24-27.

AC circuits

AC source

⟺
1. AC source:
AC (Tesla) vs DC (Edison)
AC Voltage and Current
The output of an AC power source is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the
following equation:
Δv(t)
▪ Δv(t) = ΔVmax sin ωt

(x-y) graph phasor graph

AC Voltage and Current
The output of an AC power source is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the
following equation:
Δv(t)
▪ Δv(t) = ΔVmax sin ωt
▪ Δv is the instantaneous voltage.
AC Voltage and Current
The output of an AC power source is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the
following equation:
Δv(t)
▪ Δv(t) = ΔVmax sin ωt
ΔVmax
▪ Δv is the instantaneous voltage.
▪ ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the source.
▪ Also called the voltage amplitude
AC Voltage and Current
The output of an AC power source is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the
following equation:
Δv(t)
▪ Δv(t) = ΔVmax sin ωt
▪ Δv is the instantaneous voltage.
▪ ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the source. 𝝎𝒕
▪ Also called the voltage amplitude
▪ ω is the angular frequency of the AC voltage
▪ (ωt is the phasor angle)
AC Voltage and Current
The output of an AC power source is sinusoidal and varies with time according to the
following equation:
▪ Δv(t) = ΔVmax sin ωt
▪ Δv is the instantaneous voltage.
▪ ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the source.
▪ Also called the voltage amplitude
▪ ω is the angular frequency of the AC voltage.
i(t)
▪ i(t) = ΔImax sin ωt
▪ i is the instantaneous current.
▪ ΔImax is the maximum output current of the source.
▪ Also called the current amplitude
▪ ω is the angular frequency of the AC current.
 AC source

The angular frequency is

2π
ω = 2π ƒ =
T
▪ ƒ is the frequency of the source.
▪ T is the period of the source.
The voltage is positive during one half of the cycle and
negative during the other half.

Section 33.1
2. Source + Resistor:

[Link]
AC circuit 1 (AC source and resistor):
AC circuit 1 (AC source and resistor):

Time dependences of voltage

and current are the same (only
amplitudes are different)
AC circuit 1 (AC source and resistor):

Notation:
• lower case symbols will indicate
instantaneous values.
• CAPITAL LETTERS will indicate
fixed values.

Time dependences of voltage

and current are the same (only
amplitudes are different)
AC circuit 1 (AC source and resistor):

Time dependences of voltage The Current and

and current are the same (only Voltage phasors
amplitudes are different) are aligned
3. Source + Inductor:

[Link]
3. Source + Inductor:

[Link]

=> The current lags behind the voltage

AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - concept):
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - concept):

Time dependences of voltage

and current are out of phase
(and amplitudes are different)
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - concept):

Time dependences of voltage The Current

and current are out of phase 𝜋
phasor is behind
2
(and amplitudes are different)
the Voltage
phasor.
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡 integrate
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
Δ𝑉 𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝜔𝐿 2

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
Δ𝑉 𝜋 Δ𝑉
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (I max= max )
𝜔𝐿 2 𝜔𝐿
𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = Imax sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
Δ𝑉 𝜋 Δ𝑉
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (I max= max )
𝜔𝐿 2 𝜔𝐿
𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = Imax sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝜋
− phasor lag
2

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
Δ𝑉 𝜋 Δ𝑉
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (I max= max )
𝜔𝐿 2 𝜔𝐿
𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = Imax sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝜋
− phasor lag
2

Section 33.3
AC circuit 2 (AC source and inductor - theory):

Kirchhoff loop:
Δ𝑣 + Δ𝑣𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑖
Δ𝑣 − 𝐿 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿
Δ𝑣 = 𝐿 = Δ𝑉max sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑉max Δ𝑉max
𝑖𝐿 = ‫ ׬‬sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔 𝑡
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
Δ𝑉 𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 − (𝜔L ∙ I max= Δ𝑉max )
𝜔𝐿 2
𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = Imax sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2

inductive reactance is given by:

