CHAPTER

Design Step 2: Generation

of Alternative Concepts
24

24.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the problem statement is in place and the specifications have been listed, it is
time to generate alternative concepts. By concept, we mean an idea as opposed to a
detailed design. The representation of the concept, usually in the form of a sketch,
contains enough information to understand how the concept works but not enough
information to build it. By alternative, we require that the various proposed ideas

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510 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

must be fundamentally different in some way. The differences must go beyond

appearance or dimensions. The usual rule of thumb in design courses is to generate
at least three fundamentally different concepts.
In this chapter, four aspects of concept generation are discussed: brainstorming,
concept sketching, research-­based strategies, and functional decomposition.

24.2 BRAINSTORMING
The most common approach for generating ideas is by brainstorming. As the term
implies, you rely on your own creativity and memory of past experiences to produce
ideas. Usually, team members generate ideas on their own before meeting with the
team for a brainstorming session.
Brainstorming is based on one crucial rule: Criticism of ideas is not allowed.
This enables each team member to put forth ideas without fear of immediate
rejection. For example, a professor once recorded the brainstorming session of
a small team of students. At one point, a student offered an idea, and another
student referred to it as “stupid.” The voice of the first student was never heard
from again during the session. Instead of a team of four, it had become a team
of three.
It is important to devote some of the brainstorming time searching for bold,
unconventional ideas. In the case of a design competition, this could mean searching
for holes in the rules that could lead to ideas that the creators of the competition had
not anticipated.
The procedure for brainstorming may be summarized as follows:
  
1. Select one team member to serve as the facilitator, who records the ideas while
enforcing the rules of brainstorming
2. Do a warm-up exercise (e.g. brainstorm 20 uses for an unfamiliar object).
3. Formulate a clear statement of the brainstorming objective and write it on the
board.
4. Specify the number of ideas to be generated and establish an aggressive time
limit (e.g. 20 ideas in 10 minutes).
5. As ideas are generated, the facilitator writes them on the board in the form of
an enumerated list. When needed, clarifying sketches can be added to the verbal
description.
6. If the flow of ideas stalls, it is then the job of the facilitator to restore momen-
tum by steering thoughts in a new direction.
7. Document the results.
  
Only when brainstorming is complete should the team eliminate concepts that
are not feasible, not legal, or not fundamentally different. After this weeding-­out
process, at least three concepts should remain. If not, more brainstorming is in order.
Example 24.1 illustrates this final step of weeding out concepts.
 24.2 Brainstorming 511

EXAMPLE 24.1
Assuming the alternative concepts in Fig. 24.2 are generated as part of an effort to design a new bat
for Major League Baseball, which concepts should be eliminated because they are not feasible, not
legal, or not fundamentally different?
Solution:
A is a standard bat to which the new concepts is to be compared.
Not feasible: E because it stands no chance of being competitive; I because it is too difficult
to find in nature.
Not legal: F, G, H, and J.
Not fundamentally different from each other: C and D because the basic shape is the same;
only the dimensions differ. Therefore, the condensed list of viable alternatives consists of concepts
B and C.

24.2.1 MIND MAPPING
An effective way for an individual to brainstorm is to write the problem you are try-
ing to solve on a piece of paper and draw a circle around it. Then draw lines out from
this circle and label each line with a way to solve the problem. This process is called
mind mapping.
Mind mapping is an effective way of getting information in and out of your brain. It
is a creative and logical means of sketching that literally “maps out” your ideas. They
have a structure that radiates from the center of a page and use lines, symbols, words,
color, and simple, brain-­friendly images. Mind mapping converts a list of information
into an organized diagram that works in line with your brain’s natural way of doing
things.
One simple way to understand a mind map is by comparing it to a map of a
city. The problem to be solved is in the center of the city and the main streets
leading from the center represent your key thoughts and ideas for a solution.
The secondary streets represent your secondary thoughts, and so on, as shown
in Fig. 24.1. Special images or shapes can represent landmarks of interest or
particularly relevant ideas.
The essential characteristics of mind mapping are
  
• The main idea or problem is in the center.
• The main themes radiate from the center as ‘branches’.
• Each branch contains a key word drawn or printed on it line.
• Topics of lesser importance are represented as “twigs” of a branch.
• The branches form a connected nodal structure.
512 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

Loss of Client Software?

