Syllabus

Storage Systems: Energy Storage Parameters-Lead–Acid Batteries-Ultra Capacitors-Flywheels –

Superconducting Magnetic Storage System-Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage - Compressed
Air Energy Storage - Storage Heat -Energy Storage as an Economic Resource.

Storage Systems:
Electrical energy storage has long been considered a critical technology. At the beginning of the twentieth
century, electrochemical batteries were used to power telephones and telegraphs, and enormous, heavy
flywheels were common in rotating generators to smooth out load oscillations. Electric vehicles were
more common than gasoline-powered vehicles. Batteries were important in such transportation applications
because they could store energy to give reasonable transportation autonomy to vehicles. Even longer ago,
water dams were used to store potential energy. Today, energy storage systems play the important role
of unifying, distributing, and augmenting the capabilities of alternative and renewable energy-distributed
generating systems.
Devices that store different forms of energy in a safe, efficient and convenient manner to utilize that
energy when required are called as energy storage systems. They are used in different forms such as
batteries for electric vehicles, flywheels in rotating generators to stabilize load fluctuations, dams for storing
potential energy of water etc. Now-a days, energy storage systems are increasingly being used in alternative
and renewable energy— distributed generating (DG) systems. For enhancing their capabilities. The
distributed generation (DG) gets affected by the fluctuations of individual loads unlike large generators
which are not affected by load changes due to the averaging effect. The distributed generation (DG) gets
affected by the fluctuations of individual Loads unlike large generators which are not affected by load
changes due to the averaging effect.
Energy storage has three ways to enhance DG.

 Firstly, it allows DG to operate at a constant and stable output regardless of load fluctuations and
maintenance services.
 Secondly, it supplies energy during intermittent primary energy sources like solar, wind and hydel
power sources.
 Thirdly, it allows DG to run seamlessly as a dispatchable unit.
Energy storage systems may be designed for rapid damping of peak-loads in electricity- demand, for
compensating momentary power disturbances, for supplying power for a few seconds during power failure
till back-up generators start or for storing energy to fulfill future demand. They can be used along with fuel
cell or diesel generator to enhance its efficiency by storing excess energy during normal load and supplying
it during temporary peaks of demand higher than rated generating capacity. The energy storage in microgrid
system also supports voltage capacity by means of reactive power control mechanisms.

Some of the energy storage systems are

1. Lead-acid batteries
2. Advanced batteries
3. Low and high energy flywheels
4. Ultra-capacitors
5. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems
6. Pumped hydroelectric energy storage (HMS) system
7. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) system
8. Thermal energy storage.
ENERGY STORAGE PARAMETERS

Energy storage for DG can be compared by parameters that define performance criteria. These
parameters are capacity, specific energy, energy density, specific power, efficiency, recharge rate,
self-discharge, lifetime, capital cost, and operating cost.
Capacity: The available energy storage capability. The SI unit of capacity is the joule, but this is
a very small unit. Usually, the watthour (i.e., the energy equivalent of working at a power of 1W
for 1 hour, or 3600 J) is used instead.
Specific energy: The electrical energy stored per mass, in units of Wh/kg. Specific energy is
ordinarily used when the energy capacity of a battery needed in a certain system is known; it is
then divided by the specific energy to give an approximation of battery mass.
Specific power: The amount of power obtained per kilogram of a storage system in W/kg. It is a
very sensitive parameter because several storage systems cannot operate at this maximum power
for long, so they may affect lifetime or operate very inefficiently.
Energy density: A measure of energy stored per volume in Wh/m3. It can be used to give an
approximation of the energy storage volume for a given application.
Electrical efficiency: the percentage of power put into a unit that is available to be withdrawn; an
important parameter for DG applications. It is measured by the energy capable of being converted
into work. A unit with 90% efficiency returns 9 kWh of energy for every 10 kWh put into storage.
Recharge rate: The rate at which power can be pushed for storage. A storage system might take
10 hours to deplete but 14 hours to refill.
Self-discharge: Indicates how long storage system takes to discharge when unused. This is usually
due to current leakage and heat dissipation.
Lifetime: The service life of a unit, which varies with technology and intensity of use, e.g.,
batteries are noted for having short lifetimes in applications in which they are repeatedly charged
and discharged completely.
Capital cost: The initial cost in dollars per kilowatt for design, specification, civil works, and
installation.
Operating cost: The costs in dollars per kilo watthour for periodic inspection, fueling,
maintenance, parts (bearings and seals) replacement, recalibration, and so on.
Charge/discharge cycle: The number of times the storage system can be loaded and unloaded
without altering significantly its storing capabilities

