Tungadio, Diambomba Hyacinthe; Sun, Yanxia

Article
Load frequency controllers considering renewable energy
integration in power system

Energy Reports

Provided in Cooperation with:

Elsevier

Suggested Citation: Tungadio, Diambomba Hyacinthe; Sun, Yanxia (2019) : Load frequency
controllers considering renewable energy integration in power system, Energy Reports, ISSN
2352-4847, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Vol. 5, pp. 436-453,
[Link]

This Version is available at:

[Link]

Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use:

Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal
Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. and scholarly purposes.

Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to
Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the
machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public.

Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen If the documents have been made available under an Open Content
(insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise
gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence.
genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte.

[Link]
 Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Reports
journal homepage: [Link]/locate/egyr

Review article

Load frequency controllers considering renewable energy integration

in power system
∗
Diambomba Hyacinthe Tungadio , Yanxia Sun
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Kingsway
Campus, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa

highlights

• Load frequency controllers.

• Artificial intelligence controllers.
• Traditional control strategies.
• Modern power system configuration.

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Load frequency control or automatic generation control is one of the main operations that take place
Received 10 September 2018 daily when considering a modern power system or not. The objectives of load frequency control are
Received in revised form 2 April 2019 to maintain power balance between interconnected areas and to control the power flow in the tie-
Accepted 3 April 2019
lines. Electric power cannot be stocked in large quantity that why its production must be equal to
Available online xxxx
the consumption in each time. This equation constituted the key for a good management of any
Keywords: power system and introduces the need of more controllers when taking into account the integration
Load frequency control of renewable energy sources into the traditional power system. More controllers are presented in the
Power system literature and the presents work proposes a review of those called traditional and those who combined
Controllers the traditional controller and artificial intelligence algorithms.
Artificial intelligence
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license ([Link]

Contents

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 438
2. Traditional controllers...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 438
3. Hybrid models .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 439
3.1. Fuzzy logic model ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 440
3.2. LFC based particle swarm optimisation algorithm .......................................................................................................................................... 441
3.3. LFC based genetic algorithm .............................................................................................................................................................................. 441
3.4. LFC other models based on artificial intelligence algorithm.......................................................................................................................... 441
3.5. LFC based on decentralised techniques ............................................................................................................................................................ 444
3.6. LFC based on dual mode approach.................................................................................................................................................................... 444
3.7. LFC based FACTS and storage system ............................................................................................................................................................... 444
3.8. LFC based on robust model ................................................................................................................................................................................ 446
4. Model predictive control strategy .................................................................................................................................................................................. 447
4.1. Predictive control strategies ............................................................................................................................................................................... 447
4.2. Distributed MPC ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 448
4.3. Robust MPC .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 448
5. Summary and future work .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 449
5.1. Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 449

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tutudiambomba@[Link] (D.H. Tungadio), ysun@[Link] (Y. Sun).

[Link]
2352-4847/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 437

5.2. Future scope ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 449

Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 449
References ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 450

reliability and continuity of service of two or more isolated

1. Introduction microgrids can be achieved by their interconnection through ties-
lines. An interconnected power system can be considered as being
Power system is a dynamic system where interacts active divided into control areas; all generating units are assumed to
elements connected together via power lines. It goal is to deliver form a coherent system (Zhao and Dorfler, 2015; Nikmehr and
power to a variable load or ensemble of consumers which is Ravadanegh, 2016). In the steady state power system demands of
one of it critical part (Jaleeli et al., 1992; Zhang and Fang, 2017; areas are satisfied at the nominal frequency. The change of active
Tungadio, 2018; Tungadio et al., 2017; Essiet et al., 2019). Changes power in one area is sustained by the increase in generation in
in loads affects mainly the frequency of the power network, while all areas associated with a change in the tie-lines power flow
the reactive power related to voltage magnitude is less sensitive and a reduction in frequency (Tungadio et al., 2017; Kundur,
to the changes of frequency, that why active and reactive powers 1994; Goyal and Ghosh, 2016; Tungadio and Bansal, 2017; Fu
are controlled separately. Automatic generation control (AGC) or et al., 2015). Published research on controllers used for frequency
load frequency control (LFC) is one of the main operations for control in power grids is abundant and new models continue
a good management of any electrical systems. The aim of LFC to be proposed in the literature (Tungadio, 2018). Some authors
is to monitor the variation of active power by providing the have exploited the aspect the control frequency based on the dif-
signals for control of the frequency regulator and active power ferent energy sources used in new power system, while the others
output of different generating units within the limits prescribed propose models based on configuration of power system models
control area in response to the changes in system frequency and and control techniques and strategies based on conventional as
tie-line loading, and it help to maintain the scheduled system well as distribution generation using traditional controllers or
frequency and establish interchange with others areas (Zhang controllers models based on artificial intelligence algorithm.
and Fang, 2017; Tungadio, 2018). Due to dynamic characteristics Considering the discussion above this paper identify and re-
of the load add its continuous and random changes during the views the merits and demerits of momentum gaining load fre-
operation of the power system, most of the time the quality of the quency controllers such as traditional controllers model, hybrid
power supplied to the consumers is affected (Essiet et al., 2019; control strategies and predictive controller strategy to keep the
Tungadio et al., 2018a). Therefore, in the day to day management frequency as scheduled. The emphasis is also set to identify
of the electrical system the control aspect is necessary to main- the recent issues and challenges faced in the load frequency
tain a continuous balance between power generated and power
controllers; integration of the renewable energy sources, power
consumed or load demand.
quality issues including frequency and voltage profile of the sys-
The problem becomes more complex when dealing with an
tem to maintain to its nominal value in order to deliver quality
interconnected system (Essiet et al., 2019; Tungadio et al., 2018a).
electric power to the consumers and profitable to the electric util-
In fact, the reliability and continuity of service of two or more
ities. Some indicator as controller settling time, and the maximum
isolated power grids (microgrids) can be achieved by their in-
over-shoot (fast responses and good stability) are taken as a good
terconnection through tie-lines. An interconnected power system
indicator of a controller. The rest of the paper is organised as
can be considered as being divided into control areas; all gen-
follows. In Section 2 traditional controllers such as proportional
erating units are assumed to form a coherent system (Doolla
integral or proportional integral derivative review and hybrid
et al., 2011; Kang and Liao, 2010; Mehrasa et al., 2015; Olivares
controllers in Section 3. Section 4 presents the detailed litera-
et al., 2014; Parmar et al., 2012; Hung et al., 2014). In the steady
ture review regarding the predictive control model. Finally, the
state power system demands of areas are satisfied at the nominal
conclusion is summarised in Section 5.
frequency. The change of active power in one area is sustained by
the increase in generation in all areas associated with a change
in the tie-lines power flow and a reduction in frequency (Ma- 2. Traditional controllers
jumder et al., 2010; Yuen et al., 2011; Dzobo and Sun, 2019;
Zhao and Dorfler, 2015). As the power load demand varies ran- Most of the research in the field of the control of microgrids
domly, all areas frequency and the tie-lines power interchange is devoted to the use of conventional controllers such as integral
also vary (Nikmehr and Ravadanegh, 2016; Kundur, 1994). The (I), proportional Integral (PI) or proportional Integral-derivative
objectives of LFC are to minimise the deviations in frequency (PID). The main raison is 90% or more of control loop in industry
and tie-line power flows which are taken as the control variables are traditional models. Fig. 1 gives the standard control model,
and to ensure that the frequency variation is returned to zero. A where the variables (R), (e), (u), (Y) represent successively the
basic control system strategy for the normal mode is to operate difference between the desired input value, the tracking error, the
in such a way that it keeps the frequency at approximately input signal, and the actual output. To obtain a desired response,
nominal value, maintaining the tie-line power flow out of each PID controller model is the most used when considering the con-
area at the planned value. Each area should absorb its own load ventional controllers models. This situation is based on a trying
changes (Zhang and Fang, 2017; Tungadio, 2018; Tungadio et al., process. The following steps are generally used:
2017, 2018a). That is why the primary purpose of operating the
LFC is to keep the frequency changes during the load changes • Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to
uniform. be improved;
Furthermore, the control model must be sensitive against • Add a proportional control to improve the rise time;
changes in the area (Tungadio, 2018; Tungadio et al., 2017). • Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot;
Fig. 2 shows an interconnection of three power system (three • Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error;
areas) via tie-lines. This configuration increases the reliability • Adjust each of kp , ki , and kd , until you obtain a desired
and the continuity of the new constituted system. In fact, the overall response.
438 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Fig. 1. Conventional Controller.

where each ki represents the gain of the controller.

A new PID load frequency controller design method in fre-
quency domain through direct synthesis approach was proposed
in Anwar and Pan (2015). The method yields linear algebraic
equations, solution of which gives the controller parameters. Sax-
ena and Hote (2016) have proposed a decentralised PID-LFC for
perturbed multi-area power systems. The beauty of the proposed
approach was that the fixed PID controller is taking care of
uncertainty in the each control are. Delay distribution dependent
LFC of power systems with probabilistic interval delays was pro-
posed in Peng and Zhang (2016). An algorithm was provided to
obtain the gain of PI-based LFC and the allowable upper bound
of the communication delay simultaneously while preserving the
desired performance. The authors (Debbarma et al., 2014) have
proposed an AGC using two degree of freedom fractional order
PID controller. The work also explored the effectiveness of the
firefly algorithm based optimisation technique in finding the
optimal parameters of the controller and selection of R parameter.
Optimal tuning of 3 degree of freedom PID controller for hybrid Fig. 2. Power system interconnected via tie-lines.
distributed power system using dragonfly algorithm (DA) was
proposed in Guha et al. (2018). The efficacy of proposed DA over
different reported algorithms was established in terms of conver- variations. The research in Doolla et al. (2011) has presented
gence rate, minimum fitness value and dynamic performance of a LFC of an isolated small hydro power plant using multi-pipe
the system. Design of a fractional order PID controller for an AVR scheme. The proposed scheme reduces the size of the dump load
using particle swarm optimisation (PSO) algorithm was proposed to 50%, as 50% input power of the hydro plant is controlled by
in Zamani et al. (2009). A novel cost function was defined to an on/off control. A generalised transfer function model for the
facilitate the control strategy over both the time-domain and the system is developed with on/off control logic, and the parameters
frequency domain specifications. were optimised using the integral time absolute error technique.
The authors (Nandar, 2013) have proposed a robust PI control The design of a robust distributed control for interconnected
of smart controllable load for frequency stabilisation of microgrid microgrids was proposed in Hossain et al. (2015). Time-domain
power system. To guarantee the robustness of the proposed PI analyses were carried out considering different scenarios and
controller, an inverse additive perturbation is formulated as an large disturbances. Zamani et al. (2016b) have presented a design
optimisation problem and a genetic algorithm (GA) was em- of a fractional order PID controller using gases Brownian motion
ployed to tune and optimise the proposed PI control parameters. optimisation (GBMO) algorithm for LFC with governor saturation
Fractional order PID controller design for LFC in electric power consideration. The performance of the proposed controller in time
systems using imperialist competitive algorithm was proposed domain and its robustness was verified according to comparison
in Taher et al. (2014). This controller had five parameters to with other controllers like GBMO based fuzzy controller and PI
be tuned; thus, it provided two more degrees of freedom in controller that used for LFC system in confronting with model
comparison with the conventional PID. Researchers (Hanwate and parameters variations. The research in Jagatheesam et al. (2015)
Hote, 2018) have proposed an optimal PID design for LFC using introduced a robust PI control of smart controllable load for
QRAWCP approach. In addition to the nominal situation, robust- frequency stabilisation of microgrid power system. To guarantee
ness of this controller was also tested on the same systems with the robustness of the proposed PI controller, an inverse addi-
respect to parametric uncertainty, external disturbances, tested tive perturbation was formulated as an optimisation problem. A
on the same systems with respect to parametric uncertainty, new PID controller design for AGC of hydro power systems was
external disturbances. Fig. 2 shows the interconnected power presented in Khodabakhshian and Hooshmand (2010). The open-
system via tie-lines, this gives the configuration of the new power loop frequency response curve was tangent to a specified ellipse
system. and this makes the method to be efficient for controlling the
Fuzzy Gain Scheduling of PID controllers were presented in overshoot, the stability and the dynamics of the system.
Zhao et al. (1993). Fuzzy rules and reasoning are utilised on-
line to determine the controller parameters based on the error 3. Hybrid models
signal and its first difference. Improved grey wolf optimisation
technique for fuzzy aided PID controller design for power system The integration of the renewable energy resources into the
frequency control was proposed in Sahoo and Panda (2018). power system creates new issues because most of them are
Proposed IGWO was initially evaluated using some standard test whether dependent. Power systems need advanced control meth-
functions. The authors (Ali and Abd-Elazim, 2013) have presented ods for its daily management. In the control area, the new ten-
a BFOA based design of PID controller for two areas LFC with dency is the combination of the artificial intelligence algorithms
nonlinearities. The effectiveness of the proposed BFOA was vali- particle swarm optimisation algorithm (PSO), fuzzy logic (FL),
dated over different operating conditions, and system parameters genetic algorithm (GA), etc. with the conventional controller to
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 439

solve the frequency or active power flow control issue in power

system. Some models based on FL approach are available in the
literature.