Faith

Cause

Security
Impact
Change

Problem

Solution
Prevention

Change
Control Limit Admin Damage
Password Use Control

Knowledge
Sharing

FIGURE 24.1
A simple mind map.

24.2.2 IDEATION
Ideation is a creative method of generating, developing, and communicating new
ideas. It can be thought of as a form of “structured brainstorming.” The Ideation
Process is a systematic sequence of actions (versus brainstorming) that have
  
• Clearly defined event goals (Why are we doing this?),
• Measurable event objectives (What will we walk away with?),
• Specific event inputs and outputs (Document deliverables),
• “Standard” process actions, inputs, and outputs are adaptable to accommodate
different or changing event goals and objectives.
  
If you’ve ever tried to do anything creative, you know that one of the hardest
things to do is to begin. Without structure, it is easy to stall after one or two ideas or
simply stare at a blank page. One way of drawing ideas out of the brain is to ask ques-
tions. For example, if you are designing a container for an egg that will withstand
being dropped 20 feet to the ground without breaking, you might ask:
  
1. How big can the container be?
2. What container shapes are good at absorbing impact?
3. How fast will the contained be traveling at impact?
4. What other technologies are designed to minimize impact?
  
 24.3 Concept Sketching 513

A Standard baseball bat

B Excavated cone

G Albert Belle’s idea

Cork Cap with wood filler

H Graig Nettles’ idea

Super balls Cap with wood filler

I From a tree with

natural growth cavity

Disrupts laminar air

J
flow; reduces drag
Dimples

FIGURE 24.2
Alternative concepts for a major league baseball bat.

Just imagine ideation as a funnel. Insights, views, opinions, data, trends, and
knowledge are captured at the top. They are filtered in the middle, and the good
stuff—new ideas—come out the bottom.

24.3 CONCEPT SKETCHING
For an idea to be considered a feasible alternative concept, it must be represented
in the form of a conceptual sketch. The goal in producing a concept drawing is to
convey what the design is and how it works in the clearest possible terms. Any lack
of clarity, such as failure to represent one of the subfunctions, translates into doubts
about the feasibility of the concept when it comes time to evaluate it.
514 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

At the same time, however, this is not a detailed design drawing. Dimensions and
other details not relevant to understanding the basic nature of how the concept will
work are left out.
It is best to proceed through two phases when generating a concept drawing.
First, in the creative phase, hand-­sketching is done freestyle and quickly, without
regard for neatness or visual clarity. A few simple lines, incomprehensible to others,
might be enough to remind you of your idea. Sketching is a means for both storing
ideas and brainstorming others. The final outcome is a rough sketch of the concept.
Second, in the documentation phase, the concept is neatly redrawn and labeled to
facilitate communication with team members and project sponsors.
The final outcome is one or more sketches prepared with the following guidelines
in mind:
  
• Can be hand-­sketched or computer generated.
• No dimensions. Remember, this is not a detailed drawing.
• Label parts and main features. If the drawing is hand-­sketched, handwritten
labeling is acceptable.
• Provide multiple views and close-­up views if needed to describe how the design
works.
  
The choice of views is up to you. Isometric views, like those shown in Figs. 24.3
and 24.4, convey a lot of information in a single picture. Most mechanisms can be
described effectively using one or more two-­dimensional views, as in Fig. 24.5.

OFFENSIVE CANNON
TARGET

minimum ALLOWABLE
HEIGHT FOR TARGET

SUB-SURFACE
RETRIEVAL
Hull containing
All propulsion
components

SEALED COVER PLACED

SURFACE RETRIEVAL OVER ALL ADDITIONAL
components (i.e. RC
recievers, wiring, etc).

* NOTE: CHAROLETTES NET WILL BE

Placed all around catamaran.

