Name of Institution
Amity School of Engineering &
Technology
[Link]. CSE, Semester V
Computer Architecture
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Introduction: Computer Architecture Name of Institution
Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture is a functional description of requirements
and design implementation for the various parts of computer. It
deals with functional behavior of computer system.
▪ Computer Architecture basically describes what the computer
does. It indicates its hardware.
✓ It comprises logical functions such as instruction sets,
registers, data types and addressing modes.
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Introduction: Computer Architecture Name of Institution
Computer Organization:
Computer Organization comes after the decide of Computer
Architecture. It deals with structural relationship.
▪ Computer Organization describes how it does it. It indicates its
performance.
✓ Computer Organization consists of physical units like circuit
designs, peripherals and adders.
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Central Processing Unit(CPU) Name of Institution
✓ A CPU is an electronics circuit that fetches the input
instructions or commands from the memory unit, performs
arithmetic and logic operations and stores this processed
data back to memory.
✓ A CPU or Central Processing Unit is the heart of a
computer and is install in socket specified on a
motherboard.
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Components of CPU Name of Institution
Register
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Arithmetic Logic Unit
ALU is an internal electronic circuitry of a CPU that performs all
the arithmetic and logical operations in a computer.
The ALU receives three types of inputs.
1. Control signal from CU ( Control Unit )
2. Data(operands) to be operated
3. Status information from operations done previously.
When all the instructions have been executed, the output that
consists of data is stored in memory and a status information is
stored in internal registers of a CPU.
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Control Unit
The Control Unit is an internal part of a CPU that co-ordinates
the instructions and data flow between CPU and other
component of computer.
✓ Control Unit directs the operations of a central processing
unit by sending timing and control signals.
Register
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly
accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that a being
used immediately by the CPU.
It hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters). 7
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The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data
and a register for holding a memory address.
The register holding the memory location is used to calculate
the address of the next instruction after the execution of the
current instruction is completed.
➢The detailed list of some of the most common registers
used in a basic computer is mentioned in the next slide.
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Register Symbol Number of bits Function
Data register DR 16 Holds memory operand
Address register AR 12 Holds address for the memory
Accumulator AC 16 Processor register
Instruction register IR 16 Holds instruction code
Program counter PC 12 Holds address of the instruction
Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data
Input register INPR 8 Carries input character
Output register OUTR 8 Carries output character
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It shows the register and memory configuration for a basic computer.
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• The Memory unit has a capacity of 4096 words, and each word contains 16
bits.
• The Data Register (DR) contains 16 bits which hold the operand read from
the memory location.
• The Memory Address Register (MAR) contains 12 bits which hold the
address for the memory location.
• The Program Counter (PC) also contains 12 bits which hold the address of
the next instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is
executed.
• The Accumulator (AC) register is a general purpose processing register.
• The instruction read from memory is placed in the Instruction register (IR).
• The Temporary Register (TR) is used for holding the temporary data during
the processing.
• The Input Registers (IR) holds the input characters given by the user.
• The Output Registers (OR) holds the output after processing the input data.
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Instruction register (IR) Name of Institution
• The basic computer has 16-bit instruction register (IR).
• These instructions refer to memory address as an operand.
• The other operand is always accumulator.
• It specifies 12-bit address, 3-bit opcode (other than 111) and
1-bit addressing mode {for direct addressing (0) or indirect
addressing (1)}.
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Organization of a Digital Computer
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Definition of the (internal) organization of a computer:
➢ Set of registers and their functions
➢ Microoperations set
➢ Set of allowable microoperations provided by the
organization of the computer.
➢ Control signals that initiate the sequence of
microoperations (to perform the functions).
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This process of analyzing a digital computer system’s architecture
is called Register Transfer Language.
Because we’re focusing on:
1. The system’s registers
2. The data transformations in them, and
3. The data transfers between them.
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For any function of the computer, the Register Transfer Language
can be used to describe the (sequence of) microoperations.
What is Register transfer language?
o A symbolic language
o A convenient tool for describing the internal organization
of digital computers.
o Can also be used to facilitate the design process of digital
systems.
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Representation of RegistersName of Institution
Registers are represented by capital letters, sometimes followed by numbers
(e.g., A, R13, IR)
Often the names indicate function:
MAR - memory address register
ACC - Accumulator
PC - program counter
IR - instruction register
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Registers and their contents can be viewed and represented in various
ways:
1. as a single entity - MAR
2. showing the bits of data they contain - 8 bit reg.