Δ𝑉
XL = ωL= max
Imax Section 33.3
AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
⇒ + 𝑖= ε 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
⇒ + 𝑖= ε 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
First order linear differential equation
AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
⇒ + 𝑖= ε 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
First order ODE with solution (see table of ODEs):

𝑡
𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
𝑅 ′ 1 ′
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 න 𝑒 𝐿𝑡 ε 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝐶
0 𝐿
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
⇒ + 𝑖= ε 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
First order ODE with solution (see table of ODEs):

𝑡
𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
𝑅 ′ 1 ′
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 න 𝑒 𝐿𝑡 ε 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝐶
0 𝐿
ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Impose initial condition:

𝑖 𝑡=0 =0
ε 𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
→ 𝑖 𝑡 = (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑅

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Impose initial condition:

𝑖 𝑡=0 =0
ε 𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
→ 𝑖 𝑡 = (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑅

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

ε 𝑡 < 𝑡0 = ε
Turning off the emf at t0 :
ε 𝑡 > 𝑡0 = 0

t0

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

ε 𝑡 < 𝑡0 = ε
Turning off the emf at t0 :
ε 𝑡 > 𝑡0 = 0

𝜀 𝑅
− 𝐿 𝑡0
𝑖 𝑡0 = 1−𝑒
𝑅
Solution ε 𝑡 = ε
t0

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

ε 𝑡 < 𝑡0 = ε
Turning off the emf at t0 :
ε 𝑡 > 𝑡0 = 0

𝜀 𝑅
− 𝐿 𝑡0
𝑅
− 𝐿 (𝑡−𝑡0 )
𝑖 𝑡0 = 1−𝑒 = 𝐶𝑒
𝑅
Solution ε 𝑡 = 0
Solution ε 𝑡 = ε
t0

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

ε 𝑡 < 𝑡0 = ε
Turning off the emf at t0 :
ε 𝑡 > 𝑡0 = 0

𝜀 𝑅
− 𝐿 𝑡0
𝑅
− 𝐿 (𝑡−𝑡0 )
𝑖 𝑡0 = 1−𝑒 = 𝐶𝑒
𝑅
Solution ε 𝑡 = 0
Solution ε 𝑡 = ε
t0
𝜀 𝑅
− 𝐿 𝑡0
𝑅
− 𝐿 (𝑡−𝑡0 )
⇒ 𝑖 𝑡 > 𝑡0 = (1 − 𝑒 )𝑒
𝑅

ε 𝑅
− 𝑡
Simple solution if ε(𝑡)= ε (no time dependence): 𝑖 𝑡 = + 𝐶𝑒 𝐿
𝑅
 AC circuit 3 (Source + inductor + resistor):

Kirchhoff loop:
𝑑𝑖
ε(𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
⇒ + 𝑖= ε 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
First order ODE with solution (see table of ODEs):

𝑡
𝑅
−𝐿 𝑡
𝑅 ′ 1 ′
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 න 𝑒 𝐿𝑡 ε 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝐶
0 𝐿

For 𝜺(𝒕)= 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 see RLC circuit below

4. Source + Capacitor:

[Link]
4. Source + Capacitor:

[Link]

=> The current precedes the voltage

AC circuit 4 (AC source and capacitor - concept):
AC circuit 3 (AC source and capacitor - concept):

Time dependences of voltage

and current are out of phase
(and amplitudes are different)
AC circuit 3 (AC source and capacitor - concept):

Time dependences of voltage The Current

and current are out of phase phasor precedes
(and amplitudes are different) the voltage phasor
𝜋
by
2
 Capacitors in an AC Circuit

The circuit contains a capacitor and an AC source.

Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives:
Δv + Δvc = 0 and so
Δv = ΔvC = ΔVmax sin ωt
▪ Δvc is the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor.

Section 33.4
Capacitors in an AC Circuit, cont.

The charge is q = CΔVmax sin ωt

The instantaneous current is given by
dq
iC = = ωC Vmax cos ωt
dt
 π
or iC = ωC Vmax sin  ωt + 
 2

The current is p/2 rad = 90o out of phase with the voltage

Section 33.4
 More About Capacitors in an AC Circuit

The current reaches its maximum value one quarter of a

cycle sooner than the voltage reaches its maximum value.
The current leads the voltage by 90o.

