choose the strongest
response connected to the strongest habit.
B. F. Skinner:
Scanner is probably the best known psychologist in the behaviorist tradition. He
proposed the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner spoke only about the
strengthening of responses, not the strengthening of habits. Skinner used the
term reinforcer instead of reward.

His most fundamental principle is his law of conditioning: "A response

followed by a reinforcing stimulus is strengthened and therefore more likely to
occur again. "

A second principle was his law of extinction: "A response that is not followed
by a reinforcing stimulus is weakened and therefore less likely to occur again. "

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Contemporary behaviorism:
Even though much research on human thought has shifted towards a cognitive
position many still study the behaviorist perspective. Several trends are
happening: One is a trend towards more focus on motivation. Also there is an
increased attention to the role of adverse consequences. A final trend is an
increasing recognition that learning and performance must be considered as
separate, though related entities.

General educational implications of behaviorism:

 Emphasis on behavior: Students should be active respondents to

learning, and in the learning process. They should be given an
opportunity to actually behave or demonstrate learning. Secondly
students should be assessed by observing behavior, we can never assume
that students are learning unless we can observe that behavior is
changing.
 Drill and practice: the repetition of stimulus response habits can
strengthen those habits. For example, some believe that the best way to
improve reading is to have students read more and more.
 Breaking habits: in order to break habits, that teacher needs to lead an
individual to make a new response to this same old stimulus.
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Summary: Know these!

Behaviorism encompasses a group of theories that share several common
assumptions:

 Generalizability of learning principles across species

o The importance of focusing on external observable advance

o Blank-slate nature of organisms

o Classical conditioning

o Emphasis on observable behavior

o The use of drill and practice for teaching basic skills

o Several methods for breaking habits

 An attention to the consequences of student behaviors.

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Classical Conditioning:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Model | Basic Concepts | Contemporary
perspectives | Educational implications | OPERANT CONDITIONING

The Classical Conditioning Model

Pavlov's experiment brought about the classical conditioning model. In this

model there are three steps.
Step one: a neutral stimulus (NS) is given
Step two: the NS is combined with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which
results in an unconditioned response (UCR).
Step three: a conditioned stimulus is created (CS) which results in a conditioned
response (CR).

This classical conditioning model is applicable across many different organisms,

it must be noted that it mainly works with lower level organisms, or at least
works better. For human beings, classical conditioning can be used to explain
fears and phobias that people develop. (Examples are: fear of the dark or loud
noises in young children. Also: fear of failure may be another example of
classical conditioning.)

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Basic concepts in classical conditioning:

There are several principles that are associated with classical conditioning, some
of these are:

Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the

conditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously

extinguished response.

Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to

experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead
of just a fuzzy cat.

Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various

stimuli.

Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus can cause the
conditioned response sense if it had been associated with the conditioned
stimulus.

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Contemporary perspectives on classical conditioning:

The potential addition to stimulus must occur only when the unconditioned
stimulus is about to follow.

Classical conditioning involves cognition as well as responding. In fact some

behaviorist are now beginning to talk about thinking processes that they
previously deliberately avoided.

Classical conditioning can be used to change inappropriate responses. For

example, classical conditioning can be used to overcome certain fears and
phobias. This can be done, using one of two methods:

 Using the first method, undesirable responses can be extinguished

 by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned
stimulus thus causing the conditioned response to disappear.
 The second method involves use of counter-conditioning. This is
when more desirable responses are conditioned to offset the
inappropriate conditioned responses.

Top of page | Classical conditioning heading

Educational implications of classical conditioning:

Students should experience academic tasks and contexts that cause or encourage
pleasant emotions. They should be able to feel enthusiasm, excitement, or
enjoyment in their learning context. Rather than being in context that cause
anxiety, disappointment, or anger.

Mathematics anxiety is an example of classical conditioning that can be

mitigated with classical conditioning.