76543210
3. Numbering of bits - 15 0
15 . . . .4 3 2 1 0
15 8 7 0
4. Subfields - PC(H) PC(L)
Program Counter (PC) is a multi-byte register.
"PC(H)" and "PC(L)" refer to the high and low bytes. 17
Register Transfer Name of Institution
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Control Function Name of Institution
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Implementation of Controlled Register
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Control P Load
R2 Clock
Circuit
n
R1
t t+1
Clock
Load
Transfer occurs here
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Simultaneous Transfer Operation
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Microoperation: The operations on the data in registers are called
microoperations. (during one clock pulse)
E.g.- Shift, Load, Clear, Add, Subtract, AND, OR….
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Symbols for Register Transfer
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Symbols Description Examples
Capital letters & Denotes a register
numerals
Parentheses () Denotes a part of a
register
Arrow Denotes transfer of
information
Colon : Denotes termination P:
of control function
Comma , Separates two micro- A B, B A
operations
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Bus and Memory TransfersName of Institution
A digital computer can have many register, so paths must be provided to
transfer data from one to another register for different operations.
The number of wires will be large, if separate lines are used in between
the registers.
So, efficient and widely used method for transferring data in between
multiple registers is common bus line system.
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Bus and Memory TransfersName of Institution
Bus is a path(of a group of wires) over which information is transferred,
from any of several sources to any of several destinations.
▪ From a register to bus: BUS R
Register A Register B Register C Register D
Bus lines
▪ From bus to a Bus lines
register : R BUS Load
Reg. R0 Reg. R1 Reg. R2 Reg. R3
D0 D1 D2 D3
z E (enable)
Select 2x4
w
Decoder
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Bus and Memory TransfersName of Institution
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Memory Transfers Name of Institution
Transfer of information/data from a memory word to outside is called
Read operation.
Memory Read
AR unit
Write
DR
Transfer of new information to be stored into the memory is called
write operation.
Memory word is indicated by enclosing the address in square bracket
following the letter M.
Memory read micro-op: DR M ( DR M[AR] )
Memory write micro-op: M DR ( M[AR] DR )
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Bus and Memory TransfersName of Institution
Summary of Register Transfer Microoperations
AB Transfer content of reg. B into reg. A
AR DR(N) Transfer content of N bits portion of reg.
DR into reg. AR
A constant Transfer a binary constant into reg. A
ABUS R1, R2 ABUS Transfer content of R1 into bus A and, at the
same time, transfer content of bus A into R2
AR Address register
DR Data register
M[AR] Memory word specified by reg. AR
DR M[AR] Memory read operation: transfers content of
memory word specified by AR into DR
M[AR] DR Memory write operation: transfers content
of DR into memory word specified by AR
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Micro-operation Name of Institution
A microoperation is an elementary operation performed
with data stored in register.
Micro-operations are classified into:
1. Register transfer microoperation
2. Arithmetic microoperation
3. Logic microoperation
4. Shift microoperation
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Arithmetic Microoperation
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Arithmetic Micro-operation are done on numeric data
contained in the registers.
The basic arithmetic microoperations are;
Addition
Subtraction
Complement
Increment
Decrement 29
Arithmetic Microoperation
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Add Micro-Operation
R1 + R2 = R3
The value/contents in register R1 is added to the value
in the register R2 and then the sum is transferred into
register R3.
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Arithmetic Microoperation
Name of Institution
Subtract Micro-Operation
R3 R1 + R2′ + 1
Subtraction is implemented through complementation
and addition instead of using minus operator.
R3 R1 + R2′ + 1 is equivalent to R1-R2.
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Arithmetic Microoperation
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Increment/Decrement Micro-Operation
It is commonly implemented by adding and removing
1 from the register, accordingly.
R1 → R1 + 1
R1 → R1 – 1
Plus one and minus one operations represent increment
and decrement micro-operations, respectively. 32
Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
• Logic Micro-operation specify binary operations for
strings of bits stored in registers.
• These operations consider each bit of the register
separately and treat them as binary variables.
Example: the exclusive-OR microoperation with the
contents of two registers R1 and R2 is symbolized
by the statement P: R1 ← R1 ⊕ R2.
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
It specifies a logic microoperation to be executed on
the individual bits of the registers provided that the
control variable P = 1.
Lets assume that each register has four bits;
The content of R1, after the execution of the microoperation,
is equal to the bit-by-bit exclusive-OR operation on pairs of
bits in R2 and previous values of R1.
