An Analysis of The Old Man and the Sea in Christian, Universal and Buddhist

Perspectives

Religion and literature share universal senses that touch human mind. The Old Man

and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway, a Pulitzer award and Nobel prize winner, which is full of

Christianity symbols and allusions, is selected to verify this universality, with three specific

purposes which aimed to analyze and draw out: Christian symbols and allusions, universal

senses of life, and Buddhist essence in the novel. The analysis revealed these findings. All

symbols and allusions relate to Christ. The attempt to fight against inevitable destiny that is a

universal and natural order of life touches the mind. The novella implicated two cores of

Buddhist essence: the four noble truths and the eightfold path. It could be concluded that the

line between literature and religion share universality which lies in human mind, regardless of

religious beliefs.

Prior research on The Old Man and the Sea is mostly based on literary and related

perspectives. The study of this novel from religious perspectives is scanty and even scantier

is a study from Buddhist perspectives. The reason for this might be a result of the fact that

this novella is based on Christianity and people believe that it is impossible to cross the line

between the two worlds. In fact, literature and religions come from the same world within our

mind. The thin line between these two worlds is in fact a mirage. Differences among religions

are therefore illusions of reality. One religion might differ from other religions in practices

and details but all religions, at least, share social and individual functions. Socially, they

inculcate social virtues, are agents of socialization and promote social solidarity. Individually,

they provide mental peace and strengthen self-confidence. From social and individual

perspectives, literature shares the same functions as religion. Both literature and religion

come from the world within us and the world within us is universal. The position of this study
is therefore based on the notion that literature and religion share universal senses that lie

within us.

However, it is necessary to specifically verify this in detail. It is generally accepted

that The Old Man and the Sea is a Christianity based novel Numerous Christian symbols are

embedded in all elements of this novella. It, however, reveals essences which are universal

and natural to the human mind, regardless of religious differences. This universal novella,

therefore, lies beyond boundary and this quality encourages subtle interpretation by readers of

other religions to overcome the thin line. The Old Man and the Sea can strengthen the notion

that the lines between literature and religions or among religions are extremely fragile and

easily breakable.

In an attempt to verify this notion that literature and religion share universality which

touches the human mind. This study primarily verified the issue that literature and religion are

universal with three specific purposes which were to draw out: Christian symbols and

allusions, universal senses of life, and Buddhist essences.

This study was a documentary interpretive analysis that integrated literary and

religious approaches. The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway, was chosen as it

serves the primary purpose of the study, which aimed to verify the universality of literature

and religion.

The analysis began with an exploration of Christian symbols and allusions which are

explicitly stated in this novella, then look at implicit universal senses of nature and life, and

finally draw out Buddhist essences in this novella. Then, the results of the analysis were

drawn to conclude the study.

The results of the analysis are presented according to the research questions. What are

Christian symbols and allusions in The Old Man and the Sea? Hemingway purposefully refers
this novella to Jesus Christ explicitly and implicitly. Explicitly, all Christianity symbols and

allusions in this novella are related to Christ. The protagonist, the old man or Santiago, was

depicted as Christ. To illustrate this, the picture in color of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and

another of the Virgin of Cobre on the wall in his house (Hemingway, 1952: 3) relates him to

Christ.

There are so many quotes that purposefully link the old man to Christ. For instance, “I am not

religious,” he said. “But I will say ten Our Fathers and ten Hail Marys that I should catch this

fish, and I promise to make a pilgrimage to the Virgin of Cobre if I catch him. That is a

promise.” (Hemingway, 1952: 17)

Implicitly, Hemingway created a literary device to link the old man to Christ. In

Christianity, Jesus Christ is the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world. According

to Christian theology, Christ sacrificed his life for the greater glory of humankind. Like

Christ, Hemingway had a plan for the old man to be sacrificed for a greater glory. His plan to

identify the old man to Christ was profound. He suggested the profundity of the old man’s

sacrifice and the glory that derives from it by literary devices. He created symbolic parallels

between the old man’s sacrifice and Christ’s. Sacrifice is one of the themes of this novella.

The most noticeably symbolic device refers to Christ’s sacrifice is crucifixion imagery.