3.1. Fuzzy logic model

Li et al. (2008) have proposed frequency control in the mi-

crogrid power system combined with an electrolyser system and
fuzzy PI controller. The proposed control can be regarded as a
means of power quality control to improve frequency fluctua-
tions. An optimal FL-based PID and self-tuning fuzzy PID con-
troller was presented in Pothiya and Ngamroo (2008) and Yesil
et al. (2004). Vigneysh and Kumarappan (2016) have presented
the control of PV-solid oxide fuel cell-battery energy storage
(BES) based microgrid using an FL controller. FL based generalised
droop control (GDC) for simultaneous voltage and frequency reg- Fig. 3. Tie-lines models (Tungadio et al., 2017).
ulation in an AC microgrid was discussed in Ahmadi et al. (2015).
A fuzzy technique was utilised to tune the GDC and secondary
control parameters. A fuzzy gain scheduling controllers for au- by expert knowledge regarding the system performance. Fuzzy
tomatic generation of two area interconnected electrical power hierarchical approach-based optimal frequency control in the
systems was presented in Arya and Kumar (2016). A novel hy- Great Britain power system was proposed in Kocaarslan and Cam
brid local unimodal sampling teaching learning based optimised (2005). The proposed model allowed the fuzzy to supplement the
(TLBO) fuzzy-PID controller for LFC of multi-area power system conventional control rather than replace it.
was presented in Fattahi et al. (2016). Root locus analysis of FL controller in interconnected electrical power systems for
are presentative microgrid with three inverters has been under- LFC was presented in Sabahi et al. (2016). The model presented
taken to confirm that stable solutions are feasible. Novel control has shown the effectiveness and the suitability for damping out
scheme based on droop characteristics for LFC of microgrids oscillations resulted from load perturbations. Cam and Kocaarslan
working in autonomous mode was presented by Khederzadeh (2005) have proposed a designing of an adaptive type-2 FL sys-
and Maleki in Khederzadeh and Maleki (2013). The proposed tem LFC for a nonlinear time-delay power system. The proposed
droop speed control helps to balance the supply–demand in the model was the combination of type-2 FL system and a non-
autonomous mode by charging–discharging the batteries and conventional feedback controller. Abazari et al. (2018) have pro-
increasing–decreasing the power outputs of the micro-sources. posed a LFC in two area power systems using fuzzy logic con-
Sahu et al. (2016b) have presented a novel hybrid LUS–TLBO op- troller. The presented model has improved the dynamics of the
timised Fuzzy-PID controller for load frequency control of multi- system studied. The authors in Ahmadi et al. (2015) have pro-
source power system. Again the robustness of the proposed con-
posed an optimal FL based frequency control strategy in a high
troller for power system with AC tie-line only is studied under
wind penetrated power system. The proposed FL controller was
parametric variation conditions by varying all the parameters
blessed with robustness, simplicity, and reliability in order to
from −50% to 50% of their nominal values in steps of 25%. Liu
ameliorate the frequency deviation. A FL based droop control
et al. (2016a) have presented a DMPC for LFC with dynamic fuzzy
for simultaneous voltage and frequency regulation in an AC mi-
valve position modelling for hydro-thermal power system. In the
crogrid was proposed in Vigneysh and Kumarappan (2016). It
proposed scheme, the limit position of the governor valve is
was shown that the proposed FL controller exhibits high perfor-
modelled by a fuzzy model and the local predictive controllers are
mance and desirable response for different scenarios of change in
incorporated into the non-linear control system. A fuzzy adaptive
load. Researchers (Thao and Uchida, 2017) have proposed an au-
model predictive approach for LFC of an isolated microgrid was
tonomous operation and control of photovoltaic-solid oxide fuel
presented in Kayalvizhi and Kumar (2017). A generalised state
space model of a typical isolated microgrid having controllable cell-battery energy storage based microgrid using FL controller.
and uncontrollable generating power sources were derived, and The microgrid voltage and frequency was effectively maintained
the same has been utilised to predict the future output and within the limits by the proposed FLC.
control inputs for the microgrid frequency control. Fig. 3 gives A two-level control strategy with FL for large-scale photo-
the tie-lines models for two power system interconnected. voltaic farms to support grid frequency regulation was proposed
An adaptive polar FL based LF controller was proposed in in Kocaarslan and Cam (2005). The individual reference value
Chaturvedi et al. (2015). The authors introduced a polar FL to for each local controller was determined. FL controller in in-
overcome the issue of the computation time and memory re- terconnected electrical power systems for LFC was presented in
quirements. Performance of the simple PFC and adaptive PFC Sudha and Santhi (2012). Mode simulations of the power system
using GAF is compared with fuzzy and conventional PI controllers show that the proposed FGPI controller was effective. LFC of an
on a three area system. Adaptive fuzzy logic LFC of multi-area interconnected reheat thermal system using Type-2 fuzzy system
power system was proposed in Yousef (2015). It was proved including superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) units
that the proposed controller ensures the boundedness of all vari- was proposed in Ahmadi et al. (2015). The proposed method was
ables of the closed-loop system and the tracking error. Yousef tested on a two area power system to illustrate its robustness
et al. (2014) have proposed a LFC of a multi-area power system performance with various area load changes. A FL based droop
based on an adaptive FL approach. The FL system approximation control for simultaneous voltage and frequency regulation in an
capabilities were exploited to develop suitable adaptive con- AC microgrid was proposed in Yousef (2015). It was shown that
trol law and parameter update algorithms for unknown inter- the proposed FL controller exhibits high performance and desir-
connected LFC areas. Research presented in Obaid et al. (2016) able response for different scenarios of change in load. Adaptive
presents the FL based fine-tuning approach for robust LFC control FL-LFC of multi-area power system was proposed in Cam and
in a multi-area power system. The design procedure of a ro- Kocaarslan (2005). It was proved that the proposed controller
bust FL-based fine tuning controller was substantially nourished ensures the boundedness of all variables of the closed loop system
440 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

and the tracking error. LFC in two area power systems using in malfunctioning of frequency relays. The authors (Barisall and
FL controller was proposed in Cam (2007). It has been shown Mishra, 2018) have proposed an improved PSO based AGC of
that the proposed FGPI controller can generate the best dynamic multi-source nonlinear power systems interconnected by AC/DC
response following a step load change. links. It is found that significant improvement in the system
Application of FL for LFC of hydroelectrical power plants was dynamic performance is achieved by considering parallel AC/DC
presented in Pothiya and Ngamroo (2008). The comparison study lines in comparison to only AC tie lines between control areas.
indicated that the proposed FGPI controller has better perfor-
mance than the conventional PI controller. The authors (Shayaghi 3.3. LFC based genetic algorithm
et al., 2008) have proposed an optimal FL based PID controller for
LFC including SMES units. The multiple tabu search algorithm was Research on LFC based on GA can be found in the available
applied to simultaneously tune PID gains, membership functions literature. The authors (Panda and Yegireddy, 2013) have pro-
and control rules of FL-PID controller to minimise frequency posed an AGC of multi-area power system using multi-objective
deviations of the system against load disturbances. Introducing non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II. The proposed ap-
LQR-Fuzzy technique with dynamic demand response control proach was first applied to a linear two-area power system
loop to LFC model was proposed in Devi et al. (2016). This paper model and then extended to a non-linear system model by
presents an idea of introducing a DR control loop in the tradi- considering the effect of governor dead band non-linearity. A
tional LFC model (called LFC-DR) using intelligent controller for modified GA based load frequency controller for interconnected
a power system. Researchers (Mahto and Mukherjee, 2017) have power systems was proposed in Ramesh and Krishnan (2009).
proposed a novel scaling factor based FL controller for frequency Floating point representation has been used, since it was more
control of an isolated hybrid power system. It was revealed that consistent, more precise and leads to faster convergence. Re-
the proposed controller was very much robust in nature and searchers (Rerkpreedapong et al., 2003) have proposed two ro-
takes care of non-linearity very well while QOHS algorithm was bust decentralised control design methodologies for LFC. The first
adopted. The authors (Obaid et al., 2016) have proposed a fuzzy one is based on control design using linear matrix inequalities
hierarchical approach-based optimal frequency control in the technique in order to obtain robustness against uncertainties.
Great Britain power system. Structures of fuzzy controller offered The second controller had a simpler structure, which was more
high stability and robustness in the simulation results. appealing from an implementation point of view. Design of load
A novel hybrid DEPS optimised fuzzy PI/PID controller for frequency controllers using GA for two area interconnected hy-
LFC of multi-area interconnected power systems was proposed dropower system was proposed in Aditiya and Das (2003). As
in Sahu et al. (2014). Robustness analysis was performed by far as the authors can discover, no work has been done for the
varying the system parameters and operating load conditions optimisation of the gain settings of different types of controllers
from their nominal values. Intelligent droop control and power using the GA for LFC of an interconnected hydropower system.
management of active generator for ancillary services under grid Authors (Chang et al., 1998) have proposed a LFC using GA
instability using FL technology was proposed in Krim et al. (2018). based fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers. The control method-
FL supervisor was developed to manage the power flows between ology adopts a formulation for the area control error which al-
the storage devices by choosing the optimal operating mode. Sim- ways guarantees zero steady-state values for both the time error
ulation based neuro-fuzzy hybrid intelligent PI control approach and inadvertent energy. Multiobjective design of LFC using GAs
in four areas LFC of interconnected power system was proposed was proposed in Daneshfar and Bevrani (2012). This gives rise
in Prakash and Sinha (2014). The advantage of this controller was to complex structure of such controllers and reduces their appli-
that it can handle the non-linearities, and at the same time it was cability conventional LFC systems that use classical or trial-and-
faster than other existing controllers. The authors (Talaq and Al- error approaches to tune the PI controller parameters are more
Basri, 1999) have proposed an adaptive fuzzy gain scheduling for difficult and time consuming to design. LFC using GA based fuzzy
LFC. The proposed model was extremely well suited to the task of gain scheduling of PI controllers was proposed in Chang et al.
smoothly interpolating linear gains across the input space when (1998). The methodology used a formulation for the ACE which
a very non-linear system moves around in its operating space. always guarantees zero steady state. A new load frequency vari-
able structure controller using GAs was introduced in Al-Hamouz
3.2. LFC based particle swarm optimisation algorithm and Al-Duwaish (2000). Selection of the variable structure con-
troller (VSC) feedback gains by GAs was presented contrary to
PSO algorithm is one of the best algorithm in the artificial the trial and error selection of the variable structure feedback
intelligence class. Multi-stage fuzzy LFC using PSO was proposed gains reported in the literature. The authors (Ghoshal, 2004) have
in Shayeghi et al. (2008). For achieving the desired level of robust proposed an application of GA/GA-SA based fuzzy AGC of a multi-
performance, exact tuning of membership functions was very area thermal generating system. Optimal integral gains and PID
important. Intelligent frequency control in an AC microgrid on- gains were computed by GA. Short term load frequency using
line PSO-based tuning approach was presented in Bevrani et al. fuzzy a neural network was proposed. A FNN initially creates
(2012). The performance of the proposed model was compared a rule base from existing historical load data was proposed in
with the pure fuzzy PI and the Ziegler–Nichols PI control design Bakirtizis et al. (1995). The parameters of the rule base were then
methods. A novel hybrid PSO–PS optimised fuzzy PI controller for tuned through a training process, so that the output of the FNN
AGC in multi area interconnected power systems have proposed adequately matches the available historical load data.
in Sahu et al. (2015c). Additionally, the proposed approach was
further extended to multi-source multi area hydro thermal power 3.4. LFC other models based on artificial intelligence algorithm
system with/without HVDC link. Using a PSO and fuzzy rules the
authors (Dhillo et al., 2015) presented a multi-area LFC. Heuris- This section gives the controllers models based on algorithm
tic procedures involving Particle Swarm Intelligence and Fuzzy using artificial intelligence strategies. The research in Sharma
based inferences have been employed to effectively obtain the et al. (2016) presents the design of optimal AGC regulators using
optimised gains of PID controller. Any change in the load demand an output feedback control strategy for a multi-area intercon-
causes generator’s shaft speed lower than the pre-set value and nected power system. Barisal (2015) has proposed a comparative
the system frequency deviates from the standard value results performance analysis of TLBO for automatic LFC of multi-source
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 441