Section 33.4
 Phasor Diagram for Capacitor

The phasor diagram shows that for a sinusoidally applied

voltage, the current always leads the voltage across a
capacitor by 90o.

Section 33.4
Capacitive Reactance

The maximum current in the circuit occurs at cos ωt = 1 which gives

Vmax
Imax = ωC Vmax =
(1 / ωC )
The impeding effect of a capacitor on the current in an AC circuit is called the capacitive reactance and is given by

1 Vmax
XC  which gives Imax =
ωC XC

Section 33.4
Voltage Across a Capacitor

The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor can be written as ΔvC = ΔVmax sin ωt = Imax XC sin ωt.
As the frequency of the voltage source increases, the capacitive reactance decreases and the maximum current
increases.
As the frequency approaches zero, XC approaches infinity and the current approaches zero.
▪ This would act like a DC voltage and the capacitor would act as an open circuit.

Section 33.4
5. Source + Resistor + Inductor + Capacitor (RLC):
 The RLC Series Circuit

The resistor, inductor, and capacitor can be combined in a

circuit.
The current and the voltage in the circuit vary sinusoidally
with time.

Section 33.5
The RLC Series Circuit, cont.

The instantaneous voltage would be given by Δv = ΔVmax sin ωt.

The instantaneous current would be given by i = Imax sin (ωt - φ).
▪ φ is the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage.
Since the elements are in series, the current at all points in the circuit has the same amplitude and phase.

Section 33.5
i and v Phase Relationships – Graphical View
The instantaneous voltage across the resistor is in phase
with the current.
The instantaneous voltage across the inductor leads the
current by 90°.
The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor lags the
current by 90°.

Section 33.5
i and v Phase Relationships – Equations

The instantaneous voltage across each of the three circuit elements can be expressed as

v R = Imax R sin ωt = VR sin ωt

 π
v L = Imax X L sin  ωt +  = VL cos ωt
 2
 π
vC = Imax X C sin  ωt −  = −VC cos ωt
 2

Section 33.5
More About Voltage in RLC Circuits

ΔVR is the maximum voltage across the resistor and ΔVR = ImaxR.
ΔVL is the maximum voltage across the inductor and ΔVL = ImaxXL.
ΔVC is the maximum voltage across the capacitor and ΔVC = ImaxXC.
The sum of these voltages must equal the voltage from the AC source.
Because of the different phase relationships with the current, they cannot be added directly.

Section 33.5
 Phasor Diagrams

To account for the different phases of the voltage drops, vector techniques are used.
Remember the phasors are rotating vectors
The phasors for the individual elements are shown.

Section 33.5
Resulting Phasor Diagram
The individual phasor diagrams can be combined.
Here a single phasor Imax is used to represent the current in
each element.
▪ In series, the current is the same in each element.

Section 33.5
Vector Addition of the Phasor Diagram

Vector addition is used to combine the voltage phasors.

ΔVL and ΔVC are in opposite directions, so they can be
combined.
Their resultant is perpendicular to ΔVR.
The resultant of all the individual voltages across the
individual elements is Δvmax.
▪ This resultant makes an angle of φ with the current
phasor Imax.

Section 33.5
Total Voltage in RLC Circuits

From the vector diagram, ΔVmax can be calculated

( )
2
Vmax = VR2 + VL − VC

= ( Imax R )2 + ( Imax X L − Imax X C )

2

Vmax = Imax R 2 + ( X L − X C )
2

Section 33.5
Impedance
The current in an RLC circuit is
Vmax Vmax
Imax = =
R 2 + ( X L − XC ) Z
2

Z is called the impedance of the circuit and it plays the role of resistance in the circuit, where

Z  R 2 + ( X L − XC )
2

▪ Impedance has units of ohms

Section 33.5
Phase Angle

The right triangle in the phasor diagram can be used to find the phase angle, φ.
 X − XC 
φ = tan−1  L 
 R 
The phase angle can be positive or negative and determines the nature of the circuit.