LEAD-ACID BATTERY

A single cell of 2.12 to 2.15 V is the basic building block of a lead-acid battery. During insufficient
power supply from renewable energy resources, power is supplied by each battery unit. These
battery units are connected in series to get a 12-, 24- 48V strings, which are then connected together
in parallel to form a battery bank. The battery bank supplies DC power to an inverter which
converts it to AC power, for running appliances. The inverter input, battery type and the required
energy storages determine battery bank voltage and current ratings.
• There are mainly two types of lead-acid batteries. They are
1. Flooded lead-acid battery
2. Maintenance-free lead -acid battery
A lead-Acid battery Consists of a cathode made of lead (Pb) and an anode made of lead dioxide
(Pb02) immersed in sulphuric acid electrolyte.
The main active materials required to construct a lead acid battery are
 Lead peroxide (anode)(PbO2).
 Sponge lead (cathod) (Pb)
 Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Discharge
At cathode: Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO2-4 forms insoluble
PbSO4

At anode: PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which further combines withSO2-4 forms insoluble
PbSO4
From the above cell reactions it is clear that, PbSO 4 is precipitated at both the electrodes and
H2SO4 is used up. As a result, the concentration of H2SO4 decreases and hence the density of
H2SO4 falls below 1.2 gm/ml. So the battery needs recharging

Charging
The cell can be charged by passing electric current in the opposite direction. The electrode
reaction gets reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO2 on the cathode. The
density of H2SO4 also increases.

The charging of the battery is achieved by applying an external voltage at battery terminals, greater
than the voltage produced by the reactions at anode and cathode. This results in the flow of current
into the anode unlike during discharge, where it flows out of anode. The chemical processes are
reversed 'and sulphate ions are released into the solution thereby, increasing, the concentration of
sulphuric acid in the electrolyte.
Advantages of lead-acid batteries
(i) It is made easily.
(ii) It produces very high current.
(iii) The self-discharging rate is low when compared to other rechargeable batteries.
(iv) It also acts effectively at low temperature.
Disadvantages of lead-acid batteries
(i) Recycling of this battery causes environmental hazards.
(ii) Mechanical strain and normal bumping reduces battery capacity.
Uses
1. Lead storage cell is used to supply current mainly in automobiles such as cars, buses, trucks,
etc.
2. It is also used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals, power stations, etc.

Ultra-Capacitor
An Ordinary capacitor is a device which stores electrical energy in the form of an electrical charge
producing a potential difference (static voltage) across its plates, Ordinary capacitors store energy
in the dielectric material and its value is given by,

A supercapacitor works by storing electrical energy. It stores electrical energy between two
electrostatic double layers created by forming thin charge layers on the interface of the electrolyte-
electrode. To understand the working principle of a supercapacitor, you must know that a
capacitor’s capacitance value is always proportional to its conduction plates’ surface area. The
capacitance value in the case of supercapacitors is very high. Hence, it stores a high charge value.
Also, the capacitance magnitude is inversely proportional to the distance between plates. This
distance is significantly shorter in supercapacitors, leading to high capacitance magnitude.
Supercapacitors have their metal plates covered with porous material or nanomaterial in the form
of typical carbon or activated charcoal. Static electricity is used in these capacitors to store energy.
These capacitors produce positive and negative charge ions between the two plates in the
electrolyte solution. This is because in the presence of a voltage supply, one plate develops a
positive charge, and the other develops a negative charge. As a result, the negative ions get
attracted to the positively charged plate, and the positive ions get attracted to the negatively
charged plate. It eventually leads to a thin coating of ions deposited on the inner surface of the
plates.
The deposition of ions on the plated results in the production of an electrostatic double layer. This
layer is similar to the one connecting capacitors in series. The distance between both these
capacitors is very thin. As a result, each charge possesses high capacitance, and the area of
electrodes is high.
Advantages
 Long cycle life:
 Rapid charging/discharging:
 High power density:
 Wide operating temperature:
 Environmentally friendly:
.
Disadvantages
 Low energy density:
 High self-discharge rate:
 Low voltage per cell:
 Not suitable for AC circuits:
.
Application of Supercapacitor
 Electric vehicles
 Windmills
 Flywheel in machines
 MP3 players
 Camera flash
 Automotive industry regenerative braking
 Industrial electrical motors and static memory (SRAM)s