power systems. It was found that the dynamic performance of the in terms of interactive adjustment between the continuous con-
proposed controller was better than that of recently published troller at the lower level and discrete management at the upper
DE optimised controller and optimal output feedback controller level. A sampled data automatic LFC of a single area power system
and also the proposed system was more robust and stable to with multi-source power generation was proposed in Ramakr-
wide changes in system loading, parameters, size and locations ishna and Bhatti (2007). The authors investigated the effect of
of step load perturbation and different cost functions. Cui et al. sampling period of the controller signal on the performance of
(2017) have proposed an observer based robust integral sliding the continuous system. H-infinity LFC of interconnected power
mode LFC for wind power systems. The proposed model not only systems with communication delays was proposed in Dey et al.
guarantees the asymptotical stability of overall power systems (2012). The model has considered the LFC design incorporating
but also capable of improving the system robustness. Numerical the effect of using open communication network. Further results
examples were provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the on delays-dependent stability of multi-area LFC was proposed in
proposed model. The researchers in Sondhi and Hote (2016) Zhang et al. (2013). Based on Lyapunov theory and the linear ma-
have proposed a fractional order PID controller to solve the LFC trix inequality technique, a new stability criterion was proposed
problem. Robust H∞ for LFC solution was presented in Son et al. to improve calculation accuracy and reduce the computation
(2016). Qian et al. have presented a LFC by neural-network-based time. Fig. 4 shows new configuration of the power system.
integral sliding mode for nonlinear power systems with wind Hasan et al. (2016) have proposed an ABT based LFC of inter-
turbine (Qian et al., 2016). By this scheme, not only are the connected power system. A commercial case study was carried
update formulas obtained, but also the control system possesses out to demonstrate effectiveness of the proposed model. LFC
the asymptotic stability. The simulation results by an intercon- of interconnected power system via multi-agent system method
nected power system illustrate the feasibility and validity of the was proposed in yang et al. (2017). In the control frame, the
presented method. upper-level agent, in a centralised way, coordinates the lower-
Emotional learning-based intelligent controller was used to level LFC agents to deal with the conflict between narrowing
solve LFC problem in Farhangi et al. (2012). The controller in- the ACE and stabilising the power system frequency. Abdelaziz
cludes a neuro-fuzzy system with power error and its derivative and Ali (2016) have proposed a load frequency controller design
was used as inputs. A fuzzy critic evaluates the present situa- via artificial Cuckoo search algorithm. Simulation results were
tion, and provides the emotional signal or stress. The controller presented to prove the improvement achieved using Cuckoo al-
modified its characteristics so that its critic stress was reduced. gorithm. Load frequency controller design via BAT algorithm for
An improving sliding mode design for LFC of power system in- nonlinear interconnected power system was proposed in Elazim
tegrated an adaptive learning strategy was proposed in Mu et al. and Ali (2016). Evaluation of results shows that the proposed
(2017). The adaptive dynamic programming strategy is used to model achieved good robust performance for wide range of sys-
provide the supplementary control signal, which is beneficial to tem parameters and load changes. LFC of interconnected power
the frequency regulation by adapting to the real-time distur- system with governor backlash nonlinearities was presented in
bances and uncertainties. An H∞ tracking performance criterion Tsay (2011). The authors (Kennedy et al., 1988) have proposed
was introduced to minimise the approximation errors and the a variable, non-linear tie-line frequency bias for interconnected
external disturbance effects. Considering a realistic power system systems control. Variable, non-linear tie-line frequency bias is
with multi-source power generation based LFC was proposed in a better simulation of electric system frequency response than
Parmar et al. (2012). Usually only a reduced number of state fixed straight line bias because it recognises the variable nature
variables or linear combinations thereof, are available. To resolve of a system’s reaction to frequency changes. Discrete mode AGC
this difficulty, optimal output feedback controller which uses only of a two areas reheat thermal system with new area control
the output state variables was proposed. LFC of power system error was proposed in Kothari et al. (1989). The research dealt
under deregulated environment using optimal firefly algorithm with discrete mode AGC of an interconnected reheat thermal
was proposed in Sekhar et al. (2016). To investigate the effec- system considering a new are control error based on tie-line
tiveness of the proposed approach, time domain simulations are power deviation, frequency deviation, time error and inadvertent
carried out considering different contracted scenarios and the interchange.
comparative results are presented. Majunder et al. have proposed A variable structure load frequency controller for multi-area
a LFC for rural DG was proposed in Majumder et al. (2010). The power systems was proposed in Al-Hamouz and Magid (1993).
performances of these two proposed controllers were compared Two designs were presented: the optimal variable structure load
with that of a controller, which includes an expensive high band- frequency controller (OVSLFC) and the pole placement variable
width communication system through time-domain simulation of structure load frequency controller (PPVSLFC). LFC of intercon-
a test system. The magnitude of errors in power sharing between nected power systems via minimum variance regulator was pro-
these three droop control schemes are evaluated and tabulated. posed in Aly et al. (1984). It was shown that the detuned min-
The research proposed in Khederzadeh et al. (2016) proposed imum variance regulator with extended least-squares estima-
a LFC improvement of two adjacent microgrids in autonomous tion techniques gives better results than the other regulator. LFC
mode using back to back voltage-sourced converters. By appli- of interconnected power system with governor backlash non-
cation of the proposed algorithm, two microgrids could play the linearities was presented in Tsay (2011). The considered sys-
role of an auxiliary supply–demand for each other without the tem is a nonlinear multivariable feedback control system. Re-
necessity of implementing a communication link between the searchers (Mohanty et al., 2014) have proposed a controller pa-
two microgrids. Cooperative control of power system load and rameters tuning of differential evolution (DE) algorithm and its
frequency by using differential games was proposed in Chen application to LFC of multi-source power system. The superiority
et al. (2015). With two areas and three areas LFC models, a of the proposed approach has been shown by comparing the re-
non-cooperative equilibrium solution, and two cooperative equi- sults with recently published optimal output feedback controller
librium solutions with different time consistency properties were for the same power systems. The authors (Khalghani et al., 2016)
derived. Management and control for smart microgrid based on have proposed a self-tuning LFC strategy for microgrids: Human
hybrid control theory was proposed in Dou et al. (2011). On brain emotional learning. Simulation results have shown the ef-
the basis of the proposed model, a two-level hierarchical hybrid fectiveness of the emotional controller. Researchers (Elgerd and
control was proposed based on the hybrid system control theory Fosha, 1970) have proposed an optimum megawatt-frequency
442 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Fig. 4. New power system configuration.

control of multi-area electric energy systems. The P-f control quasi-oppositional harmony search algorithm for AGC optimisa-
problem has been selected for critical examination. tion of three-area multi-unit power system after deregulation.
A new smart charging method for electric vehicles for fre- The concerned objective was to intensify the deregulated AGC
quency control of smart grid was introduced in Falahati et al. operation followed by load disturbances. Comparative perfor-
(2016). A smart charging method based on fuzzy controller was mance evaluation of fractional order controllers in LFC of two
proposed, in which charging process was performed with respect areas diverse unit power system with considering GDB and GRC
to the frequency deviation of grid and state of charge (SOC) of effects were proposed in Morsali et al. (2018). Tuneable param-
EV battery. An improved control scheme based in droop char- eters were adjusted via an improved PSO algorithm which was
acteristic for microgrid converters was introduced in Arboleya powered by chaotic parameter and crossover operator to find a
et al. (2010). The modifications added to the control were based globally optimal solution. Demand response for frequency control
on a feed forward current control that allows the converter to of multi-area power system was introduced in Bao et al. (2017). In
work in several modes. AGC of an interconnected hydrothermal order to quickly stabilise the frequency of different areas, the tie-
system in continuous and discrete modes considering generation line power was adopted as the additional input signal of demand
rate constraints (GRC) was introduced in Nanda et al. (1983). response. AGC of a Multi-area Hydro-thermal System with BES
A comprehensive procedure for continuous and discrete-mode and firefly optimised PID controller was introduced in Dash et al.
(2014). A BES was incorporated in area 1 and the system dynamic
optimisation of integral controllers using an integral squared
responses were compared with that of without BES system.
error criterion was suggested. Optimisation of LFC parameters
Discrete variable structure controller for LFC of multi-area
for power systems with reheats steam turbines and governor
interconnected power systems was proposed in Kumar et al.
dead band nonlinearity was proposed (Tripathy et al., 1982a). It
(1987). A discrete version of a VSC for LFC of a two-area thermal
was shown that the governor dead band (backlash) nonlinearity
and multi-area interconnected power system was presented. The
tends to produce a continuous oscillation in the area frequency
authors (Tripathy et al., 1982b) have proposed an optimisation of
and tie-line power transient response. Design and analysis of DE
LFC parameters for power systems with reheats steam turbines
algorithm based AGC for interconnected power system was intro- and governor dead-band nonlinearity. When proportional feed-
duced in Rout et al. (2013). The design problem was formulated as back of area frequency error was used to stabilise the response it
an optimisation problem control and DE was employed to search found that only overshoot was reduced, but settling time remains
for optimal controller parameters. the same. TLBO algorithm based fuzzy-PID controller for AGC of
NERC’s control performance standards based load frequency multi-area power system was proposed in Sahu et al. (2015).
controller for a multi-area deregulated power system with ANFIS For the first time teaching–learning based TLBO algorithm was
approach was introduced in T and Fathima (2018). The pro- applied in this area to obtain the parameters of the proposed
posed controller was tested on the Indian regional grid system fuzzy-PID controller. LFC management in island operation was
and its control performance standards were compared with the introduced (Maslo and Kolcun, 2014). A number of possibilities
conventional PID controller and ANFIS controller. AGC of multi- for the cooperation of turbine control modes and supervisory
area power systems with diverse energy sources using TLBO control of frequency and active power were investigated and
algorithm was proposed in Sahu et al. (2016a). The design prob- evaluated. The authors (Vrdoljak et al., 2010) have proposed a
lem was formulated as an optimisation problem and TLBO was sliding mode based LFC in power systems. A new discrete time
employed to optimise the parameters of the PIDD controller. sliding mode controller for LFC in control areas of a power system
The authors (Shiva and Mukherjee, 2016) have proposed a novel was presented. Intelligent controllers for LFC of two area power
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 443

system were introduced in Azeer et al. (2017). The objective was problem and ensures to attenuate the frequency and tie-line
to eliminate errors due to the disturbances in both frequency and power deviations to zero due to different operating conditions
tie-line power so as to ensure an economic power generation. and load changes. Decentralised sliding mode LFC for multi-area
Coordinated control of distributed energy resources (DERs) power systems was presented in Mi et al. (2013). The PI switching
to support LFC was proposed in Pandi et al. (2015). The er- surface was constructed for each area to improve system dynamic
ror in feeder power flow with respect to scheduled value was performance in reaching intervals. Distributed LFC in an intercon-
utilised by the PI controller to estimate the change in power nected power system using ecological technique diagram method
reference of all DER units. A new intelligent online fuzzy tuning was proposed in Mohamed et al. (2016). The control structure
approach for multi-area LFC self-adaptive modified Bat algorithm was built on the frequency response model of multi-area power
was introduced in Khooban and Niknam (2015). The proposed system, and physical constraints of the governors and turbines.
controller guaranties stability and robustness against uncertain-
ties caused by external disturbances and impermanent dynamics 3.6. LFC based on dual mode approach
that power systems face. A hybrid firefly algorithm and pat-
tern search technique for AGC of multi-area power systems was Some dual models based control of frequency are proposed
introduced in Sahu et al. (2015b). The proposed approach was ex- in this section. The design of biogeography optimisation based
tended to multi-area multi-source hydro thermal power system dual mode gain scheduling fractional order PI load frequency
with or without considering the effect of physical constraints. The controllers for multi-source interconnected power systems was
authors (Gozde et al., 2012) have proposed a comparative perfor- presented in Sathya and Ansira (2016). The model was based
mance analysis of Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm in AGC on dual mode gain scheduling of fractional order PI controller
for interconnected reheat thermal power system. The robustness and provided one more degree of freedom in comparison with
analysis was applied to the power system which was optimised the conventional PI controller. The dual mode concept was also
by ABC algorithm. Analysis of frequency sensitive wind plant incorporated and the system performance was improved. The
penetration effect on LFC of hybrid power system was proposed authors (Kumar and Ansari, 2016) have proposed a new de-
in Aziz et al. (2018). Simulation results presented here provides sign of dual mode Type-II fuzzy logic load frequency controller
some guidance on the design parameters of frequency regulation for interconnected power systems with parallel AC–DC tie-lines
scheme in the presence of frequency sensitive wind plant. The and capacitor energy storage unit. The dual-mode concept is
authors in Yang et al. (2002) have proposed a decentralised power incorporated in the proposed controller to improve the system
system LFC beyond the limit of diagonal dominance. The robust performance. A DC link was connected in parallel with AC tie-line
stability condition for the overall system can be easily stated to stabilise the frequency of oscillations. Researchers (Velusami
as to achieve a sufficient interaction margin, and a sufficient and Chidambaram, 2006) have proposed a design of decentralised
gain and phase margin during each independent design. Load biased dual mode controllers for LFC of interconnected power
frequency control of interconnected power system using grey systems. The proposed controller was simple in structure and
wolf optimisation (GWO) was proposed in Guha et al. (2016). easy for implementation. Dual mode control applied for power
The controller gains were optimised by using GWO algorithm generation control was proposed in Kumar et al. (1984). The
employing integral time multiplied absolute error based fitness proposed controller was simple in structure and easily imple-
function. mentable. Decentralised biased dual mode controllers for LFC of
interconnected power systems considering GDB and GRC non-
3.5. LFC based on decentralised techniques linearities was proposed in Velusami and Chidambaram (2007).
The closed loop system was simulated, and the frequency and
Some authors have proposed the solution of the LFC problem tie line power deviations resulting from a step load disturbance
using the decentralised control models. Yang et al. (2002) have were presented. The proposed model considered effects of non-
proposed a decentralised power system LFC beyond the limit of linearities in the design phase. Sathya and Ansari (2015) have
diagonal dominance. Based on the presented model each local presented a LFC using BAT inspired algorithm based dual mode
controller can be design independently. Decentralised adaptive gain scheduling of PI controllers for interconnected power sys-
LFC in a multi-area power system was proposed in Minh et al. tem. The model provided a better transient as well as steady state
(2018). The particularity of that research was the aggregation of response.
stage was performed by the use of an adaptive optimal decen-
tralised control law. The proposed controller was found to be 3.7. LFC based FACTS and storage system
simple in structure and easy for implementation. Tan et al. (2012)
have proposed a decentralised LFC in deregulated environments. The contribution or importance of the battery in the new
A method to analyse the stability of the decentralised LFC for power system is no longer demonstrated. Most of the renewable
normal environments was also extended to the deregulated case. energy sources are weather dependent and not available at any
Using a coefficient diagram method the authors in Bernard et al. time and the battery can be used to supply the load on time
(2014) have presented a new decentralised model for LFC in an of unavailability of these sources. Chandrakala et al. (2014) have
interconnected power system. The designed method reduced the presented a LFC of multi-source multi-area hydro thermal system
effects of uncertainties owing to variations in the parameters of using flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS)
governors and turbines as well as load disturbances. devices. An impact of energy storage system on LFC for diverse
Decentralised LFC controller for a multi-area interconnected sources of interconnected power system in deregulated power
was proposed in Alrifai et al. (2011). The simulation results in- environment was presented in Shankar et al. (2016b). The pro-
dicate that the proposed control scheme works well. In addition, posed control mechanism has been analysed in a deregulated
they show that the controlled system is robust to changes in the power environment with the help of different simulation case
parameters of the power system and to bounded input distur- studies to find out improved dynamic performance over inte-
bances acting on the system. The authors in Ray et al. (2005) have gral control strategies. LFC of an interconnected reheat thermal
presented a multi-area LFC of power systems, a decentralised system using type-2 fuzzy system including SMES units was
variable structure approach. The proposed decentralised control proposed in [000]. The performance of the Type-2 (T2) fuzzy
was more practical than the centralised control scheme for this controller is compared with optimal PID (Khamsum’s optimal
444 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