FIGURE 24.3
Concept drawing of a radio controlled (RC) boat for a design competition (hand-­drawn
isometric).
 24.3 Concept Sketching 515

Blimp

Servos

For/Rev Switch

Propeller (Typ)

Release
Mechanism
Platform
Wire Hook
Sticky Tape
(Underneath)

FIGURE 24.4
Concept drawing of a radio-­controlled blimp (computer-­generated isometric).

SIDE VIEW REAR VIEW

HELICOPTER

REDUNDANT DISCONNECT SYSTEM ANTI TORQUE

INTERFACE BAR
SINGLE ATTACHMENT POINT
ANTI TORQUE BAR

TOW LINE
TOW LINE TOW LINE

BAR BAR

EXPLODER STEEL CHAIN

GROUND

FIGURE 24.5
Concept drawing of an antipersonnel mine clearing system (two hand-­drawn views).
516 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

Despite their apparent informality, the quality of these drawings is crucial to fairly
representing the designs during the evaluation process. In some cases, they are the
only source of evidence for judging if a design is likely to work.

24.4 HANDS-­ON DESIGN EXERCISE: “THE TUBE”

The design objective is to extract a golf ball from the bottom of a free standing, open-­
ended mailing tube in the shortest possible time.

24.4.1 SETUP
1. P lace a mailing tube vertically on the floor and drop a golf ball into the tube.
2. Have a supply of the following materials: string, duct tape, Scotch tape, 8.5 × 11
standard copier paper, and scissors.

24.4.2 RULES
1. L imited to using the supplied materials.
2. Scissors can be used for manufacturing.
3. Everyone in the group can help in manufacturing, but only one person can
extract the ball.
4. Students are not allowed to handle the materials until it is time to test.
5. Must manufacture the design shown on the concept drawing handed to the instructor.
6. Time limit of 3 minutes to manufacture concept and extract ball.
7. Cannot tip over the tube.
8. Cannot touch the outside of the tube with anything.
9. No forces can be applied to the inside of the tube to hold it vertical; accidental
contact with the inside of the tube is okay as long as the tube does not tip over.
10. Violation of any of the preceding rules will lead to immediate disqualification.

24.4.3 PROCEDURE
1. F irst allow the students 3 minutes to individually brainstorm (encourage them to
draw quick sketches of each of their concepts).
2. Then, divide into teams of four students per team.
3. Allow teams 10 minutes to collect ideas, brainstorm as a team, select their best
concept, and give a sketch of their best concept to the instructor.
4. Instructor should walk around during brainstorming to remind teams to (a)
generate multiple solutions before selecting one and (b) try to involve everyone
in the process.
5. Allow teams 2 minutes to assign responsibilities for manufacture and test.
6. One at a time, give each team three minutes to manufacture a concept and
attempt to extract the golf ball.
7. The team with the shortest retrieval time wins.
 24.6 Functional Decomposition for Complex Systems 517

24.5 RESEARCH-­BASED STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING

CREATIVITY
Some ideas are truly original, but most are drawn from past experience. The follow-
ing strategies help you to look at old designs to generate new ones.

24.5.1 ANALOGIES
One often-­used strategy is to look for analogous design situations in other, unrelated
fields. To do this, first translate the design objective into an overall function that is general
enough to widely apply. For example, you may want to design a system to “climb a verti-
cal wall” or “walk on two legs” or “move efficiently through the water.” Nature is filled
with solutions to these problems (but because of their complexity, biological solutions
usually have to be simplified and adapted before they can be of practical use). If you are
designing a system to “throw an object,” a survey of ancient artillery could spark ideas.

24.5.2 REVERSE ENGINEERING
The basic strategy here is to acquire an existing product that is similar to a design you
have in mind, take it apart, figure out how it works, then either try to improve on it or
adapt some of the ideas to your own design. Toy stores are a great place to search for
small electromechanical devices that can be reverse engineered.

24.5.3 LITERATURE SEARCH
Web-­based search engines are very effective at finding existing design solutions. For
high-­tech applications, you should also search books and technical journals.