Flywheel energy storage system

A flywheel energy storage system is a mechanical device used to store energy through rotational
motion. When excess electricity is available, it is used to accelerate a flywheel to a very high speed.
The energy is stored as kinetic energy and can be retrieved by slowing down the flywheel,
converting the motion back into electricity.
For a flywheel, kinetic energy is calculated as for a spinning object, as
E = ½Iω2
I is the moment of inertia, which depends on the actual mass and the location of that mass from
the spinning center – the farther out it is the higher the moment of inertia becomes. ω is the angular
velocity of the flywheel.
Flywheel energy storage systems contain rotors which are made of carbon fiber materials made
with high strength properties, which are suspended using magnetic bearings, and rotating at speeds
ranging between 20,000 and over 50,000 rpm in the vacuum enclosure. The advantage of such
systems is that they can reach their speed very quickly – thus reaching their energy storage capacity
much more quickly than some other forms of storage

Construction

The main components of a flywheel are a high-speed permanent magnet motor/generator, fully
active magnetic bearings, and rotor assembly
1. A high-speed permanent magnet motor/generator incorporates specialized rare earth
magnets to minimize rotor heating and maximize efficiency and reliability, allowing flywheel
systems to cycle quickly without overheating. This facilitates use in demanding applications with
high cycling and long-life requirements. The flywheel's rotor assembly operates in a vacuum
provided by an external vacuum pump. By removing air from the rotating area of the motor, all
windage losses from the system are eliminated, thereby increasing electrical efficiency.
2. The flywheel incorporates a steel mass for storage. Because steel is a well-understood, well-
supported material, it avoids the technology risks associated with other materials such as
composites that may offer higher energy densities but with greater risks of temperature changes
and creep that can cause unbalanced loads and degrade operation over time.
A magnetic bearing/levitation system allows the motor rotor assembly to rotate at very high
speeds with no physical contact with stationary components, optimizing efficiency and product
life. Magnetic bearings virtually eliminate the need for maintenance as there are no contact points
within the flywheel – no bearings to replace or repack with lubricant.
Working Principle

Energy Absorption: When there’s surplus electricity, such as when the grid is overproducing
energy, the system uses that excess power to accelerate the flywheel. This energy is stored as
kinetic energy, much like how the figure skater speeds up their spin by pulling in their arms.
Energy Storage: The flywheel continues to spin at high speed, maintaining energy as long as
friction and resistance are minimized. The longer it spins, the more energy it holds, similar to how
the skater retains rotational energy as they keep spinning.
Energy Release: When the system needs power—such as during a peak demand or grid
fluctuation—the flywheel’s rotation is slowed down. The process of decelerating the flywheel
converts the stored kinetic energy back into electricity, which can be fed into the grid or used by
other devices. This process works much like the figure skater releasing their arms to slow down,
transferring that energy into a new motion.
Advantages
 Fast response
 Long cycle life
 High efficiency
 Environmental benefits
 No depth-of-discharge effects.
 Wide operating temperature

Disadvantages
 Low energy density
 High cost
 Potential for catastrophic failure
 High standing losses
 Mechanical and system complexity

Applications
Power grid and renewable energy
 Grid stabilization
 Frequency regulation
 Renewable energy integration
 Transportation
 Hybrid propulsion
 Motorsports
 EV fast-charging