PID) controller and Fuzzy PI Controller (Type-1 Fuzzy) controller based on a feedforward artificial neural network, capable of short
in the presence of GRC, BD and SMES. LFC in deregulated power term day ahead load forecasting. Impact of energy storage units
system integrated with super SMES-Thyristors controlled phase on LFC of deregulated power systems was presented in Selvaraju
shifters combination using adaptive neuro fuzzy system con- and Somaskandan (2016). The research proposed a new design of
troller was proposed (Pappachen and Fathima, 2016). The dynam- intelligent controller for LFC of interconnected deregulated power
ics of the proposed model was analysed with unilateral, bilateral systems with ESS using artificial cooperative search algorithm.
and contract violation cases for a small load perturbation. The au- Control performance standards based load frequency controller
thors (Nandi et al., 2017a) have proposed a frequency stabilisation considering redox flow batteries coordinate with interline power
of multi-area multi-source interconnected power system using flow controller was proposed in Chidambaram and Paramasivm
TCSC and SMES mechanism. The step load perturbation (SLP) (2012). The redox flow batteries, which were not aged to the
and random SLP are used for the dynamic performance analysis. frequent charging and discharging, have a quick response and
Adaptive AGC with SMES in power systems was presented (Tri- outstanding function during overload conditions.
pathy et al., 1992). A comprehensive comparative performance Comparative performance evaluation of SMES–SMES, TCPS–
evaluation of control schemes using adaptive and non-adaptive SMES and SSSC–SMES controllers in AGC for a two-area hydro–
controllers in the main AGC and in the SMAES control loops was hydro system was presented in Bhatt et al. (2011). To compensate
presented. for such load disturbances and stabilise the area frequency os-
Effect of battery energy storage system (BESS) on LFC con- cillations, the dynamic power flow control of SSSC or thyristors
sidering governor dead-band and GRC was presented (Lu et al., controlled phase shifters (TCPS) in coordination with SMES were
1995). Computer simulations shown that the BES was very ef- proposed. The authors (Muzhikyan et al., 2016) have proposed
fective in damping the oscillations caused by load disturbances. relative merits of load following reserves and ESS market inte-
Control of a SMES for mitigating sub-synchronous oscillations gration towards power system imbalances. The results show that
in power systems: a PBC-PI approach was presented in Gonza- load following reserves and ESS mitigate imbalances in funda-
lez et al. (2018). The proposed methodology was assessed with mentally different ways. Optimisation and energy management
a classical PI controller, feedback linearisation controller and a of a standalone hybrid microgrid in the presence of BSS was
passivity-based PI control (PI-PBC). The authors (Luo et al., 2014) proposed in Moradi et al. (2018). In order to achieve optimal
have presented an optimal sizing and control strategy of isolated utilisation of renewable resources in a microgrid environment
grid with wind power and ESS. The optimal size of the ESS and system cost-effective operations, the effectiveness of a BSS
unit was examined. The authors (Colbertaldo et al., 2019) have
was determined by genetic algorithm and sequential simulation.
proposed the impact of hydrogen energy storage on California
The annualised cost considering the compensation cost of cur-
electric power system: Towards 100% renewable electricity. Nov-
tailed wind power and load is minimised when the reliability
elty of the study was the assessment of hydrogen as the primary
requirement can be satisfied. A comprehensive study of battery–
storage means for balancing energy supply and demand on a
supercapacitor hybrid ESS for standalone PV power system in
large scale. BES for LFC of an interconnected power system was
rural electrification was proposed (Jing et al., 2018). The existing
proposed in Aditya and Das (2001). Time domain simulations
hybrid ESSs and their corresponding energy management strate-
were used to study the performance of the power system and
gies vary in terms of topology, complexity and control algorithm
BES system. Frequency stabilisation of multi-area multi-source
which are often application oriented. Researchers (Dhundhara
interconnected power system using TCSC and SMES mechanism
and Verma, 2018) have proposed capacitive energy storage with
was presented in Nandi et al. (2017b). The SLP and random SLP
optimised controller for frequency regulation in realistic multi-
were used for the dynamic performance analysis.
source deregulated power system. In addition, the effectiveness of
Researchers (Muyeen et al., 2014) have proposed the tran-
the sine–cosine algorithm tuned PI controller was also compared sient stability enhancement of wind farms connected to a multi-
with the popular PSO algorithm. A self-interested distributed machine power system by using an adaptive ANN-controlled
economic MPC approach to BES networks was proposed in Wang SMES. The control strategy of SMES depends mainly on a sinu-
et al. (2019). To solve this problem, dissipativity theory with soidal pulse width modulation (PWM) VSC and an adaptive ANN
dynamic supply rates was adopted in that paper to deal with the controlled DC–DC converter using insulated gate bipolar tran-
interactions between individual users and the MPM. sistors (IGBTs). Frequency response services designed for energy
The authors (Fujimoto et al., 2009) have proposed a LFC using storage was proposed in Kerdphol et al. (2016). Novel statistical
storage system for a microgrid. A power storage system was techniques have been devised to quantify the design and oper-
used with photovoltaic generation and wind power generation. ational requirements of ESS providing frequency regulation ser-
Storage as a flexibility option in power systems with high shares vices. Optimum BESS using PSO considering dynamic demand re-
of variable renewable energy sources: a POLES-based analysis sponse for microgrids was presented in Greenwood et al. (2017).
was presented in Després et al. (2017). The innovative aspect of The optimum size of BESS was evaluated by PSO incorporating DR
their work was the direct coupling between POLES and EUCAD, based on frequency control of the microgrid. The authors (Arya,
thus combining a long-term simulation horizon and a short-term 2019) have proposed an AGC of PV-thermal and hydro-thermal
approach for the power system operation. AGC with fuzzy logic power systems using CES and a new multi-stage FPIDF − (1 + PI)
controllers in the power system including SMES units was pro- controller. Motivated by the fact that fuzzy control techniques
posed in Demiroren and Yesil (2004). The zero steady-state error display superior performance under volatile operating conditions
was obtained after sufficient delay time. The authors (Shankar in contrast to conventional control strategies. Optimisation under
et al., 2016a) have proposed a small-signal stability analysis for uncertainty of a biomass-integrated renewable energy microgrid
two area interconnected power system with load frequency con- with energy storage was presented in Zheng et al. (2018). As an
troller in coordination with FACTS and energy storage device. illustrative example, a case study was examined for a conceptual
The proposed control scheme consists of an integral controller in utility grid-connected microgrid application in Davis, California.
coordination with the redox flow energy storage system (RFESS) BESSs as a way to integrate renewable energy in small isolated
and the static synchronous series compensator (SSSC). Smart en- power systems were proposed in Branco et al. (2018). The BESS
ergy management algorithm for load smoothing and peak shaving was inserted in to the Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch
based on load forecasting of an island’s power system was pro- platform and regarded as another dispatchable generator. Super-
posed in Chapaloglou et al. (2019). The prediction module was capacitor based energy storage system for improved LFC was
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 445

proposed in Mufti et al. (2009). The fuzzy controller for SCB was 3.8. LFC based on robust model
designed in such a way that the effects of load disturbances were
rejected on a continuous basis. Some robust controllers are presented in the literature. Toulabi
Small-signal stability analysis for two-area interconnected et al. (2014) have presented a robust decentralised PI and de-
power system with load frequency controller in coordination sign of power system LFC using the Kharitonov’s theorem in
with FACTS and energy storage device was presented in Shankar a multi-area. This theorem was used to determine the robust-
et al. (2016a). The proposed control scheme consists of an integral ness margin. A robust method of tuning the feedback gains of
controller in coordination with the RFESS and the SSSC. Placement a variable structure LFC controller using GA optimisation was
and sizing of BES for primary frequency control in an isolated presented in Huddar and Kulkarni (2008). The authors have com-
section of the Mexican power system was proposed in Ramirez pared the system performance against step load variations with
et al. (2018). BESS location and size were determined according to the conventional trial and error method. Khodabakhshian and
the most severe contingency for generation outage and different Edrisi (2008) have proposed a new robust PID load frequency con-
penetration levels of converter based renewable generation in troller. The proposed controller was straightforward and effective.
the test system. A hybrid DE–PS algorithm for LFC under deregu- A robust adaptive LFC for microgrids was presented in Khooban
lated power system with UPFC and RFB was proposed in Sahu et al. (2016b). The simulations results prove the successfulness
et al. (2015a). The superiority of proposed hybrid differential and effectiveness of the proposed method. Zhu et al. (2017)
evolution and Pattern search optimised MID controller over GA have proposed a robust LFC with dynamic demand response
and DE techniques was demonstrate. A SOC oriented charging for deregulated power systems considering communication de-
scheme was developed to control the BES to smooth the PV lays. A robust PID-LFC controller was designed through the H∞
output. Researchers (Cardoso et al., 2018) have proposed a battery performance analysis and the PSO searching algorithm. Robust
ageing in multi-energy microgrid design using mixed integer stability of networked LFC systems with time-varying delays was
linear programming. The battery ageing model and its integration proposed in Krishnan et al. (2017). Using Lyapunov–Krasovskii
into a larger microgrid sizing formulation were described. The functional approach, a less conservative stability criterion was
authors (Hu et al., 2018) have proposed a MPC strategy of PV- presented to ascertain delay-dependent stability of such LFC sys-
Battery microgrid under variable power generations and load tems. Tan and Xu (2009) have proposed a robust analysis and
conditions. In this paper, a microgrid with solar photovoltaic design of load frequency controller for power systems. The pro-
posed method took into account the un-modelled dynamics of
(PV) and BES was studied. The authors (Khezri et al., 2019) have
power systems.
proposed an intelligent coordinator design for GCSC and AGC in
The research presented in Tan and Zhou (2012) has proposed
a two-area hybrid power system. With constant gains that are
a robust analysis of decentralised LFC for multi-area power sys-
generally designed for fixed operating conditions, the outlined
tems. A detailed structured singular value method was proposed
approach demonstrates robust performance. AGC with thyristors
for local-area robustness analysis and an eigenvalue method was
controlled series compensator including SMES units was pro-
derived for the tie-line robustness analysis. The authors in Sudha
posed in Padhan et al. (2014). After that performance of thyristors
and Santhi (2011a) have proposed a robust decentralised LFC
controlled series compensator (TCSC) has been investigated.
of interconnected power system with generation rate constraint
AGC of a multi-area power system under deregulated envi-
using type-2 fuzzy approach. The performance of fuzzy type-2
ronment using redox flow batteries and interline power flow
was compared with the conventional controller and type-1 fuzzy
controller was proposed in Gorripotu et al. (2015). Additionally,
controller with regard to generation rate constraint. Robust H∞
to get an accurate insight of the AGC problem, important phys-
LFC in hybrid DG system was presented in Singh et al. (2013). The
ical constraints were considered and the controller parameters
PSO based loop shaping of H∞ controller was used and compared
have been retuned. PI2 controller based coordinated control with with those obtained with GA to minimise the frequency devi-
redox flow battery and unified power flow controller (UPFC) ation. Robust decentralised LFC using an iterative linear matrix
for improved restoration indices in a deregulated power system inequalities algorithm was presented in Bevrani et al. (2004). The
was proposed in Thirunavukarasu and Chidambaram (2016). The model was formulated as an H ∞-control problem and is solved
evaluation of power system restoration indices based on the using an iterative linear matrix inequalities algorithm to design
AGC assessment of interconnected power system in a deregu- of robust PI controllers in the multi-area power systems. A robust
lated environment was presented. Optimal design of MPC with PID controller based on imperialist competitive algorithm for LFC
SMES for LFC of nonlinear hydrothermal power system using bat of power systems was introduced in Shabani et al. (2013). A
inspired algorithm was introduced in Elsisi et al. (2017). The new PID controller for resistant differential control against load
model was applied to simultaneously tune the parameters of MPC disturbance is introduced that can be used for LFC application.
controller and SMES to minimise deviations of frequency and tie- The authors (Sudha et al., 2016) have proposed a fuzzy C-Means
line power flow of the interconnected. The authors in Pradhan clustering for robust decentralised LFC of interconnected power
et al. (2016) have proposed the firefly algorithm optimised fuzzy system with GRC. The simple and efficient clustering algorithms
PID controller for AGC of multi-area multi-source power systems permit the classification of the data in distinct groups using
with UPFC and SMES. The superiority of the proposed firefly algo- distance and/or similarity functions.
rithm optimised fuzzy PID controller has been demonstrated by Sun et al. (2016) have proposed a robust H∞ LFC of delayed
comparing the results with some recently published approaches. multi-area power system with stochastic disturbances. Based on
Application of UPFC in interconnected power systems: modelling, Lyapunov stability theory, several less conservative stability con-
interface, control strategy, and case study was introduced in ditions was developed in the form of linear matrix inequalities
Huang et al. (2000). The supplementary control of UPFC was to ensure the frequency stability of multi-area power system.
added for damping power oscillation. A FL approach based robust LFC for uncertain nonlinear power
LFC in deregulated power system integrated with SMES–TCPS systems was introduced in Lee et al. (2006). Sufficient conditions
combination using ANFIS controller was proposed in Pappachen for the robust asymptotic convergence of the frequency deviation
and Fathima (2016). The implementation of SMES–TCPS combi- are then provided in terms of linear matrix inequalities. Ahmadi
nation arrests the initial fall in frequency as well as the tie line and Aldeen (2017) have introduced a robust overlapping load
power deviations after a sudden load disturbance. frequency output feedback control of multi-area interconnected
446 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