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Operant Conditioning:
OPERANT CONDITIONING: Model | Reinforcible behaviors | Basic concepts
| Nature of Reinforcement | Effectiveness | Contemporary perspectives |
Skinner's view | Applications | Criticisms | Punishment | Most Appropriate Uses |

The Operant Conditioning Model:

Skinner’s basic principle of operant conditioning is as follows: a response

followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur
again. Skinner used the term reinforcer instead of reward to describe the
consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior. A reinforcer is the
stimulus that increases the frequency of a response it follows.
Three important conditions for operant conditioning:
 The reinforcer must follow the response.
 The reinforcer must follow immediately.
 The reinforcer must be coupled with the response. This means
that the reinforcer must be appropriate and linked to the response,
a example, rewarding students in a class that deserve it versus
rewarding all students because you feel sorry for some of the
students.
What Behaviors can be Reinforced?

Virtually any behavior; academic, social, or psychomotor can be learned or

modified through operant conditioning.

Contrasting operant conditioning and classical conditioning:

Classical conditioning pairs the unconditional stimulus and the conditional

stimulus. In operant conditioning a response is followed by a reinforcing
stimulus. The nature of the response is different; it is involuntary in classical
conditioning being elicited by a stimulus. In operant conditioning it is voluntary
because the response is emitted by the organism. Skinner’s term operant reflects
the idea that the organism actually operates, it can have an affect on the
environment.

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Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning:

Baseline or free operant level: This level is the frequency of a response in the
absence of reinforcements, thus the baseline level of responses.

Terminal behavior: Terminal behavior it is the form and frequency of a desired

response at the end of the reinforcement or instructional program.

Extinction: Extinction occurs when the behavior or response fades out over time
due to non-reinforcement.

Superstitious behavior: Sometimes a behavior will be exhibited when it is

paired with other reinforcers that are not the actual designed reinforcer. This
happens when reinforcement is random and not contingent on any particular
behavior.

Shaping: Sometimes a response is not visible or has not been demonstrated and
thus cannot be reinforced. Skinner proposed the idea of shaping where
successive approximations are reinforced until the desired behavior is fully
exhibited.

Chaining: chaining is the learning of a sequence of responses through shaping.

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The Nature of Reinforcement:

Primary and secondary reinforcers: a primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a
biological need. A secondary reinforcer is also known as a conditioned
reinforcer, it is a previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an
organism through association with another reinforcer. Examples of secondary
reinforcers are praise, grades, money, and feelings of success.

Types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and

punishment:

Positive reinforcement: involves the presentation of the stimulus after the

response. Positive reinforcement has the effect of increasing the response.

Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases a response through

the removal of the stimulus, usually an adverse or unpleasant one. For example,
the removal of guilt or anxiety can be a very powerful negative reinforcer.

Punishment: Remember positive and negative reinforcement increasethe

responses they follow. Punishment is likely to decrease those responses.

Different kinds of reinforcing stimuli:

Material reinforcer: This is an actual object, like food or prizes. Usually not a
good idea to use in educational situations.

Social reinforcer: This is a gesture, usually from one person to another, that
communicates positive regard. This can be teacher attention, approval, praise,
and appreciation. Notice that this has a social learning leaning or connotation.

Activity reinforcer: This is an opportunity to engage in and favorite activity.

For example, students can't participate in a party or watch a movie unless they
have successfully completed certain tasks.

Intrinsic reinforcers: When an individual engages in a certain response because

it gives internal good feelings. For example, they feel proud after successfully
completing an assignment, are relieved after finishing a difficult project
successfully.

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Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement:
Timing: It is very important that the reinforcement immediately follows the
desired behavior.

Magnitude and appeal: The larger and more appealing the enforcer, the faster a
response will be learned and the more frequently it will be displayed.

Consistency: Reinforcement needs to be consistent in relation to the desired

action. This can be a one to one relationship, however it does not need to be
always in this pattern. Reinforcement can occur with a ratio schedule, a variable
ratio schedule, or an interval schedule.

Stimulus control: Students or organisms can learn when an appropriate

response can be given after a stimulus, for example students know that is
appropriate to leave class after the bell rings.