24.6 FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION FOR COMPLEX

SYSTEMS
When confronted with a complex problem, it is frequently advantageous to break
it down into smaller, simpler, more manageable parts. In the case of design, those
smaller parts usually correspond to the individual functions (or tasks) that must be
performed to achieve the overall design objective. This approach, known as func-
tional decomposition, is the basis of the procedure described next for generating
concept alternatives.

24.6.1 STEP 1: DECOMPOSE THE DESIGN OBJECTIVE INTO A SERIES

OF FUNCTIONS
Start out by decomposing the overall function into four or five subfunctions. Usually,
verbs such as move, lift, and control are used in naming the functions. Fig. 24.6
518 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

shows the functional decomposition of the remote-­controlled golf machine of ear-

lier examples. It is given in the form of a tree diagram, which is probably the most
common form of representation. If more detail is needed, each subfunction could be
further broken down into its respective subfunctions.

RC Golf Machine

Drive Chip Load Transport

Putt
(Long Shots) (Short Shots) Ball Machine

FIGURE 24.6
Functional decomposition for design of a remote-­controlled golf machine.

It is very important that the functional decomposition be general enough to avoid

biasing the design solution. For example, the separate drive and chip functions in Fig.
24.6 may cause the design team to overlook the possibility of using the same device
to fulfill both functions. If solution bias is unavoidable, introduce multiple functional
decompositions.
When it is not readily apparent what the subfunctions are, it may help to think in
terms of the sequence of tasks that must be performed by the design. The “sequen-
tial” functional decomposition for a design to assist disabled people into and out of a
bathtub is shown in Fig. 24.7.

Transfer from Move Laterally into

Lower into Water
Wheelchair to System Position over Bathtub

FIGURE 24.7
“Sequential” functional decomposition for a design of a system to aid the disabled into and
out of a standard bathtub.

24.6.2 STEP 2: BRAINSTORM ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTS FOR

EACH FUNCTION AND ASSEMBLE THE RESULTS IN A
CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
The classification scheme is a two-­dimensional matrix organized as shown in Table
24.1. The first column lists the functions resulting from the functional decomposi-
tion. The row of boxes next to each function name contains the corresponding design
solutions that have been brainstormed. The design solutions are expressed using a
combination of words and pictures, so be careful to draw the boxes large enough to
accommodate small illustrations.
 24.6 Functional Decomposition for Complex Systems 519

Table 24.1 Organization of the Classification Scheme

Concepts
Functions Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4
Function A A1 A2 A3 A4
Function B B1 B2 B3 B4
Function C C1 C2 C3 C4
Function D D1 D2 D3 D4

24.6.3 STEP 3: COMBINE FUNCTION CONCEPTS TO FORM

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN CONCEPTS
Table 24.2 demonstrates how one subfunction concept from each row of the classifica-
tion scheme is selected to form a total concept. The same subfunction concept can be
used with more than one total concept, though keep in mind that the idea is to generate
fundamentally different design concepts. The only other rule when deciding on the best
combinations is to be sure that the subfunction concepts being combined are compatible.

Table 24.2 Combining of Compatible Subfunction Concepts

Concepts
Functions
Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4

Function A A1 A2 A3 A4

Function B B1 B2 B3 B4
Function C C1 C2 C3 C4

Function D D1 D2 D3 D4

Total Concept I = A1 + B2 + C2 + D1
Total Concept II = A4 + B2 + C4 + D2

24.6.4 STEP 4: SKETCH EACH OF THE MOST PROMISING

COMBINATIONS
This is done in accordance with the rules previously presented for concept drawings.
Remember that you must end up with drawings for at least three fundamentally dif-
ferent design concepts.

EXAMPLE 24.2
Use functional decomposition to generate alternative concepts for a proposed radio-­controlled
blimp, capable of retrieving Nerf balls from an artificial tree and returning them to the blimp base
(see Fig. 23.1 of Chapter 23).
Solution:
The first step is to produce the functional decomposition shown in Fig. 24.8.
520 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

RC Blimp

Move Horizontally Move Up

Float Grab Nerf Ball
and Turn or Down

FIGURE 24.8
Functional decomposition for the design of a remote-­controlled blimp.

Then, concepts were brainstormed for each of the subfunctions, and the results are assembled
in the classification scheme shown in Fig. 24.9.