In this novella, crucifixion imagery is the most noticeable symbol that reminds readers

of Christ. The crucifixion imagery recurs in several forms, thereby Hemingway purposefully

created the imagery to refer to Christ. Hemingway portrays the old man as Christ by symbolic

parallels which recur several times. For instance, the old man’s struggling up the hill with his

mast across his shoulders brings to mind the image of Christ’s march toward Calvary. Also,

the old man’s palm cuts by his fishing line recall the readers of Christ’s suffering stigmata.

More importantly, Hemingway portrays the old man as a crucified martyr like Christ.
When the sharks arrive, the old man makes a noise similar to that of a man having nails

driven. The position in which the old man collapses on his bed also refers him to Christ. The

old man faces down with his arms out straight and the palms of his hands up remind the

readers of the image of Christ suffering on the cross.

Even in the end, on the very final pages of the novella, Hemingway refers him to the

most subtle and transcendental symbolic parallel to Christ’s sacrifice or death, the glory of the

sacrifice and his resurrection, his greatness through all characters, themes and several

literary devices. All these are closely related and woven meaningfully to convey the greatness

of Christ’s sacrifice for mankind and true greatness of mankind.

The old man’s sleeping and dreams about the lions - the only dreams he has in his life

- recur several times throughout the story convey transcendental messages. The images of the

old man sleeping which occurs again and again throughout the story could not help the

readers think of Christ’s death which is a loss on one hand but a glory on the other because

Christ’s death is sacrifice for mankind in taking away sin from mankind. Like Christ, the old

man’s sleep after the loss of Marlin the fish, the most glorious creature he has ever fished in

lifetime, to sharks is a loss on one hand but glory on the other because the fish proves him as

the greatest fisherman.

In his sleep, he was dreaming about the golden lions the only creatures he has dreamt

about for all his life and these golden lions symbolize his glory. This is a transcendental way

that Hemingway turns loss into glory and defeat into triumph. Similarly, this is also a

transcendental way that Hemingway turns death into life. Like Christ’s resurrection after

death, sleep in this novella symbolically refers to death and the old man’s sleeping and

waking up again and again refers to death and renewed life. This renewed life is referred to by

other literary devices (e.g. the golden lions, the boy and the fish). The golden lions that
always recur in his dreams symbolize his revival. Lions symbolize strength and strength

means life or revival.

Similar to the symbolic lions which recur in his dream, the boy is symbolic in the

same way and is always linked to the lions. The boy’s youth symbolizes strength and strength

means life or revival. More subtly, the boy is always sitting with the old man while he is

sleeping and waiting for him to wake up to give him food so that the old man can live and

fish. The boy as well as his youth which symbolizes strength, therefore, means life or the old

man’s revival.

Like the golden lions which are the symbols of the old man’s glorious past when he was

young and full of physical strength, Hemingway presents the boy as the old man’s glorious

present. The food that the boy gives the old man is not only for life but also for glory.

As a fisherman, the old man is a living legend and the greatest fisherman. Fishing is

the old man’s life and glory. Hemingway presents fishing not as an act of killing but as an act

for living. Unlike other fishermen, the old man does not fish for commercial purpose but for

food. Fishing is therefore the act for living, not that of killing. That is why he gains respect

from the boy who sees him as the greatest fisherman and prefers going fishing with him to

learn from him to going fishing with other fishermen, including his parents. Fishing in this

novella is therefore a glorious act which is done for living. The act of fishing reaches its full

meaning when the old man can prove that he is worth the boy’s greatest respect to him by

fishing the biggest and most beautiful fish that has never been caught by other fishermen. It

was the boy who gave him food to live and gain physical strength which is needed for fishing

a great fish. It was the boy who encouraged him to bring back his glorious past in order to

prove his greatness which he finally did. The boy therefore symbolizes the old man’s present

glory and greatness.

Christ more clearly, the fish that the old man can catch is described as the strongest and most

magnificent creature in the ocean symbolizes the greatness and the old man can catch the

creature when he was extremely weak and very old. Since the very first paragraph of the

novella, the old man was described as an unlucky fisherman who is cursed to be a complete

looser who is waiting for death. Every part of his body is extremely weak, except his eyes

which are full of mental strength driven by his strong determination. This is the way that

Hemingway symbolizes his true human strength that lies in his powerful and determined
mind.

Human mind is true greatness and the boy was invented to symbolize this true strength and

respect to him whom he respects more than anyone, even his parents. By the boy’s respect to

the old man, he becomes a symbol of greatness of human mind.