Other applications
 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
 Spacecraft
 Launch systems
 Manufacturing and industrial

Superconducting Magnetic Storage System

Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) stores energy in the form of magnetic fields
within a coil. The system uses superconducting materials to convert the input energy into magnetic
fields.
A superconductor is a material whose resistance is zero, when it is cooled to a very low
temperature, known as a cryogenic temperature. In a superconducting magnetic energy storage
(SMES) system, an inductor wound with superconducting wire, such as niobium–titanium, is used
to create a dc magnetic field.
The current-carrying capacity of the wire is dependent on temperature and the local magnetic field.
A cryogenic system keeps the operating temperature such that the wire becomes a superconductor.
The critical temperature is the point at which the electrical resistance drops dramatically. For all
superconductors, this used to be nearly 4 K using liquid helium.
After the 1980s, new superconductors made of copper oxide ceramic became available. They
only have to be chilled to around 100 K, using liquid nitrogen or special refrigerators. These
newer materials are classified as high-temperature superconductors. Low-temperature
superconductors must be cooled to around 260C.
Some research has been conducted in the use of the cable-in-conduit conductor concept. In this
design a superconducting cable is placed inside a conduit (or jacket) filled with helium. The
conductor is not only the main electrical path but also the helium containment element. This
combination of functions allows for more flexibility, with the potential for simplification and lower
cost.
Working principle

Energy storage: Electrical energy is converted to a direct current (DC) and sent to a large
superconducting coil, where it creates a stable magnetic field. Superconductivity: The coil is kept
at a very low temperature using a cryogenic system to ensure it is superconducting, meaning it has
zero resistance. This allows the current to flow continuously with no energy loss as heat.
Charging: During the charging phase, the power conversion system applies a positive voltage to
increase the current and build up the magnetic field, storing energy. The energy is stored in the
magnetic field according to the formula

Discharging: When energy is needed, the power conversion system reverses the voltage to a
negative value, causing the current to flow out of the coil and into the grid. The coil's stored
magnetic energy is converted back into electrical energy.
AC/DC conversion: The power conversion system acts as the interface between the DC coil and
the alternating current (AC) power grid, converting power back and forth as needed.

Advantages
 Rapid response time
 High efficiency
 Long cycle life
 High power density
 Reliability

Disadvantages
 High cost
 Cooling system requirements
 Limited energy density
 Short storage duration
 Strong magnetic field
 Scalability limits

Applications
Power grid and control systems
 Grid stabilization
 Power quality
 Load leveling
 FACTS devices
Renewable energy integration
 Mitigating output fluctuations
 High-power and specialized applications
  Pulsed power
 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
 Electric vehicle charging
 Research and development