Concepts
Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4
Functions

Float Hot Air Helium Hydrogen

Move
Horizontally
and Turn
Prop + Rudder Two Props Rotating Turret 2 Props at 90°

Move Up Heat or
or Down Cool Gas
Pivot Props Vertical Props Retract String

Grab
Nerf Ball
Sticky Tape Rake Claw Pin Cushion

FIGURE 24.9
Classification scheme for remote-­controlled blimp.

The total concepts were formed by combining compatible subfunction concepts. The three
promising total concepts are
Total Concept I = Helium + 2 Props + Pivot props + Sticky tape
Total Concept II = Helium + Rotating turret + Vertical prop + Rake
Total Concept III = Helium + Prop with rudder + String + Claw
The final step is to represent each alternative design in the form of a concept drawing. The
concept drawing for Total Concept I is shown in Fig. 24.4.

24.7 DESIGN MILESTONE #2: GENERATION OF ALTERNATIVE

CONCEPTS
This milestone assumes the system to be designed is sufficiently complex (i.e., at
least two subfunctions) to warrant the use of functional decomposition. The follow-
ing assignment is designed for student design competitions.
 Exercises 521

Assignment
  
1. For the functional decomposition of your design project, brainstorm at least
five feasible alternatives for each subfunction and assemble the results in a
classification scheme. Include competition strategy as one of the items to be
brainstormed in the classification scheme. Search the boundaries of the rules for
unusual ideas that could potentially dominate the competition.
2. Form three promising design concepts by combining compatible subfunction
alternatives from your classification scheme. Redraw your concept sketches to
enhance clarity and neatness. The quality of the concept drawing, or lack of it,
can do much to sway opinions when it comes time to judge the concepts.
3. Firm up your three design concepts by sketching them up in the form of
­concept drawings. Functionality (i.e., how it works) should be clearly indicated
in the drawings using labeling and text.
  
Grading Criteria
  
Technical Communication
• Ideas are clearly presented.
• Final concept drawings are neatly rendered.
Technical Content
• All concepts are feasible, legal, and fundamentally different.
• Concepts are presented in sufficient detail.
• Requested number of concepts is generated.

EXERCISES
Brainstorming
Use the technique of individual brainstorming for the problems below.
  
1. Brainstorm by yourself a list of ways you can get to class each day. Don’t be
afraid to include methods that don’t seem currently plausible (e.g., teleporta-
tion) since that may trigger other ideas for you.
2. Brainstorm a list of ways you could use to study for an exam. Include when,
what, where, and how long to study.
3. Brainstorm ways you can get an A in this course.
4. Brainstorm ways you could create world peace.
5. Brainstorm ways you think would reduce global warming.
  
Concept Sketching
  
6. Sketch a bicycle and label all its components (wheels, frame, etc.).
7. Sketch your cell phone and label its operating functions (on/off button, etc.).
8. Sketch your shoe and label all its parts (heel, sole, etc.).
9. Sketch your concept of a space ship and label its components.
10. Sketch a battery powered wheel chair and label all the parts.
  
522 CHAPTER 24 Design Step 2: Generation of Alternative Concepts

Functional Decomposition
  
11. You are designing an electric footstool. It must have an electric heater, move
easily on the floor, and have remotely controlled height. Draw a functional
decomposition diagram like the one shown in Fig. 24.6 for your footstool.
12. You want to design a hot dog stand for a street vendor. Decide what the stand
must be able to do (e.g., heat water, store condiments, buns and wieners, etc.)
and prepare a functional decomposition diagram like the one shown in Fig.
24.6 for your design.
13. Examine the toaster in your home and determine all its components. Then
draw a functional decomposition diagram like the one shown in Fig. 24.6 for
the toaster.
14. Examine a coffee maker at home or in a department store. Then draw a func-
tional decomposition diagram like the one shown in Fig. 24.6 for the coffee
maker.
15. You are to design a small robot that will climb a vertical wall. Determine all
the subfunctions required of the robot and draw a functional decomposition
diagram like the one shown in Fig. 24.6 for the robot.