power systems. The overlapping LFC design was based on the parameters using local data. LFC based on differential evolution
expansion–contraction principles. The research in Nandar (2016) optimised parallel 2-DOF PID controller was presented in Sahu
introduced a robust PI control of smart controllable load for et al. (2013). It was observed that the proposed controllers are
frequency stabilisation of microgrid power system. To guarantee quite robust for a wide range of the system parameters and
the robustness of the proposed PI controller, an inverse additive operating load conditions from their nominal values. A model
perturbation was formulated as an optimisation problem. The based on adaptive optimal gain scheduling for the LFC problem
research in Liao and Xu (2017) proposed a robust LFC scheme for was presented in Abdennour (2002). The obtained gains were
power systems based on second order sliding mode and extended used to train the adaptive network-based fuzzy inference sys-
disturbance observer. The merits of the scheme include faster tem. Another adaptive decentralised LFC of multi-area power
response speed, stronger robustness against disturbances arising systems was proposed in Zribi et al. (2005). The control scheme
from power system parameter errors and unmodelled dynamics. guarantees that the fluctuations of the LFC converge to a range,
The authors in Yazdizadeh et al. (2012) have proposed a decen- which can be made very small. A robust adaptive load frequency
tralised model based on a new robust optimal multiple input control for microgrids was proposed in Khooban et al. (2016a).
and single output PID controller. The proposed model supports A new combination of the General Type II Fuzzy Logic Sets and
a trade-off between acceptable and desired performance and the modified harmony search algorithm technique is applied for
robustness at the same time. adaptive tuning of PI controller. Robust decentralised LFC of inter-
Chidambaram and Velusami (2005) have proposed a design of connected power system with GRC using Type-2 fuzzy approach
decentralised biased controllers for LFC of interconnected power was presented in Sudha and Santhi (2011b). The performance
systems. According to the proposed method the biased controllers of the Type-2 (T2) controller was compared with conventional
were less sensitive to the changes in system parameters. The controller and Type-1 (T1) fuzzy controller with regard to GRC.
research in Fathima and Khan (2008) has proposed a design of
a new market structure and robust controller for the frequency 4. Model predictive control strategy
regulation service in the deregulated power system. The dy-
namic performance of the charged-bilateral structure is analysed
The algorithm named Model Predictive Control (MPC) belongs
through a simulation of a step load disturbances to examine its
to a category of artificial intelligence algorithms that computes in
regulation capabilities for normal operating load contract viola-
a sequential manner using adjustments of manipulated variables
tion issues. Patra et al. (2007) have proposed a design of robust
to optimise and predict the future behaviour of the system, shows
load frequency controller H∞ loop shaping approach. The real
in Fig. 5. MPC is considered as one of the advanced control
µ-analysis was adopted to ensure the robust stability of system.
techniques in the control area (Wang, 2009; Elsisi et al., 2016;
The design of a fractional order PID controller using gases
Zheng et al., 2017). Its theoretical development over years can be
Brownian motion optimisation algorithm for LFC with governor
seen by the amount of research available in the literature. With
saturation consideration was proposed in Zamani et al. (2016a).
regards to the solution of LFC problem in power networks, some
Based in time domain, the performance and robustness of the
research can be found in the literature.
model was verified.
The research in Khodabakshian et al. (2012) proposed a de-
sign of a robust LFC using sequential quadratic programming 4.1. Predictive control strategies
technique. The robustness of the proposed controller was com-
pared with that of a conventional PI controller. A FL based fine- Considering the imbalance uncertainty in the power system a
tuning approach for robust LFC in a multi-area power system predictive load frequency control model was presented in Elsisi
was presented in Khezri et al. (2016). The model performance et al. (2016). The presented model was based on the simplified
was compared with two extra robust methods. A fuzzy sliding system model that was updated using the Kalman algorithm
model LFC of multi-area interconnected power systems was pro- for estimation of state and parameter considering the tie-line
posed in Xiangping et al. (2001). Simulation results show that flow limit. The second model incorporating tie-line power flow
the presented algorithm was simple, effective and ensure that limit, the capacity of generation units, and their change rate was
the overall system is asymptotically stable. LFC problem in inter- proposed in Ersdal et al. (2016b). According to this research,
connected power systems using robust fractional PIλ D controller considering certain problems of LFC, the MPC is a more realis-
was proposed in Delassi et al. (2018). The controller parame- tic solution to the issues that power systems are dealing with
ters were tuned through new evolutionary algorithm known as nowadays. A model predictive LFC was presented in Ersdal et al.
differential evolution. Another robust controller design of SSSC (2016a). The proposed simplified MPC model took into account
for stabilisation of frequency oscillations in interconnected power the existing network configuration and the power flow limitation
systems was presented in Ngamroo and Kongprawechnon (2003). in the tie-lines. Kassem (2010) has proposed a model predictive
To implement this concept, the robust design method of the controller based on a neural network of a two microgrids LFC for
lead/lag controller equipped with the SSSC was proposed. LMI improving the power grid dynamic performance. The effective-
based robust LFC for time delayed power system via delay mar- ness of the presented approach was demonstrated over an LFC
gin estimation was presented in Xiong et al. (2018). The robust using a FL controller. Table 1 summarises some of the MPC mod-
controller gains are ultimately obtained with the estimated delay els used to solve LFC problem in power system. Khalid and Savkin
margin and a binary search technique which aims to find the (2012) have proposed LFC based MPC for an optimal control of
minimum value of RPI. Research (Bevrani and Hiyama, 2007) wind BESS. A model based on the prediction of frequency using
proposed a robust load frequency regulation real time labora- Grey theory was also designed to optimise the performance of
tory experiment. In the proposed methodology, the LFC problem the basic predictive controller. An economic aspect included in
was reduced to a static output feedback control synthesis for a MPC to solve the LFC in one control area that was presented in
multiple delays power system, and then the control parameters Sokoler et al. (2015). The authors have proposed an operation cost
are easily carried out using robust H ∞ control technique. De- reduction approach considering an order of magnitude similar to
centralised robust adaptive output feedback controller for power those based on the difference ratio of two set points MPC and PI
system LFC was presented in Kazemi et al. (2002). An adaptive controller. Active power control of two microgrids interconnected
observer was designed to estimate the state variables and system via two alternating current tie-lines was proposed (Tungadio
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 447

Fig. 5. Model predictive control strategy (Tungadio et al., 2018b).

et al., 2018b). Three different cases were introduced in the studied control with dynamic fuzzy valve position modelling for hydro-
system to show the effectiveness of the model. thermal power system. The limit position of the governor valve
The authors in Morattab et al. (2011) have proposed a de- was modelled by fuzzy model and the local predictive controllers,
centralised MPC for LFC in deregulated power systems under simulations results were successful. Another distributed model
harsh conditions. To nullify the effects on frequency deviations, for predictive LFC of multi-area power system after deregula-
the MPC controller used feed-forward control strategy in each tion was proposed in Ma et al. (2017). The authors took into
area. Power system MPC-LFC was presented in Zhao et al. (2016). account the effect of bilateral contracts on the dynamics. The
The authors have modelled the limit of governor valve using the authors (Zhang et al., 2017) have presented a distributed MPC-LFC
fuzzy logic method and the local model predictive controllers
of multi-area power system with DFIGs. A performance com-
were included into a nonlinear control system strategy. A model
parison between the proposed controller with and without the
predictive control strategy method was developed for a LEED
participation of the wind turbines was carried out. Analysis and
silver community college building that contains an advanced
simulation results have shown possible improvements on closed
common loop heat pump HVAC system. MPC is performed using
loop performance, and computational burden with the physical
persistence based climate (Hilliard et al., 2016). MPC based LFC
design concerning wind turbines was introduced in Mohamed constraints. Coordinated distributed MPC for LFC of power system
et al. (2012). The proposed model introduced the fast response of with wind farms was proposed in Liu et al. (2017). Both simula-
frequency of a connected area power system taking into account tion and experimental tests of a four-area interconnected power
WTs generation. Zhang et al. (2015) have proposed an MPC for system LFC, which consists of thermal plants, hydro units, and
a reliable LFC with WTs. The algorithm used has reduced the a wind farm, demonstrate the improved efficiency of the coordi-
impact of the randomness and intermittency of wind turbines nated DMPC. A new scheme for power system LFC to maintain the
effectively. Zheng et al. (2016) have presented a design of a performance of the centralised MPC while keeping the reliability
multi-mode intelligent MPC control strategy for hydroelectric of the local PI controller was proposed in Liu et al. (2012). A
generating unit. The model was built on the basis of a tree hierarchical two-level optimal control strategy for the load fre-
seed algorithm and the stability guaranteed measures into rolling quency control of the multi-area power systems was presented.
optimisation mechanism of nonlinear MPC to replace the existing Distributed MPC strategies including application to LFC in the
complex numerical differential geometric solutions. A functional electrical network was proposed in Shiroei and Ranjbar (2014).
MPC approach for power system LFC considering GRC was pro- The distributed approach framework realises the performance
posed in Shiroei et al. (2013a). To alleviate computational effort similar to centralised MPC. Ma et al. (2014) have presented a
and to reduce numerical problems, particularly in large pre- distributed model predictive LFC of multi-area interconnected
diction horizon, an exponentially weighted functional MPC was
power system. The dynamics model of multi-area interconnected
employed. A model predictive based LFC design concerning wind
was introduced and GRC and load reference set point constraint
turbines was introduced in Mohamed et al. (2012). Each local area
were considered.
controller was designed independently such that stability of the
Table 1 gives some MPC based LFC strategies. Two models
overall closed loop system was guaranteed. Frequency stabilisa-
based on decentralised models and on comparison of distributed
tion of renewable power systems based on MPC with application
to the Egyptian grid was presented in Magdy et al. (2018). The and centralised MPC were presented in Mohamed et al. (2011)
proposed technique provided stabilisation of renewable power and Ojaghi and Rahmani (2017). Mohamed et al. (2011) have pre-
systems with inherent nonlinearities. sented a decentralised MPC based LFC in an interconnected power
system. The results have shown that considering the proposed
4.2. Distributed MPC predictive method the overall performance of the closed-loop
technique has demonstrated robustness in the load disturbance
Distributed model predictive LFC it is one of the techniques condition. The performance of cooperatively distributed MPC is
used on control of the frequency control. The overall system can compared with that of the centralised MPC and the classical
be decomposed into several subsystems and each has its own AGC methods was presented in Ojaghi and Rahmani (2017). The
local area MPC controller. Liu et al. (2016a) have presented a main contribution was that the load variations are applied to the
distributed model predictive control for active load frequency system in the form of consecutive pulses.
448 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Table 1
MPC based LFC strategies.
MPC LFC solutions
MPC model Areas References
Distributed model based state variables 4 Shiroei et al. (2013b)
Distributed model based Simulink 2; 3 and 4 Zheng et al. (2017), Zhang et al. (2015)
Decentralised model based Simulink 3 Mohamed et al. (2011)
Nonlinear model based Simulink 2 and 3 Shiroei and Ranjbar (2014), Mohamed et al. (2011)
Predictive active control 2 Tungadio et al. (2018b)
Robust multivariable based Simulink 3 Liu et al. (2016b)
Supervisory MPC based Simulink 4 Zhao et al. (2016)
Bat inspired algorithm based Simulink 2 Elsisi et al. (2016)
Economic MPC based state variable 1 Sokoler et al. (2015)
Robust nonlinear based state variables 1 Ersdal et al. (2016b), Ersdal et al. (2016a)