Section 33.5
Determining the Nature of the Circuit
If f is positive
▪ XL> XC (which occurs at high frequencies)
▪ The current lags the applied voltage.
▪ The circuit is more inductive than capacitive.
If f is negative
▪ XL< XC (which occurs at low frequencies)
▪ The current leads the applied voltage.
▪ The circuit is more capacitive than inductive.
If f is zero
▪ XL= XC
▪ The circuit is purely resistive.

Section 33.5
6. Power:
rms Current and Voltage

The average current in one cycle is zero.

Resistors experience a temperature increase which depends on the magnitude of the current, but not the direction of the
current.
The power is related to the square of the current.
The rms current is the average of importance in an AC circuit.
▪ rms stands for root mean square
Imax
Irms = = 0.707 Imax
2
Alternating voltages can also be discussed in terms of rms values.
Vmax
Vrms = = 0707
. Vmax
2

Section 33.2
Power

The rate at which electrical energy is delivered to a resistor in the circuit is given by
▪ P=i2R
▪ i is the instantaneous current.
▪ The heating effect produced by an AC current with a maximum value of Imax is not the same as that of a DC current of the
same value.
▪ The maximum current occurs for a small amount of time.
▪ The average power delivered to a resistor that carries an alternating current is

Pav = Irms
2
R

Section 33.2
Notes About rms Values

rms values are used when discussing alternating currents and voltages because
▪ AC ammeters and voltmeters are designed to read rms values.
▪ Many of the equations that will be used have the same form as their DC counterparts.

Section 33.2
Power in an AC Circuit

The average power delivered by the AC source is converted to internal energy in the resistor.
▪ Pavg = ½ Imax ΔVmax cos f = IrmsΔVrms cos f
▪ cos f is called the power factor of the circuit
We can also find the average power in terms of R.
▪ Pavg = I2rmsR
When the load is purely resistive, f = 0 and cos f = 1
▪ Pavg = Irms ΔVrms

Section 33.6
Power in an AC Circuit, cont.

The average power delivered by the source is converted to internal energy in the resistor.
No power losses are associated with pure capacitors and pure inductors in an AC circuit.
▪ In a capacitor, during one-half of a cycle, energy is stored and during the other half the energy is returned to the
circuit and no power losses occur in the capacitor.
▪ In an inductor, the source does work against the back emf of the inductor and energy is stored in the inductor, but
when the current begins to decrease in the circuit, the energy is returned to the circuit.
The power delivered by an AC circuit depends on the phase.
Some applications include using capacitors to shift the phase to heavy motors or other inductive loads so that
excessively high voltages are not needed.

Section 33.6
7. Resonance:
Resonance in an AC Circuit

Resonance occurs at the frequency ωo where the current has its maximum value.
▪ To achieve maximum current, the impedance must have a minimum value.
▪ This occurs when XL = XC
▪ Solving for the frequency gives

ωo = 1
LC
The resonance frequency also corresponds to the natural frequency of oscillation of an LC circuit.
The rms current has a maximum value when the frequency of the applied voltage matches the natural oscillator
frequency.
At the resonance frequency, the current is in phase with the applied voltage.

Section 33.7
 Resonance, cont.

Resonance occurs at the same frequency regardless of the

value of R.
As R decreases, the curve becomes narrower and taller.
Theoretically, if R = 0 the current would be infinite at
resonance.
▪ Real circuits always have some resistance.

Section 33.7
 Power as a Function of Frequency

Power can be expressed as a function of

frequency in an RLC circuit.

( Vrms ) Rω 2
2

Pav =
( )
2
R ω +L ω −ω
2 2 2 2 2
o

This shows that at resonance, the average

power is a maximum.

Section 33.7
Quality Factor

The sharpness of the resonance curve is usually described by a dimensionless parameter known as the quality factor, Q.
Q = ωo / Δω = (ωoL) / R
▪ Δω is the width of the curve, measured between the two values of ω for which Pavg has half its maximum value.
▪ These points are called the half-power points.
A high-Q circuit responds only to a narrow range of frequencies.
▪ Narrow peak
A low-Q circuit can detect a much broader range of frequencies.
A radio’s receiving circuit is an important application of a resonant circuit.