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a method of storing energy by using excess electricity
to compress and store air in underground caverns, such as salt mines. During times of high
electricity demand, the stored compressed air is released to drive turbines, which generate
electricity. This technology allows for large-scale, long-duration storage that can help integrate
renewable energy sources by storing their excess power.
Charging/Storing:
During periods of low energy demand, or when there is excess renewable energy, a CAES plant
uses electricity to compress air and store it underground.
Discharging/Generating:
When electricity is needed, the stored compressed air is released. It passes through a turbine, which
spins a generator to produce electricity.
Components during the storage phase
Motor/Generator: This unit functions as an electric motor to power the compressor during the
storage phase.
Multi-stage air compressors: These devices take in ambient air and increase its pressure.
Intercoolers and aftercoolers: These are heat exchangers that cool the air between compression
stages, which reduces the power needed for compression and the required storage volume.
Storage vessel: This is where the compressed air is stored. It can be an underground cavern (in
salt, rock, or depleted gas fields), a porous rock formation, or an aboveground tank. It may be a
human-made rock cavern, salt cavern or porous rock created by water - bearing auriferous or as a
result of oil and gas extraction. Aquifers are least expensive and most commonly used as a storage
facility. In aquifers, compressed air is stored by displacing the water, resulting in a constant -
pressure storage system. Generally, compressed air is mixed with a fuel like natural gas to be
burned together conventional turbine plant, because of higher efficiency.
Control system: Manages the process of charging and discharging the system.
Expander train: This is a series of turbines that expand the compressed air to drive them. In
conventional systems, it consists of high- and low-pressure expanders with combustors between
stages.
Combustors/Burners: In diabatic systems, a fuel like natural gas is burned to heat the air before
it enters the expander, adding energy for more efficient power generation.
Gas turbine: The expander/turbine system drives the generator to produce electricity.
Generator/Motor: The same unit used as a motor in the charging phase now acts as a generator
to produce electricity.
Heat exchangers/Recuperator: In advanced systems (adiabatic), heat exchangers are used to
recover heat from the compression phase and reuse it for the expansion phase, eliminating the need
for a combustor
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) works by storing excess electricity to compress air and
store it in an underground reservoir. When electricity is needed, the pressurized air is released,
mixed with fuel (in a diabatic system), combusted, and expanded through a turbine connected to a
generator to produce electricity. The process effectively converts electrical energy into potential
energy and back.
Working Principle
Charging (Storing Energy)
During off-peak hours when electricity is abundant, a compressor uses that electricity to compress
air. This is often done in stages with intercoolers to manage temperature. The compressed air is
then stored in an underground cavern (such as a salt cavern), a depleted gas field, or a man-made
tank.
Discharging (Generating Electricity)
When demand for electricity is high, the stored, pressurized air is released. The air is sent to a
combustion chamber, where it is mixed with natural gas and ignited.
The resulting hot, high-pressure gas expands through a turbine. The turbine spins, driving a
generator that produces electricity. In some systems, a recuperator captures waste heat from the
exhaust to preheat the air before combustion, which improves efficiency.

Advantages
 Large Energy Capacity:
 Long Storage Duration:
  Low Operating Cost:
 Supports Renewable Energy:
 Fast Response Time:
 Durability:
 Relatively Low Capital Cost
 Environmentally Friendly (with renewable)
Disadvantages
 Low Round-Trip Efficiency (Traditional CAES):
 Site-Specific Requirements:
 High Initial Cost
 Heat Loss Challenges:
 Potential Environmental Impact:
 Complex System Design:
 Geological Dependency
Applications of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Systems
 Grid Energy Storage
 Renewable Energy Integration
 Backup Power Systems
 Industrial Energy Management
 Remote and Off-Grid Power
 Transportation Sector (Emerging)
 Microgrids and Smart Grids
 Emergency Power Supply

Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage

Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS) systems use two reservoirs at different elevations to store
energy. During times of low electricity demand, excess power is used to pump water from the
lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. During peak demand, the water flows back down through
reversible turbines, which generate electricity and can switch modes to pump water up again.
Construction
Two reservoirs: An upper and a lower reservoir, either natural or man-made, are the core
components.
Powerhouse: A facility is built between the reservoirs containing reversible pump-turbines and
generators.
Waterways: Pipelines or penstocks connect the two reservoirs, allowing water to flow between
them.
Reversible pump-turbines: These are the most critical components, capable of acting as both a
turbine to spin a generator and a pump to move water uphill.
Closed loop systems: The same water is reused repeatedly between the two reservoirs, cycling
over time to store and release energy, similar to a large rechargeable battery.
 Working principle
1. Pumping (charging):
During off-peak hours (low demand or high renewable output), electricity is used to power the
reversible pump-turbines. The turbines function as pumps, using electricity to move water from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. The energy is stored as gravitational potential energy in
the elevated water.
2. Generating (discharging):
During peak demand, the system switches to generating mode. Water is released from the upper
reservoir, flowing down through the penstock. The falling water spins the pump-turbines, which
now act as turbines, driving the generators to produce electricity. The electricity is fed into the grid
to meet demand

Advantages
 High efficiency
 Large-scale storage
 Grid flexibility and stabilization
 Support for renewables
 Energy resilience and black-start capability
 Long service life
 Environmental benefits
Disadvantages
 High capital costs
 Geographical limitations
 Environmental impacts
 Long lead times
  Energy losses
Applications
 Utility-scale energy storage
 Grid stabilization
 Integration of renewables
 Peak power supply

Storage Heat

Storage heat, or thermal energy storage, is the process of capturing and storing heat for later
use. This can be done by raising the temperature of a material (sensible heat storage) or through a
phase change, like melting and freezing (latent heat storage). This technology helps balance energy
supply and demand, especially for renewable sources like solar and wind, by storing excess energy
and releasing it when needed.