4.3. Robust MPC sources of energy besides storage. Therefore, further efforts
are required to design frequency control strategies which
Taking into account the time delays or time varying in commu- can take into account the dynamics of microgrids if they are
nication network and the uncertainties of parameters the authors grid connected.
in Venkat et al. (2008) have presented a robust predictive LFC. The • The growing penetration of the renewable energy resources
goal of their research was achieved by a good performance of the into the power system is also a point of concern for fre-
closed-loop control system, considering the practical problems quency control of the power system design and operation.
of the power system network. Shiroei et al. (2013b) have pro- The existing frequency control problem does not take into
posed a MPC for power grid LFC when considering the imbalance account the renewable sources of energy such as wind and
uncertainty. Based on the simulations performed on the power solar power, etc. Till date most of the renewable energy
system with a high number of wind generation integrated, it was sources integrated into the power system do not partici-
pate in frequency control of the power system. However,
shown that in certain cases in which the state of the art LFC
with growing penetration of such sources, their dynamic
applying PI controller and normal MPC have failed by violating
participation in the design of frequency control of the power
the constraints of the system while the robust MPC fulfils all these
system needs to be explored.
constraints. Liu et al. (2016b) have proposed a robust predictive
• In practice the conventional control strategies, such as PI
control model based LFC taking into account the generation limit
and PID algorithms are the most applied for load frequency
constraints. The authors took into account the uncertainty and
control in power system plant. When taking into account
parameter variations and the proposed model was robust. Ro- the external disturbances in the power system, the conven-
bust distributed MPC for LFC of uncertain power systems was tional controllers could not guarantee a good performance.
introduced in Liu et al. (2016b). The proposed algorithm solved Numbers of controllers are proposed and can be found in the
a series of local convex optimisation problems to minimise an literature. The weakness of most of them can be summarised
attractive range for a robust performance objective by using a by the conventional controllers applied to the nonlinear
time-varying state-feedback controller for each control area. system, most of the time there are dependent on the math-
ematical model of the plant. Various disturbances can be
5. Summary and future work added to these drawbacks: uncertainty based on load power
variation, error, modelling and various modification of net-
5.1. Summary work physical structure. Taking into account drawbacks,
integration of renewable energy sources in the network and
• The present paper reviews the comprehensive literature all the structure modification that happen in the modern
concerning the load frequency controller models. The recent power system, it is become beneficial to introduce new
issues and challenges faced by these controllers as well as by control models.
the power system in order to maintain the frequency of the
system to nominal values and to maintain the voltage and 5.2. Future scope
active power profile within predetermined limits are also
• The integration of fluctuating energy sources like solar and
addressed in this paper.
wind power with energy storage devices improve the relia-
• The integration of fluctuating energy sources like solar and
bility of the system as well as the quality of power delivered
wind power with energy storage devices improve the relia-
to the consumers. The frequency control is a major issue in
bility of the system as well as the quality of power delivered the power system operation and control and lot of advanced
to the consumers. The frequency control is a major issue in control strategies have been developed over the last decades
the power system operation and control and lot of advanced in order to improve the frequency control of the power
control strategies have been developed over the last decades system. Therefore, further efforts are required to design
in order to improve the frequency control of the power frequency control strategies which can take into account the
system. Therefore, further efforts are required to design dynamics of microgrids if these are grid connected.
frequency control strategies which can take into account the • The growing penetration of the RER is also a point of con-
dynamics of microgrids if these are grid connected. cern for frequency control of the power system design and
• The frequency control is a major issue in the power system operation. The existing frequency control problem does not
operation and control and lot of advanced control strate- take into account the renewable sources of energy such as
gies have been developed over the last decades in order wind and solar power, etc. Till date solar energy sources do
to improve the frequency control of the power system. not participate in frequency control of the power system.
However, there is a growing trend to develop microgrids However, with growing penetration of such sources, their
which may be operated in grid connected or isolated mode. dynamic participation in the design of frequency control of
The microgrids essentially have unpredictable renewable the power system needs to be explored.
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 449