Section 33.7
8. Transformer:
Transformers

An AC transformer consists of two coils

of wire wound around a core of iron.
The side connected to the input AC voltage
source is called the primary and has N1
turns.
The other side, called the secondary, is
connected to a resistor and has N2 turns.
The core is used to increase the magnetic
flux and to provide a medium for the flux to
pass from one coil to the other.

Section 33.8
Transformers, cont.

Eddy-current losses are minimized by using a laminated core.

Assume an ideal transformer
▪One in which the energy losses in the windings and the core are zero.
▪ Typical transformers have power efficiencies of 90% to 99%.
In the primary,

d B
v1 = −N1
dt
The rate of change of the flux is the same for both coils.
The voltage across the secondary is
d B
v 2 = −N2
dt

Section 33.8
Transformers – Step-up and Step-down
The voltages are related by
N2
v 2 = v1
N1
When N2 > N1, the transformer is referred to as a step-up transformer.
When N2 < N1, the transformer is referred to as a step-down transformer.
The power input into the primary equals the power output at the secondary.
▪ I1ΔV1 = I2ΔV2
The equivalent resistance of the load resistance when viewed from the primary is
2
 N1 
Req =   RL
 2
N

Section 33.8
Transformers, final

A transformer may be used to match resistances between the primary circuit and the load.
This way, maximum power transfer can be achieved between a given power source and the load resistance.
▪ In stereo terminology, this technique is called impedance matching.

Section 33.8
Nikola Tesla

1856 – 1943
American physicist / inventor
Key figure in development of
▪ Alternating-current electricity
▪ High-voltage transformers
▪ Transport of electric power using AC transmission
lines

Section 33.8
9. Filters:
Rectifier

The process of converting alternating current to direct current is called rectification.

A rectifier is the converting device.
The most important element in a rectifier circuit is the diode.
▪ A diode is a circuit element that conducts current in one direction but not the other.

Section 33.9
Rectifier Circuit

The arrow on the diode ( ) indicates the direction of the current in the diode.
▪ The diode has low resistance to current flow in this direction.
▪ It has high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction.

Because of the diode, the alternating current in the load resistor is reduced to the positive
portion of the cycle.
The transformer reduces the 120 V AC to the voltage needed by the device.
▪ Typically 6 V or 9 V

Section 33.9
 Half-Wave Rectifier

The solid line in the graph is the result through the

resistor.
It is called a half-wave rectifier because current is present
in the circuit during only half of each cycle.

Section 33.9
Half-Wave Rectifier, Modification

A capacitor can be added to the circuit.

The circuit is now a simple DC power supply.
The time variation in the circuit is close to zero.
▪ It is determined by the RC time constant of the circuit.
▪ This is represented by the dotted lines in the graph shown in fig. 33.21 b.

Section 33.9
Filter Circuit, Example

A filter circuit is one used to smooth out or eliminate a time-varying signa.l

After rectification, a signal may still contain a small AC component.
▪ This component is often called a ripple.
By filtering, the ripple can be reduced.
Filters can also be built to respond differently to different frequencies.

Section 33.9
 High-Pass Filter

The circuit shown is one example of a high-pass filter.

A high-pass filter is designed to preferentially pass signals
of higher frequency and block lower frequency signals.

Section 33.9
 High-Pass Filter, cont

At low frequencies, ΔVout is much smaller than Δvin.

▪ At low frequencies, the capacitor has high reactance
and much of the applied voltage appears across the
capacitor.
At high frequencies, the two voltages are equal.
▪ At high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is small
and the voltage appears across the resistor.

Section 33.9
Low-Pass Filter

At low frequencies, the reactance and voltage across the capacitor are high.
As the frequency increases, the reactance and voltage decrease.
This is an example of a low-pass filter.
Section 33.9