Stimulus generalization: Organisms can learn how to give a response to similar

stimulus, thus the stimulus becomes generalized.

Stimulus control in the classroom:

In the classroom different responses are desirable at different times. Two

strategies have been proposed to control this.

Cueing: teachers can provide nonverbal cues as to what desired

response is expected or required.

Setting events: These occur when the teacher controls the

environment to help control behavior. For example, cooperative
games help exhibit cooperative behavior.

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Contemporary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning:
Behavior is better understood by looking at a larger context and longer time
frame than has traditionally been the case.

Operant conditioning involves cognition as well as behavior.

Operant and classical conditioning, taken together; do not completely determine

the behaviors that an organism will exhibit on any given occasion.

Just as reinforcement increases the frequency of a response, punishment can be

an effective means of decreasing a response.

When reinforcement doesn't work, there are usually circumstances such as the
following:

 The reinforcer is not reinforcing,

 Reinforcement is not consistent
 The individual looses too much or gains too little by changing a behavior
 Too much is expected too soon.

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Skinner on Education:
Reinforcement first needs to be more consistent in the classroom. Often
reinforcement is too late or delayed from the desired response.

Teachers often end up punishing misbehaviors instead of reinforcing positive

responses.

Skinner urged educators to focus on reinforcement and student successes rather

than on punishing student failures.

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Applications of Operant Conditioning:

At least five educative notions can be attributed to operant conditioning

principles. They are

1. instructional objectives
2. programmed instruction
3. mastery learning
4. contingency contracts
5. applied behavior analysis
1. Instructional objectives or behavioral objectives:

Instructional objectives are also known as behavioral objectives. A behavioral

objective has three components:

 First the outcome is stated in terms of an observable and measurable

behavior.
 Secondly, a behavioral objected specifies the conditions under which the
behavior should be exhibited.
 Finally the objective includes a criterion or way of judging the acceptable
performance of behavior.
Current criticism of instructional objectives is that they tend to focus on the
lower level skills which can be demonstrated, and not on higher order skills.
2. Programmed instruction and computer assisted instruction:
Note: example is Delta.

Programmed instruction is instruction that is presented in discreet pieces called

frames. Each frame builds on the previous frame. Intrinsic to programmed
instruction is several concepts or principles:

 Terminal behavior: the goals of instruction or stated in a

way that they can be observed or demonstrated.
 Active responding: the student is required to make a
 response on each frame.
 Shaping: instruction begins with previous knowledge, is
broken into small pieces, and builds step by step.
 Immediate reinforcement: because instruction is in small
bits and pieces, the likelihood of correct responses is
increased. This is especially true with computer assisted
instruction where the computer program gives audio or
verbal feedback upon receiving the correct answer. Thus the
student is immediately reinforced upon giving the correct
answer.

3. Mastery learning:

Mastery learning is the idea that students learn one lesson very well
before continuing on to the next lesson. Thus students can learn very
complex behaviors. There are several principles on mastery
learning, or components:

o Small discrete units.

o A logical sequence.

o Demonstration of mastery at the completion of each unit.

o A concrete observable criterion for mastery of each unit.

o Additional remedial activities are provided for students

needing extra help or practice.

4. Contingency contracts:

A contingency contract is a contract between teacher and student to

bring about a desired behavior. In some schools, it is called a
behavioral contract. Such a contract should specify the desired
behavior and consequences upon achieving that behavior.

o Contracts should require small tasks.

o Reinforcement should be contingent on accomplishment
of the desired behavior.
o A criterion for judging the quality of the desired behavior
should be specified.
o All contracts with various students should be the
equivalent in scope.
5. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) or behavior modification:

This is one of the most common uses of operant conditioning, and

is based on assumption that behavior problems are based upon past
and present environmental circumstances. The present environment
is modified to promote reinforcement of acceptable behaviors, and
non-reinforcement of unacceptable ones. The components of this
process are the following:

o Present and desired behaviors are specified in measurable

terms.
o An effective enforcer is identified.

o A specific intervention or treatment plan is developed.

o Behavior is measured both before and during treatment.

o Treatment is monitored for effectiveness and modified if

needed.
o Measures are taken to promote generalization of newly
acquired behaviors.