To illustrate this subtle and transcendental meaning more clearly, Hemingway’s

portrait of the old man as an honorable one who lives a life to follow the true greatness in his

neveryielding heart, symbolized by his never-dying hope, as suggested by the old man code

of conduct that “man can be destroyed but not defeated.” Despite his aging and sickness, he

still hopes that he can catch the strongest and most magnificent fish one day which he

actually does at the end. The greatness of the old man’s heart cannot help bringing the readers

to the greatness of Christ just as the boy who, in a sense, represents mankind by his youth,

looks up to the old man with his greatest respect as the greatest fisherman. The greatness that

lie in these symbols – the golden lions, the boy, the fish, the old man himself – cannot help

the readers to identify the old man with Christ.

These are some illustrations that suggest the transcendental greatness of Christ in this

novella. The transcendental greatness of this novella does not lie only in religious

implications but also in the universal truth of life and nature.

same eternal law is that all men are mortal. For mankind, life is constructive whereas death is

destructive because life ends up with inevitable death. All men try their best to struggle

against death and whatever leads to death. Therefore, for mankind, any struggles against

death are honorable. These struggles in a broader sense are the struggles against nature and

the universal law of nature which eventually end with inevitable defeat or death. But these

destined struggles are honorable for the reason that they transcend destructive defeat or death

to a dignified destiny. These struggles therefore become the greatest honor of mankind. All

men, regardless of races and religions, acknowledge the dignified destiny as the most

valuable goal in life that is worth struggling for.

The Old Man and the Sea reveals this universal sense that all men share. It is a tale of

an old fisherman who struggles against inevitable defeat or death. He refuses to give up at

every turn even though he acknowledges that his fight is useless. The old man’s struggle

against defeat or death touches everyone because all men are subject to this same natural law

of death. He will be eventually destroyed at the end but never defeated. He is therefore

presented as a hero and this heroic quality touches the readers’ mind. Everyone shares the

universal sense that man is born to be destroyed, but not defeated.

This novel repeats this universal sense that man should not be defeated although man

will be eventually destroyed at the end by this natural law of life because it is human

greatness not to be defeated. The old man is exemplified as a model of the struggle. From the

outset of the novella, the old man is characterized as someone struggling against defeat,

symbolizing by the sail of his skiff which looks like “the flag of permanent defeat.”

(Hemingway, 1952: 1)
 He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone

eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him.

But after forty days without a fish the boy’s parents had told him that the old man was now

definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky, and the boy had gone at their

orders in another boat which caught three good fish the first week. It made the boy sad to see

the old man come in each day with his skiff empty and he always went down to help him

carry either the coiled lines or the gaff and harpoon and the sail that was furled around the

mast. The sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent

defeat. (Hemingway, 1952: 1)

In this novel, the portrait of the old man’s defeat is permanent and inevitable like

death. He was considered as the unluckiest fisherman. He is alone and isolated. His only

friend is the boy who is later taken away to another lucky boat by his parents. He is very old

and poor. He can survive by the food from the boy. Even though he has gone eighty-four days

without catching a fish and will soon pass his own record of eighty-seven days, he never

gives up his hopes that he will catch a big fish one day. He never gives up, no matter what

happens to him and this determination eventually leads him to success which turns him from

a permanent defeat to an honorable defeat.

Hemingway purposefully conveys this message in this novella. As the readers

acknowledge that, despite his bad luck or flaw, the old man emerges as a hero. His exhibiting

terrific determination, pride, bravery, strength, and moral codes of conduct are the qualities

that a hero usually possesses. The qualities, especially strong determination, motivate a hero

to greatness. In this novella, the old man’s determination motivates him to greatness. For him,

determination becomes the source of the old man’s greatest strength and he killed the

magnificent and mighty marlin out of determination. His determination and his capture of the
marlin then lead him to his heroic transcendence of defeat. Without a sense of determination

including other heroic qualities, the old man would have abandoned the hope to fight for his

trophy capture of the most magnificent marlin that stands as proof of his dignified destiny.

Also, without a sense of determination, the old man would have been able to transcend defeat,

or in a broader sense destructive death, to a dignified destiny as revealed through the

novella’s code of conduct that man can be destroyed, but not defeated.

The Old Man and the Sea portrays a struggle against life and death which is the

natural order of all living things. Buddhism is a religion that substantially deals with human

suffering which is the true nature of life. In this sense, Buddhism is universal. It is therefore

challenging to explore Buddhist essences implicated in the novella.