How it works
 Sensible heat storage:
Energy is stored by increasing the temperature of a medium, such as water, rock, concrete, or
molten salts. The amount of heat stored depends on the material's specific heat capacity and
mass. When the heat is needed, the medium is cooled down, and the temperature change is used
to perform work.
 Latent heat storage:
Energy is stored in a material by utilizing its phase change, such as a solid melting into a liquid,
without a change in temperature. This process uses phase change materials (PCMs) and can store
more energy in a smaller volume compared to sensible heat storage. When the heat is needed, the
PCM is solidified to release the stored energy.
Applications
 Power generation:
Storing heat from solar thermal power plants to generate electricity when the sun isn't shining.
 Residential and commercial buildings:
Using systems like hot water tanks or automatic storage heaters to heat homes and businesses,
often utilizing lower electricity rates during off-peak hours.
 Industrial processes:
Providing heat for industrial applications, such as generating steam for turbines and generators.
 District heating:
Supplying heat to a community from a central storage facility.
 Balancing energy grids:
Storing excess energy from renewable sources during periods of high production and releasing it
during peak demand
Energy Storage as an Economic Resource.
The assessment of any renewable energy project is done based on socio-economic variables. After
the selection of alternative energy source and corresponding topology, whether grid-connected or
stand-alone, the next important decision is the selection of the storage system as it has an overall
impact on the project. For this selection, several things like employment, value-added and imports
are considered. PHES, CAES and SMES systems heavily affect the surroundings and also require
skilled human resources for their operation. In developing countries, biomass creates important
jobs, reduce atmospheric and water pollution, and retain a portion of society in rural area.
Generally, material required for building renewable energy plants is imported from third countries
efficient energy supply is a complex task which depends on import of goods, seasonal and irregular
differences in energy supply and use, and daily fluctuations in consumption. For this, it requires
advanced and efficient management of energy resources and conversion, or energy distribution
and resource intermittence, subsequently, energy storage plays an important role in balancing daily
fluctuations and seasonal differences of energy resource availability resulting from physical,
economical or geopolitical constraints. The optimized storage scheduling required for this is
determined by an efficient energy management system that aims
at optimizing generation in accordance with forecasting of the renewable energy sources and
optimizing demand of controllable and switchable loads in accordance with demand forecasts.
This can be shown in a block diagram as follows.

The function of optimization isto minimize the Operating costs with DG and maximize the energy
output. While optimizing the fixed costs are excluded as they are not influenced by the power
dispatch. The goal function or objective function of optimization or cost function consists of.

1. Cost of generation (CG) by non-renewable sources and storages.

2. Grid cost (Cgird)
3. Penalty cost (Cp)
Total cost, C=(CG) +(Cgird) + (Cp).
The functional and physical limits of the problem constrain the cost minimization process. First,
there must be sufficient energy supply from generation or grid to meet the home load. Storage size
constrains the maximum storage capacity. The energy supply from the generation is limited to its
availability at that time, particularly in case of renewable sources. The energy transfer to and from
the grid is limited by the electrical service rating to the households. These constraints can be given
by the following equation

The cost function for objective function, i.e. equation (1) and constraint equation i.e. equation (2)
to (6), provide the basis for finding an optimal solution. The operating region is confined to a N-
dimensional hyperspace, by the constraints equation, within the hyperspace associated cost of each
point is obtained in accordance with equation (1). According to the constraints in equation (3), the
storage level at the end of ‘N” periods must be equal to the starting storage because of the necessity
of giving the limits to the entire sequence of storage state. While constraints in equation (3) to(6)
given limits on magnitude of energy in any given period, the constraint in equation (2) gives a
limit to the entire problem over N periods. the constraint is in terms only storage due to reason
that the energy balance equation is expressed in terms of storage state