Acknowledgment Bevrani, H., Habibi, F., Babahajyani, P., Watanabe, M., Mitani, Y., 2012. Intelligent
frequency control in AC microgrid: Online PSO-based fuzzy tuning approach.
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 3 (4), 1935–1944.
This research is supported partially by South African Na-
Bevrani, H., Hiyama, T., 2007. Robust load frequency regulation: a real time
tional Research Foundation Grants (No. 112108 and 112142), and laboratory experiment. Optim. Control Appl. Meth. 28, 419–433.
South African National Research Foundation Incentive Grant (No. Bevrani, H., Mitani, Y., Tsuji, K., 2004. Robust decentralised load frequency
95687), Eskom Tertiary Education Support Programme, Research control using an iterative linear matrix inequalities algorithm. IEEE Proc.
Grant from URC of University of Johannesburg. Faculty of Engi- Gener. Transm. Distrib. 151 (3), 347–354.
neering and the Built of Environment, Department of Electrical Bhatt, P., Roy, R., Ghoshal, S.P., 2011. Comparative performance evaluation of
SMES-SMES, TCPS-SMES and SSSC-SMES controllers in automatic generation
and Electronic Engineering, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, control for two area hydro-hydro system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst.
Johannesburg, South Africa. 33, 1585–1597.
Branco, H., Castro, R., Lopes, A.S., 2018. Battery energy storage systems as a
References way to integrate renewable energy in small isolated power systems. Energy
Sustain. Dev. 43, 90–99.
Abazari, A., Dozein, M.G., Monsef, H., 2018. An optimal fuzzy-logic based Cam, E., 2007. Application of fuzzy logic for load frequency control of
frequency control strategy in a high wind penetrated power system. J. hydroelectrical power plants. Energy Convers. Manage. 48, 1281–1288.
Franklin Inst. B 355, 6262–6268. Cam, E., Kocaarslan, I., 2005. Load frequency control in two area power systems
Abdelaziz, A.Y., Ali, E.S., 2016. Load frequency controller design via artificial using fuzzy logic controller. Energy Convers. Manage. 46, 233–243.
cuckoo search algorithm. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 44 (1), 90–98. Cardoso, G., Brouhard, T., DeForest, N., Wang, D., Helono, M., Kotzur, L., 2018.
Abdennour, A., 2002. Adaptive optimal gain scheduling for the load frequency Battery aging in multi energy microgrid design using mixed integer linear
control problem. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 30 (1), 45–56. programming. Appl. Energy 231, 1059–1069.
Aditiya, S.K., Das, D., 2003. Design of load frequency controllers using genetic Chandrakala, V., Sukumar, B., Sankaranarayan, K., 2014. Load frequency control
algorithm for two area interconnected hydropower system. Electr. Power of multi-source multi-area hydro thermal system using flexible alternating
Compon. Syst. 31, 81–94. current transmission system devices. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 42 (9),
Aditya, S.K., Das, D., 2001. Battery energy storage or load frequency control of 927–934.
an interconnected power system. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 58, 179–185. Chang, C.S., Fu, W., Wen, F., 1998. Load frequency control using genetic algorithm
Ahmadi, A., Aldeen, M., 2017. Robust overlapping load frequency output feedback based fuzzy gain scheduling of PI controllers. Electr. Power Compon. Syst.
control of multi-area interconnected power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power 26 (1), 39–52.
Energy Syst. 89, 156–172. Chapaloglou, S., Nesladis, A., Iliadis, P., Atsonlos, K., Nikolopoulos, N., Gram-
Ahmadi, S., Shokoohi, S., Bevrani, H., 2015. A fuzzy logic-based droop control melis, P., Ylakopouls, C., Antoniadis, I., Kakaras, E., 2019. Smart energy
for simultaneous voltage and frequency regulation in an AC microgrid. Int. management algorithm for load smoothing and peak shaving based on load
J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 148–155. forecasting of an island’s power system. Appl. Energy 238, 627–643.
Al-Hamouz, Z.M., Al-Duwaish, H.N., 2000. A new load frequency variable Chaturvedi, D.K., Umrao, R., Malik, O.P., 2015. Adaptive polar fuzzy based load
structure controller using genetic algorithms. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 55, frequency controller. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 66, 154–159.
1–6. Chen, H., Ye, R., Wang, X., Lu, R., 2015. Cooperative control of power system load
Al-Hamouz, Z.M., Magid, Y.L.A., 1993. Variable structure load frequency con- and frequency by using differential games. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol.
trollers for multi-area power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 15 23 (3), 882–897.
(5), 293–300. Chidambaram, I.A., Paramasivm, B., 2012. Control performance standards based
Ali, E.S., Abd-Elazim, S.M., 2013. BFOA Based design of PID controller for two load frequency controller considering redox flow batteries coordinate with
area load frequency control with nonlinearities. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy interline power flow controller. J. Power Sources 219, 292–304.
Syst. 51, 224–231. Chidambaram, I.A., Velusami, S., 2005. Design of decentralised biased controllers
Alrifai, M.T., Hassan, M.F., Zribi, M., 2011. Decentralised load frequency controller for load frequency control of interconnected power systems. Electr. Power
for a multi-area interconnected power system. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. Compon. Syst. 33, 1313–1331.
33, 198–229. Colbertaldo, P., Agustin, S.B., Campanari, S., 2019. Impact of hydrogen energy
Aly, G., Magid, Y.L.A., Wali, M.A., 1984. Load frequency control of interconnected storage on California electric power system: Towards 100% renewable
power systems via minimum variance regulators. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 7, electricity. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44, 9558–9576.
1–11. Cui, Y., Xu, L., Fei, M., Shen, Y., 2017. Observer based robust integral sliding
Anwar, Md.N., Pan, S., 2015. A new PID load frequency controller design method mode load frequency control for wind power systems. Control Eng. Pract.
in frequency domain through direct synthesis approach. Int. J. Electr. Power 65, 1–10.
Energy Syst. 67, 560–569.
Daneshfar, F., Bevrani, H., 2012. Multiobjective design of load frequency control
Arboleya, P., Diaz, D., Guerrero, J.M., Garcia, P., Briz, F., Moran, C.G., Aleixan-
using genetic algorithms. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 42, 257–263.
dre, J.G., 2010. An improved control scheme based in droop characteristics
Dash, P., Saika, L.C., Das, S.K., 2014. AGC of a multi-area hydrothermal system
for microgrid converters. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 80, 1215–1221.
with BES and firefly optimised PID controller. In: IEEE Eighteenth National
Arya, Y., 2019. AGC Of PV- thermal and hydro thermal power systems using CES
Power Systems Conferences (NPSC), 2014, pp. 1–6.
and a new multi stage FPIDF (1+PI) controller. Renew. Energy 134, 796–806.
Debbarma, S., Saikia, L.C., Sinha, N., 2014. Automatic generation control using
Arya, Y., Kumar, N., 2016. Fuzzy Gain scheduling controllers for automatic
two degree of freedom fractional order PID controller. Int. J. Electr. Power
generation control of two-area interconnected electrical power systems.
Energy Syst. 58, 120–129.
Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 44 (7), 737–751.
Azeer, S.A., Ballgobin, R.R., Hassen, S.Z.S., 2017. Intelligent controllers for load Delassi, A., Arif, S., Mokrani, L., 2018. Load frequency control problem in
frequency control of two-area power system. IFAC PapersOnLine 50 (2), interconnected power systems using robust fractional PID controller. Ain
301–306. Shams Eng. J. 9, 77–88.
Aziz, A., Than-Oo, A., Stojcevski, A., 2018. Analysis of frequency sensitive wind Demiroren, A., Yesil, E., 2004. Automatic generation control with fuzzy logic
plant penetration effect on load frequency control of hybrid power system. controllers in the power system including smes units. Electr. Power Energy
Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 99, 603–617. Syst. 26, 291–305.
Bakirtizis, A.G., Thecharis, M.J.B., Kiartzis, M.S.J., Satsios, K.J., 1995. Short term Després, J., Mima, S., Kitous, A., Criqui, P., Hadjsaid, N., Noirot, I., 2017. Storage as
load forecasting using fuzzy neural networks. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 10 (3), a flexibility option in power systems with high shares of variable renewable
1518–1524. energy sources: a poles-based analysis. Energy Econ. 64, 638–650.
Bao, Y.Q., Li, Y., Wang, B., Hu, M., Chen, P., 2017. Demand response for frequency Devi, P.S., Santhi, R.V., Pushpalatha, D.V., 2016. Introducing LQR-fuzzy technique
control for multi-area power system. J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 5 (1), with dynamic demand response control loop to load frequency control
20–29. model. IFAC-PapersOnLine 49 (1), 567–572.
Barisal, A.K., 2015. Comparative analysis of teaching learning based optimisation Dey, R., Ghosh, s., Ray, G., Rakshit, A., 2012. H∞ Load frequency control of
of automatic load frequency control of multi-source powers systems. Renew. interconnected power systems with communication delays. Int. J. Electr.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 66, 67–77. Power Energy Syst. 42, 672–684.
Barisall, A.K., Mishra, S., 2018. Improved PSO based automatic generation control Dhillo, S.S., Lather, J.S., Marwaha, S., 2015. Multi area load frequency control
of multi-source nonlinear power systems interconnected by AC/DC links. using particle swarm optimisation and fuzzy rules. Procedia Comput. Sci.
Cogent Eng. 5, 1–20. 57, 460–472.
Bernard, M.Z., Mohamed, T.H., Qudaih, Y.S., Mitani, Y., 2014. Decentralised Dhundhara, S., Verma, Y.P., 2018. CaPacitive energy storage with optimised con-
load frequency control in an interconnected power system using coefficient troller for frequency regulation in realistic multisource deregulated power
diagram method. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 63, 165–172. system. Energy 147, 1108–1128.
450 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Doolla, S., Bhatti, T.S., Bansal, R.C., 2011. Load frequency control of an isolated Hossain, M.J., Mahmud, M.A., Milano, F., Bacha, S., Hably, A., 2015. Design of
small hydro power plant using multi pipe scheme. Electr. Power Compon. robust distributed control for interconnected microgrids. IEEE Trans. Smart
Syst. 39 (1), 46–63. Grid 7 (6), 2724–2735.
Dou, C.X., Liu, D.L., Jia, X.B., Zhao, F., 2011. Management and control for smart Hu, J., Xu, Y., Cheng, K.W., Guerrero, J.M., 2018. A model predictive control
microgrid based on hybrid control theory. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 39 strategy of PV-battery microgrid under variable power generations and load
(8), 813–832. conditions. Appl. Energy 221, 195–203.
Dzobo, O., Sun, Y., 2019. Optimal power control strategy of hybrid energy Huang, Z., Ni, Y., Shen, C.M., Wu, F.F., Chen, S., Zhang, B., 2000. Application of
system considering demand response strategy and customer interruption unified power flow controller in interconnected power systems-modelling,
cost. Recent Adv. Electr. Electron. Eng. 12, 20–29. interface, control strategy, and case study. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 15 (2),
Elazim, S.M.A., Ali, E.S., 2016. Load frequency controller design via BAT algorithm 817–824.
for nonlinear interconnected power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. Huddar, A., Kulkarni, P.S., 2008. A robust method of tuning the feedback gains
77, 166–177. of a variable structure load frequency controller using genetic algorithm
Elgerd, O.I., Fosha, C.E., 1970. Optimum megawatt-frequency control of multi- optimisation. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 36, 1351–1368.
area electric energy systems. IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 89 (4), Hung, D.Q., Mithulananthan, N., Bansal, R.C., 2014. Integration of PV and BES
556–563. units in commercial distribution systems considering energy loss and voltage
Elsisi, M., Soliman, M., Aboelee, M.A.S., Mansour, W., 2017. Optimal design of stability. Appl. Energy 113, 1162–1170.
model predictive control with superconducting magnetic energy storage for Jagatheesam, K., Anand, B., Omar, M., 2015. Design of proportional–integral–
load frequency control of nonlinear hydrothermal power system using bat derivative controller using ant colony optimisation technique in multi-area
inspired algorithm. J. Energy Storage 12, 311–318. automatic generation control. Int. J. Electr. Eng. Inf. 7 (4), 541–558.
Elsisi, M., Soliman, M., Aboelela, M.A.S., Mansour, W., 2016. Bat inspired algo- Jaleeli, N., Vanslyck, L.S., Ewart, D.N., Fink, L.H., Hoffmann, A.G., 1992. Un-
rithm based optimal design of model predictive load frequency control. Int. derstanding automatic generation control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 7 (3),
J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 83, 426–433. 1106–1122.
Ersdal, A.M., Imsland, L., Uhlen, K., 2016a. Model predictive load frequency Jing, W., Lai, C.H., Wong, W.S.H., Wong, M.L.D., 2018. A comprehensive study
control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 31 (1), 777–785. of battery super-capacitor hybrid energy storage system for standalone PV
Ersdal, A.M., Imsland, L., Uhlen, K., Fabozi, D., Thornhill, N.F., 2016b. Model power system in rural electrification. Appl. Energy 224, 340–256.
predictive load frequency control taking into account imbalance uncertainty. Kang, N., Liao, Y., 2010. Contingency studies of a real power system and violation
Control Eng. Pract. 53, 139–150. mitigation measures. Int. Rev. Model. Simul. 3 (5), 882–887.
Essiet, I.O., Sun, Y., Wang, Z., 2019. Optimised energy consumption model for Kassem, A.M., 2010. Neural predictive controller of a two area load frequency
smart home using improved differential evolution algorithm. Energy 172, control for interconnected power system. Ain Shams Eng. J. 1, 49–58.
354–365. Kayalvizhi, S., Kumar, D.M.V., 2017. Load frequency control of an isolated
microgrid using fuzzy adaptive model predictive control. IEEE Access 5,
Falahati, S., Taher, S.A., Shahidehpour, M., 2016. A new smart charging method
16241–16251.
for EVs for frequency control of smart grid. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst.
83, 458–469. Kazemi, M.H., Karrari, M., Menhaj, M.B., 2002. Decentralised robust adaptive-
output feedback controller for power system load frequency control. Electr.
Farhangi, R., Boroushaki, M., Hosseini, S.H., 2012. Load-frequncy control of
Eng. 84, 75–83.
interconnected power system using emotional learning-based intelligent
Kennedy, T., Hoyt, S.M., Abell, C.F., 1988. Variable nonlinear tie-line frequency
controller. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 36, 76–83.
bias for interconnected systems control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 3 (3),
Fathima, A.P., Khan, M.A., 2008. Design of a new market structure and robust
1244–1253.
controller for the frequency regulation service in the deregulated power
Kerdphol, T., Qudaih, Y., mitani, Y., 2016. Optimum battery energy storage system
system. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 36, 864–883.
using PSO considering dynamic demand response for microgrids int. J. Electr.
Fattahi, J., Schriemer, H., Bacque, B., Orr, R., Hinzer, K., 2016. High stability
Power Energy Syst. 83, 58–66.
adaptive microgrid control method using fuzzy logic. Sustainable Cities Soc.
Khalghani, M.R., Khooban, M.H., Moghaddam, E.M., Vafamand, N., Goodarzi, M.,
25, 57–64.
2016. A self-tuning load frequency control strategy for microgrids: human
Fu, Q., Nasiri, A., Solanki, A., Ahmed, A.B., Weber, L., Bhavaraju, V., 2015. Mi-
brain emotional learning. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 75, 311–319.
crogrids: architecture, controls, protection and demonstration. Electr. Power
Khalid, M., Savkin, A.V., 2012. An optimal operation of wind energy storage
Compon. Syst. 43 (12), 1453–1465.
system for frequency control based on model predictive control. Renew.
Fujimoto, K., Ota, T., Shimizu, Y., Ichikawa, T., Yukita, K., Goto, Y., Ichiyanagi, K.,
Energy 48, 127–132.
Takeda, t., Hirose, K., Okui, Y., 2009. Load frequency control using storage
Khederzadeh, M., Maleki, H., 2013. Frequency control of microgrids in au-
system for microgrid. In: Conference IEEE T & D, Asia, pp. 1–4.
tonomous mode by a novel control scheme based on droop characteristics.
Ghoshal, S.P., 2004. Application of GA/GA-SA based fuzzy automatic generation Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 41 (1), 16–30.
control of a multi-area thermal generating system. Electr. Power Syst. Res.
Khederzadeh, M., Maleki, H., Asgharian, V., 2016. Frequency control improve-
70, 115–127.
ment of two adjacent microgrids in autonomous mode using back to back
Gonzalez, W.G., Montoya, O.D., Garces, A., 2018. Control of a SMES for mitigating voltage-sourced converters. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 74, 126–133.
sub-synchronous oscillations in power systems: a PBC-PI approach. J. Energy Khezri, R., Golshannavaz, S., Shokoohi, S., Bevrani, H., 2016. Fuzzy Logic based
Storage 20, 163–172. fine-tuning approach for robust load frequency control in a multi-area power
Gorripotu, T.S., Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., 2015. AGC Of a multi-area power system system. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 44 (18), 2073–2083.
under deregulated environment using redox flow batteries and interline Khezri, R., Oshnoei, A., Oshnoei, S., Bevrani, H., Muyeen, S.M., 2019. An intelligent
power flow controller. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 18, 555–578. coordinator design for GCSC and AGC in two area hybrid power system. Appl.
Goyal, M., Ghosh, A., 2016. Microgrids interconnection to support mutually Soft Comput. J. 76, 491–504.
during any contingency. Sustain. Energy, Grids Netw. 6, 100–108. Khodabakhshian, A., Edrisi, M., 2008. A new robust PID load frequency controller.
Gozde, H., Taplamacioglu, M.C., Kocaarslan, I., 2012. Comparative performance Control Eng. Pract. 16, 1069–1080.
analysis of artificial BEE colony algorithm in automatic generation control Khodabakhshian, A., Hooshmand, R., 2010. A new PID controller design for
interconnected reheat thermal power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy automatic generation control of hydropower system. Int. J. Electr. Power
Syst. 42, 167–178. Energy Syst. 32, 375–382.
Greenwood, D.M., Lim, K.Y., Patsios, C., Lyons, P.F., Y.S., Taylor, P.C., 2017. Khodabakshian, A., Pour, M.E., Hooshmand, R., 2012. Design of a robust load
Frequency response services designed for energy storage. Appl. Energy 203, frequency control using sequential quadratic programming technique. Int. J.
115–127. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 40, 1–8.
Guha, D., Roy, P.K., Banerjee, S., 2016. Load frequency control of interconnected Khooban, M.H., Niknam, T., 2015. A new intelligent online fuzzy tuning approach
power system using grey wolf optimization. Swarm Evol. Comput. 27, for multi-area load frequency control: Self adaptive modified bat algorithm.
97–115. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 71, 254–261.
Guha, D., Roy, P.K., Banerjee, S., 2018. Optimal tuning of 3 degree of freedom Khooban, M.H., Niknam, T., Blaabjerg, F., Davari, P., Dragicevic, T., 2016a. A robust
proportional integral derivative controller for hybrid distributed power adaptive load frequency control for micro-grids. ISA Trans. 65, 220–229.
system using dragonfly algorithm. Comput. Electr. Eng. 72, 137–153. Khooban, M.H., Niknam, T., Blaabjerg, F., Davari, P., Dragičević, T., 2016b. A robust
Hanwate, S.D., Hote, Y.V., 2018. Optimal PID design for load frequency control adaptive load frequency control for microgrids. ISA Trans. 65, 20–229.
using QRAWCP approach. IFAC PapersOnLine 51 (4), 651–656. Kocaarslan, I., Cam, E., 2005. Fuzzy Logic controller in interconnected electrical
Hasan, N., Ibraheem, Ahmad, S., 2016. ABT Based load frequency control of power systems for load-frequency control. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst.
interconnected power system. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 44 (8), 853–863. 27, 542–549.
Hilliard, T., Swan, L., Kavgic, M., Qin, Z., Lingras, P., 2016. Development of whole Kothari, M.L., Nanda, J., Kothari, D.P., Das, D., 1989. Discrete mode automatic
building model predictive control strategy for a LEED silver community generation control of two area reheat thermal system with new area control
college. Energy Build. 111, 224–232. error. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 4 (2), 730–738.
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 451