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
Special Symbols used for logic operations:
• ∧ - AND
• ∨ - OR
• ⊕ - XOR
This bitwise approach allows for a total of 16 distinct
logic operations that can be performed.
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
Let’s take a look:
Clear: This logic micro-operation sets all bits in the register to 0.
AND: It performs a bitwise AND between corresponding bits of
two registers.
Transfer A: It copies the contents of register A directly to the
output.
Transfer B: It copies the contents of register B directly to the
output.
Exclusive OR: It performs a bitwise comparison between two
registers.
OR: It performs a bitwise OR between corresponding bits of two
registers.
NOR: It performs a bitwise OR operation followed by negation.
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Logic MicrooperationName of Institution
Let’s take a look:
Exclusive NOR: It performs a bitwise comparison between two
registers.
Complement B: It inverts all the bits in register B.
Complement A: It inverts all the bits in register A.
NAND: It performs a bitwise AND operation between two
registers and then negates the result.
Set to all 1’s: operation sets all the bits in a register to 1. This is
used to initialize a register.
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Shift Micro-operationName of Institution
Shift micro-operations are used for serial transfer of data.
It can be combined with arithmetic and logic operations for
efficient data processing.
There are three main types of shift micro-operations:
1. Logical Shift
2. Circular Shift
3. Arithmetic Shift
It is used in situations where rotation of bits is required, such as
in encryption algorithms.
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
There are two main types of logical shift micro-operations:
1. Logical Left Shift
• Before Shift: 01010011 (83 in decimal)
• After Logical Shift Left: 10100110 (166 in decimal)
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
There are two main types of logical shift micro-operations:
2. Logical Right Shift
• Before Shift: 01010011 (83 in decimal)
• After Logical Shift Right: 00101001 (41 in decimal)
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
Circular Shift
1. Circular Left Shift
2. Circular Right Shift
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
Arithmetic Shift microoperation:
Shifts a signed binary no.: to left or to right position.
➢ For shift left the content of the register is multiplied by 2.
➢ For shift right the content of the register is divided by 2.
➢ The arithmetic shift must leave the sign bit unchanged.
Arithmetic Shift is of two types:
1. Arithmetic Left Shift
2. Arithmetic Right Shift
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
1. Arithmetic Left Shift: Every bit gets shifted towards left.
The left most bit (MSB) represents the sign hence it doesn't
participate in shifting process.
Before Shift: 14 10
After Shift: 011100 2 = 28 10
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
Before Shift: −14 10
Now, we will calculate 2'S complement of (-14) and then shift it.
After Shift: 100100 2 is in 2′ s complement and equal to
−28 10
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
2. Arithmetic Right Shift: Every bit gets shifted towards right.
The right most bit (LSB) gets lost and the sign bit is copied to
the MSB-1 position..
Before Shift: 13 10
After Shift: 000110 2 = 6 10 or {13/2}
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Shift Microoperation Name of Institution
Before Shift: −13 10
Now, we will calculate 2'S complement of (+13) and then
shift it.
After Shift: 111001 2 is in 2′ s complement and equal to
−7 10 49
Arithmetic Logic Shift Microoperation
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Instead of having individual registers performing the
microoperations directly, computer systems employ a number
of storage registers connected to a common operational unit
called an arithmetic logic unit, abbreviated ALU.
To perform a microoperation, the contents of specified
registers are placed in the inputs of the common ALU.
The ALU performs an operation and the result of the
operation is then transferred to a destination register.
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Arithmetic Logic Shift Microoperation
Name of Institution
The ALU is a combinational circuit so that the entire register
transfer operation from the source registers through the ALU
and into the destination register can be performed during one
clock pulse period.
The shift microoperations are often performed in a separate
unit, but sometimes the shift unit is made part of the ALU.
The arithmetic, logic, and shift circuits can be combined into
one ALU with common selection variables.
One stage of an arithmetic logic shift unit (ALU) is shown in
Fig. (next slide).
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Arithmetic Logic Shift Microoperation
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Arithmetic Logic Shift Microoperation
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Arithmetic Logic Shift Microoperation
Name of Institution
The previous table shows 14 operations of ALU(Arithmetic
Logical Unit).
[Link] first eight are arithmetic operations( where S3S2=0).
[Link] next four operations are logical and are selected with
S3S2=01.
[Link] final two operations are shift operations, selected with
S3S2=10 and 11.
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Thank You!
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