Even though The Old Man and the Sea is full of Christian symbols and allusions, a

detailed analysis indicates that there are at least two most essential Buddhist disciplines which

are needed for liberating mankind from human suffering revealed in this novella. They are the

four noble truths and the eightfold path. These two most essential Buddhist disciplines cannot

help remind the readers of the universal quality of this novella which is the essence of

Buddhism as well as described in the details below.

The core of Buddhist essences is human suffering as described in the four noble truths,

consisting of Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, and Magga.

Dukkha or human suffering is real, natural, and universal. In a lifetime, all men

encounter suffering which results from numerous causes. In this novella, Hemingway’s

portrayal of the old man depicts a life of suffering. The only real suffering that he has is a fear

of defeat as revealed through Hemingway’s code of conduct that man can be destroyed but

not defeated. The other apparent sufferings are invented by Hemingway to portray how to

transcend any suffering in life. Seemingly, the old man suffers from the loss of family and
from contact with the world around him. Due to his aging, he is sick and loses physical

strength needed for fishing. Also, he seems to be in pain and suffers from social isolation and

humiliation for not capturing fish for eighty-four days. It is a humiliating failure as a

fisherman.

Additionally, due to his aging, he loses his youth and the only pleasure when he sailed out to

Africa where he met the golden lions. This pleasure exists only in his dream and it becomes

the only dream he has in his life.

Samudaya is a cause of suffering. In this novella, a few causes of the old man’s

suffering are his aging and his pride to capture a big fish as a trophy for his life. Aging is

inevitable while pride motivates his life. Even though his pride is constructive, it is his cause

of suffering as it drives him to struggle alone at sea for eighty-four days.

Nirodha means an end to suffering. In fact, the old man does not consider aging as

suffering for him but sees it as a normal condition of life. This normal condition of life can be

a cause of suffering or an end of suffering itself because there are two kinds of suffering,

either real suffering or imagined one. For the old man, aging is not suffering. Therefore,

instead of giving up, which is a form of self-destruction that will result in a form of suffering,

he ends his suffering by fighting against aging to follow his pride to catch a big fish. He

finally captures the most magnificent marlin. He therefore turns his failure into success, and

the cause of his suffering becomes the end of his suffering. In the end, he ceases to go out to

that far as he satisfies himself with the most magnificent marlin, and thereby his suffering

ends successfully. Magga is a path to end suffering, and to do so, one must follow the

Eightfold Path. Surprisingly, the path that the old man follows to end his suffering is almost

perfectly consistent with the Eightfold Path, as described in detail below.

discernment), sila (virtue or morality) and samadhi (concentration, meditation). The eightfold

path consists of samma ditthi (right understanding ), samma sankappa (right thought), samma

vaca (right speech), samma kammanta (right action), samma ajiva (right livelihood), samma

vayama (right effort), samma sati (right mindfulness), and samma samadhi (right

concentration) This path can be clearly seen through the life of the old man.

Indeed, although Hemingway may not have been aware of Buddhist teachings, the

way the old man's life unfolds in "The Old Man and the Sea" can be analyzed through the

lens of the Eightfold Path. Hemingway's portrayal of the human condition, marked by

suffering and struggle, resonates with Buddhist concerns about life. Despite the author's tragic

end, his work offers insight into finding honorable solutions to life's inevitable challenges.

The old man's journey exemplifies principles akin to the Eightfold Path, reflecting shared

perspectives on human suffering and the quest for resolution.

The old man in The Old Man and the Sea demonstrates the right understanding of the

four noble truths (samma ditthi). He acknowledges that aging, which is inevitable, is the only

suffering (dukkha) he faces. Understanding the cause of his suffering, he strengthens his

determination to pursue his mission despite physical limitations.

The old man also demonstrates right thinking of the four noble truths (samma

sankappa). He aligns his actions with his understanding of his life's condition and what is

necessary for his mission. Rather than seeking to change his predetermined destiny, he fights

against aging for an honorable outcome, reflecting correct thinking.

Right thinking often leads to right speech (samma vaca). The old man consistently

speaks positively, even about those who may not speak well of him, demonstrating his noble
character. His words to the creatures at sea are filled with understanding, compassion, and

respect, exemplifying his adherence to right speech.