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Criticisms of Using Reinforcement in the Classroom:

Many criticisms of operant conditioning show a misunderstanding of the theory.

For example some critics say that reinforcement is bribery, that reinforcement
promotes dependence on concrete external rewards, that reinforcing one student
teaches others said to be bad, and that changing a problem behavior does not
change the underlying cause of the behavior.

Genuine concerns and criticisms:

Attempts at changing behavior ignore cognitive factors that may be interfering

with learning, such as a learning disability.

Reinforcement of particular predetermined behaviors sometimes interferes with

maximal learning and performance over the long run. Students can perform
along at a level where they get the minimum amount of work done to receive the
reinforcement instead of being challenged to excel.

Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior that already has an intrinsic motivation can

affect the intrinsic motivation. For example a student who is intrinsically
motivated to do superior work and becomes actually dependent on external
rewards when that reward replaces the internal or intrinsic reward.

Possible effects of aversive stimuli: (1) Escape and (2) Avoidance of learning:

Students can learn how to escape or avoid behavior is that result in unpleasant
responses. For example, if a student has very unpleasant experiences in test
taking and resulting anxiety occurs, the student can learn how to avoid taking
tests. This can be skipping school on days of tests, or disruptive behavior.
Whenever such stimuli are presented repeatedly, and an organism cannot avoid
or escape or otherwise end the stimuli, the organism will eventually give up and
passively accept those stimuli. This is the phenomenon of learned helplessness.
People exhibit these symptoms when they cannot control the occurrence of
aversive events. Learned helplessness has been postulated as an explanation of
clinical depression.
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Punishment

Punishment takes two forms; one form decreases the strength of a response when
it is presented after that response. Usually this involves the presentation of an
aversive stimulus. Another type of punishment is one where a removal of a
stimulus, easily a pleasant one, happens. For example, a student’s privileges for
playtime could be removed for bad behavior.

Disadvantages of punishment:

 A punished behavior is not eliminated, is only suppressed.

 Punishment sometimes leads to an increase in the punished
behavior because students get more attention when being
punished.
 The student might not recognize the punishment being linked to a
specific behavior.
 Punishment can often result in undesirable emotional responses
and may even lead to escape or avoidance behaviors.
 Punishment may lead to aggression.
 Punishment does not illustrate the correct behavior.
 Punishment may even cause physical or psychological harm.

The effectiveness of punishment:

Despite its negatives, punishment can be shown to have a positive effect on

individual in classroom environment.

Guidelines for using punishment effectively:

 The punishment must be punishing. *

 The punishments must be strong enough to be effective but not
overly severe.
 Punishment should be threatened once before it is administered.
 The behavior to be punished should be described in clear,
concrete terms.
 Punishment should be consistent.

(* e.g., classic sketch on Third Rock from the Sun series where the "alien" teen,
Tommy, was "punished" by the P.E. coach. Tommy said he didn't see any point
in climbing the rope suspended from the gym ceiling. The coach said that, as a
punishment, he'd have to go sit with the girls. Tommy says, "Let me get this
straight. My choices are to go climb up that rope -- or else decide not to climb
the rope and go sit with the girls?" This was not an effective punishment for
Tommy. It would only work if he minded sitting with the girls or if he minded
the coach's scorn of his "manliness."

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Where Operant Conditioning Techniques are Most Appropriate:

Students who will most benefit from an environment of stability and

consistency. Usually students who benefit most from these techniques are those
who are poorly motivated, have high anxiety, or a history of failure.

Highly anxious students may need structure to perform well.

Students who have no motivation for learning can be encouraged, through

reward, to obtain basic skills.

It may not work for everyone though. It can undermine intrinsic motivation and
programmed instruction can be boring for bright students.