Additionally, right thinking influences right conduct (samma kammanta). Unlike

fishermen who fish primarily for commercial gain, the old man fishes out of necessity for

survival, showing respect for the fish he catches. His approach to fishing reflects love and

respect for the creatures he encounters, as evidenced by his statement, "I kill you because I

love you," as noted by Brenner. This attitude toward fishing aligns with the principles of right

conduct.

A symbolic character, Santiago embodies virtues that earn moral approval, portraying

him as an idealized figure. He is depicted as selfless, thoughtful, courageous, durable,

reliable, and, above all, gentle. Santiago demonstrates concern for the marlin's well-being,

expressing regret that the fish has nothing to eat and grieving deeply when the first shark

attacks it. Despite facing ridicule from other fishermen, he remains composed and harbors no

anger towards them. (Brenner, 1983: 176)

Right conduct leads to right livelihood (samma ajiva). The old man sustains himself

without causing harm to others, particularly his loved ones. Despite the boy's parents

considering him unlucky for not catching a fish in eighty-four days and instructing the boy to

leave his boat, the old man advises the boy to obey his parents. Despite this, they maintain a

strong friendship. The old man consistently expresses his appreciation and goodwill towards

his friends, sharing the best parts of the marlin with them. Through his ethical and respectable

way of living, he fosters genuine and supportive relationships with those around him.

Right thinking culminates in right effort (samma vayama). The old man cultivates

positive thoughts to overcome the negative ones that arise naturally in the human mind.

Through his determination and exertion, he triumphs over these negative inclinations. Despite
his declining strength and the perception of others in the village viewing him as unlucky for

not catching a fish in eighty-four days, he perseveres in his pursuit of capturing a big fish. His

unwavering effort is evident in his resolute gaze.

Right mindfulness (samma sati) fosters conscious awareness of the body, mind, and

feelings. The old man exemplifies this state of mindfulness throughout much of the novella.

He demonstrates a heightened awareness of all living creatures around him while navigating

the sea alone. His mindfulness is evident in his rare displays of anger and negative reactions

towards people and events.

He respects Manolin's father's decision that the boy fish with someone else after forty

fishless days with Santiago. Even his dreams are innocuous, filled with mating porpoises and

frolicsome, not fierce, lions. He is violent only when killing the attacking sharks. But such

actions, in defense of his "brother," sanctify hostility. Finally, Manolin's adoration shows the

absence of any punitiveness in Santiago's role as his substitute father. (Brenner, 1983: 176)

Lastly, right concentration (samma samadhi) refers to meditation to achieve a higher

state of consciousness. Hemingway chose the sea as the scene of this novella purposefully

and almost all events happen at sea. The only human being is the scene is the old man. Being

alone at sea for eighty-four days symbolically refers to meditation which helps improve his

awareness of body, mind, and feelings. Being alone at sea for another eighty-four days or

more can be nothing else but meditation to achieve a higher state of consciousness. This right

concentration, which helps him achieve a higher state of consciousness, rewards him with the

magnificent marlin. This novella conveys the message that it is worth doing meditation to

achieve a higher state of consciousness to be in the state of the right concentration which is

implicitly referred to as the key to the old man’s success in the end.
 The four noble truths and the eightfold path provide a path to liberation from suffering

in life. As revealed in the end of the novella, the old man turns the condition of permanent

defeat at the outset of the tale to honorable defeat which liberates him from all life suffering

Above all, "The Old Man and the Sea" is a Christian novella in which the author,

Hemingway, purposefully refers to Christ. Several crucifixion symbols and allusions

symbolically transcend the old man’s greatness to the greatness of Christ’s sacrifice for

mankind.

In addition, this novella is a tale of human struggles against natural and universal

truths, where all men are subject to the same eternal law that all men are mortal. Any

struggles against death are honorable. This novella exemplifies how to transcend death to a

dignified destiny.

Lastly, two most essential Buddhist disciplines needed for transcending death to a

dignified destiny and for liberating mankind from human suffering are revealed in this

novella—the four noble truths and the eightfold path. Even though the author has no intention

at all to associate with Buddhism, this novella deals with the condition of life, inevitably

touching on the essence of Buddhism.

The meaning of life and death is a great problem, but even greater is living a decent

life led by greatness and virtues that lie in the human mind, as simplified by Hemingway’s

code that “man can be destroyed but not defeated,” which transcends destined defeat to

honorable defeat.