Krim, Y., Abbes, D., Krim, S., Mimouni, M.F., 2018. Intelligent droop control and Moradi, H., Esfahanian, M., Abtachi, A., Zilouchiean, A., 2018. Optimisation and
power management of active generator for ancillary services under grid energy management of a standalone hybrid microgrid in the presence of
instability using fuzzy logic technology. Control Eng. Pract. 81, 215–230. battery storage system. Energy 147, 226–238.
Krishnan, R., Pragatheeswaran, J.K., Ray, G., 2017. Robust stability of networked Morattab, A., Shafiee, Q., Bevrani, H., 2011. Decentralized model predictive load
load frequency control systems with time-varying delays. Electr. Power frequency control for deregulated power systems in tough situation. In: Proc.
Compon. Syst. 45 (3), 302–314. IEEE PowerTech, 19-23 June, 2011, Trondheim, Norway, pp. 1–5.
Kumar, N.J.V., Ansari, M.M.T., 2016. A new design of dual mode type-II fuzzy logic Morsali, J., Zare, K., Hagh, M.T., 2018. Comparative performance evaluation of
load frequency controller for interconnected power systems with parallel AC- fractional orders controllers in LFC of two-area diverse unit power system
DC tie-lines and capacitor energy storage unit. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy with considering GDB and GRC effects. J. Electr. Syst. Inf. Technol. 5, 708–722.
Syst. 82, 579–598. Mu, C., Tang, Y., He, H., 2017. Improved sliding mode design for load frequency
Kumar, A., Malik, O.P., Hope, G.S., 1984. Power generation control using control of power system integrated an adptive learning startegy. IEEE Trans.
dual-mode control. Mach. Power Syst. 9, 335–345. Ind. Electron. 64 (8), 6742–6751.
Kumar, A., Malik, O.P., Hope, G.S., 1987. Discrete variable structure controller Mufti, M.U.D., Lone, S.A., Iqbal, S.J., Ahmad, M., Ismail, M., 2009. Super-capacitor
for load frequency control of multi-area interconnected power systems. IET based energy storage system for improved load frequency control. Electr.
Proc. 134 (2), 116–112. Power Syst. Res. 79, 226–233.
Kundur, P., 1994. Power System Stability and Control. McGraw-Hill, New York. Muyeen, S.M., Hasanien, H.M., Al-Durra, A., 2014. Transient stability enhance-
Lee, H.J., Park, J.B., Joo, Y.H., 2006. Robust load frequency control for uncer- ment of wind farms connected to a multi-machine power system by using
tain nonlinear power systems a fuzzy logic approach. Inform. Sci. 176, an adaptive ANN-controlled SMES. Energy Convers. Manage. 78, 412–420.
3520–3537. Muzhikyan, A., Farid, A.M., Toumi, K.Y., 2016. Relative merits of load following
Li, X., Song, Y.J., Han, S.B., 2008. Frequency control in microgrid power system reserves and energy storage market integration towards power system
combined with electrolyser system and fuzzy PI controller. J. Power Sources imbalances. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 74, 222–229.
180, 468–475. Nanda, J., Kothari, M.L., Satsangi, P.S., 1983. Automatic generation control of
Liao, K., Xu, Y., 2017. A robust load frequency control scheme for power systems an interconnected hydrothermal system in continuous and discrete modes
based on second-order sliding mode and extended disturbances observer. considering generation rate constraints. IEE Proc. D Control Theory Appl. 130
IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf. 14 (7), 3076–3086. (1).
Liu, X., Kong, X., Deng, X., 2012. Power system model predictive load frequency Nandar, C.S.A., 2013. Robust PI control of smart controllable load frequency
control. In: Proc. American Control Conference, Fairmont Queen Elisabeth, stabilisation of microgrid power system. Renew. Energy 56, 16–23.
Montréal, Canada, 27-29 June 2012, pp. 6602–6607. Nandar, C.S.A., 2016. Robust PI control of smart controllable load for frequency
Liu, X., Kong, X., Lee, K.Y., 2016a. Distributed model predictive control for stabilisation of microgrid power system. Renew. Energy 56, 16–23.
load frequency control with dynamic fuzzy valve position modelling for Nandi, M., Shiva, C.K., Mukherjee, V., 2017a. Frequency stabilisation of multi-
hydro-thermal power system. IET Control Theory Appl. 10 (14), 1653–1664. area multi-source interconnected power system using TCSC and SMES
mechanism. J. Energy Storage 14, 248–362.
Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Lee, K.Y., 2016b. Robust distributed MPC for load frequency
Nandi, M., Shiva, C.K., Mukherjee, V., 2017b. Frequency stabilisation of multi-
control of uncertain power systems. Control Eng. Pract. 56, 136–147.
area multi-source interconnected power system using TCSC and SMES
Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Lee, K.Y., 2017. Coordinated distributed MPC for load frequency
mechanism. J. Energy Storage 14, 348–362.
control of power system with wind farms. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 64 (6),
Ngamroo, I., Kongprawechnon, W., 2003. A robust controller design of SSSC
5140–5150.
for stabilisation of frequency oscillations in interconnected power systems.
Lu, C.F., Liu, C.C., Wu, C.J., 1995. Effect of battery energy storage system on
Electr. Power Syst. Res. 67, 161–176.
load frequency control considering governor dead-band and generation rate
Nikmehr, N., Ravadanegh, S.N., 2016. Reliability evaluation of multi-microgrids
constraint. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 10 (3), 555–561.
considering optimal operation of small scale energy zones under
Luo, Y., Shi, L., Tu, G., 2014. Optimal sizing and control strategy of isolated grid
load-generation uncertainties. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 78, 80–87.
with wind power and energy storage system. Energy Convers. Manage. 80,
Obaid, Z.A., Cipcigan, L.M., Muhssin, M.T., 2016. Fuzzy Hierarchal approach-based
407–415.
optimal frequency control in the Great Britain power system. Electr. Power
Ma, M., Chen, H., Liu, X., Allgower, F., 2014. Distributed model predictive load
Syst. Res. 141, 529–537.
frequency control of multi-area interconnected power system. Int. J. Electr.
Ojaghi, P., Rahmani, M., 2017. LMI-Based robust predictive load frequency control
Power Energy Syst. 62, 289–298.
for power systems with communication delays. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 32
Ma, M., Zhang, C., Liu, X., Cheng, H., 2017. Distributed model predictive load
(5), 4091–4100.
frequency control of the multi-area power system after deregulation. IEEE
Olivares, D.E., Sani, A.M., Etemadi, A.H., Canizares, C.A., Iravani, R., Kazerani, M.,
Trans. Ind. Electron. 64 (6), 5129–5139.
Hajimiragha, A.H., Bellmunt, O.G., Saeedifard, M., Behnke, R.P., Estevez, G.A.J.,
Magdy, G., Shabib, G., Elbaset, A.A., Mitani, Y., 2018. Frequency stabilisation of Gyriou, N.D.H., 2014. Trends in microgrids control. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 5
renewable power systems based on MPC with application to the Egyptian (4), 1905–1919.
grid. IFAC PaperOnLine 51 (28), 280–285. Padhan, S., Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., 2014. Automatic generation control with
Mahto, T., Mukherjee, V., 2017. A novel scaling factor based fuzzy logic controller thyristors controlled series compensator including superconducting magnetic
for frequency control of an isolated hybrid power system. Energy 130, energy storage units. Ain Shams Eng. J. 5, 759–774.
339–350. Panda, S., Yegireddy, N.K., 2013. Automatic generation control of multi-
Majumder, R., Ghosh, A., Ledwich, G., Zare, F., 2010. Load frequency control for area power system using multi-objective non-dominated sorting genetic
rural distributed generation. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 38 (6), 637–656. algorithm-II. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 53, 54–63.
Maslo, K., Kolcun, M., 2014. Load frequency control management in island Pandi, V.R., Al-Hinai, A., Feliachi, A., 2015. Coordinated control of distributed
operation. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 114, 10–20. energy resources to support load frequency control. Energy Convers. Manage.
Mehrasa, M., Poursemaeil, E., Jorgensen, B.N., Catalao, J.P.S., 2015. A control plan 105, 918–928.
for the stable operation of microgrids during grid-connected and islanded Pappachen, A., Fathima, A.P., 2016. Load frequency control in deregulated power
modes. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 129, 10–22. system integrated with SMES-TCPS combination using ANFIS controller. Int.
Mi, Y., Fu, Y., Wang, C., Wang, P., 2013. Decentralised sliding mode load J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 82, 519–534.
frequency control for multi-area power systems. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 28 Parmar, K.P.S., Majhi, S., Kothari, D.P., 2012. Load frequency control of a realistic
(4), 4301–4309. power system with multi-source power generation. Int. J. Electr. Power
Minh, B.L.N., Huynh, V.V., Nguyen, T.M., Tsai, Y.W., 2018. Decentralised adaptive Energy Syst. 42, 426–433.
double integral mode controller for multi-area power systems. Math. Probl. Patra, S., Sen, S., Ray, G., 2007. Design of robust load frequency controller H∞
Eng. 1–11. [Link] loop shaping approach. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 35, 769–783.
Mohamed, T.H., Bevrani, H., Hassan, A.A., Hiyama, T., 2011. Decentralized model Peng, C., Zhang, J., 2016. Delay-distribution-dependent load frequency control of
predictive based load frequency control in an interconnected power system. power systems with probabilistic interval delays. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 31
Energy Convers. Manage. 52, 1208–1214. (4), 3309–3317.
Mohamed, T.H., Morel, J., Bevrani, H., Hiyama, T., 2012. Model predictive based Pothiya, S., Ngamroo, I., 2008. Optimal fuzzy logic-based PID controller for load-
load frequency control based concerning wind turbines int. J. Electr. Power frequency control including superconducting magnetic energy storage units.
Energy Syst. 43, 859–867. Energy Convers. Manage. 49, 2833–2838.
Mohamed, T.H., Shabib, G., Ali, H., 2016. Distributed load frequency control in Pradhan, P.C., Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., 2016. Firefly algorithm optimised fuzzy PID
an interconnected power system using ecological and coefficient diagram controller for AGC of multi-area multi-source power systems with UPFC and
method. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 82, 496–507. SMES. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 19, 338–354.
Mohanty, B., Panda, S., Hota, P.K., 2014. Controller parameters tuning of differ- Prakash, S., Sinha, S.K., 2014. Simulation based neuro fuzzy hybrid intelligent
ential evolution algorithm and its application to load frequency control of PI control approach in four-area load frequency control of interconnected
multi-source power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 54, 77–85. power system. Appl. Soft Comput. 23, 152–164.
452 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454

Qian, D., Tong, S., Liu, H., Liu, X., 2016. Load frequency control by neural- Shayaghi, H., Jalili, A., Shayanfar, H.A., 2008. Multi-stage fuzzyload frequency
network-based integral sliding mode for nonlinear power systems with wind control using PSO. Energy Convers. Manage. 49, 2570–2580.
turbines. Neurocomputing 173, 875–885. Shayeghi, H., Jalili, A., Shayanfar, H.A., 2008. Multi-stage fuzzy frequency control
Ramakrishna, K.S.S., Bhatti, T.S., 2007. Sampled-data automatic load frequency using PSO. Energy Convers. Manage. 49, 2570–2580.
control of a single area power system with multi-source power generation. Shiroei, M., Ranjbar, A.M., 2014. Supervisory predictive control of power system
Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 35 (8), 955–980. load frequency control. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 61, 70–80.
Ramesh, S., Krishnan, A., 2009. Modified genetic algorithm based load frequency Shiroei, M., Ranjibar, A.M., Amraee, T., 2013a. A functional model predictive
controller for interconnected power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Eng. 3 (1), control approach for power system load frequency control considering
26–30. generation rate constraint. Int. Trans. Electr. Energ. Syst. 23, 214–229.
Ramirez, M., Castellanos, R., Calderon, G., Malik, O., 2018. Placement and sizing Shiroei, M., Toulabi, M.R., Ranjbar, A.M., 2013b. Robust multivariable predictive
of battery energy storage for primary frequency control in an isolated section based load frequency control considering generation rate constraint. Int. J.
of the Mexican power system. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 160, 142–150. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 46, 406–413.
Ray, G., Dey, S., Bhattacharyya, T.K., 2005. Multi-area load frequency control of Shiva, C.K., Mukherjee, V., 2016. A novel quasi-oppositional harmony search
power systems: a decentralised variable structure approach. Electr. Power algorithm for AGC optimisation on three-area multi-unit power system after
Compon. Syst. 33, 315–331. deregulation. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 19, 395–420.
Rerkpreedapong, D., Hasanovic, A., Feliachi, A., 2003. Robust load frequency Singh, V.P., Mohanty, S.R., Kishor, N., Ray, P.K., 2013. Robust H-infinity load
control using genetic algorithms and linear matrix inequalities. IEEE Trans. frequency control in hybrid distributed generation system. Int. J. Electr.
Power Syst. 18 (2), 855–861. Power Energy Syst. 46, 294–305.
Rout, U.K., Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., 2013. Design and analysis of differential Sokoler, L.E., Edlund, K., Jorgensen, J.B., 2015. Application of economic MPC to
evolution algorithm based automatic generation control for interconnected frequency control in single area power system. In: Proc. IEEE 54th Conference
power system. Ain Shams Eng. J. 4, 409–421. on Decision and Control (CDC 2015), 15–18 December, 2015, Osaka, Japan,
Sabahi, K., Ghaemi, S., Badamchizadeh, M., 2016. Designing an adaptive Type-2 pp. 2635–2642.
fuzzy logic system load frequency control for a nonlinear time-delays power Son, Y., Li, N., Zhao, X., Wei, Z., Sun, G., Huang, C., 2016. Robust H∞ load frequency
system. Appl. Soft Comput. 43, 97–106. control of delayed multi-area power system with stochastic disturbances.
Sahoo, B.P., Panda, S., 2018. Improved grey wolf optimisation technique for fuzzy Neurocomputing 193, 58–67.
aided PID controller design for power system frequency control. Sustain. Sondhi, S., Hote, Y.V., 2016. Fractional order PID controller for perturbed load
Energy, Grids Netw. 16, 278–299. frequency control using Kharitonov’s theorem. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy
Sahu, R.K., Gorripotu, T.S., Panda, S., 2015a. A hybrid DE-PS algorithm for load Syst. 78, 884–896.
frequency control under deregulated power system with UPFC and RFB. Ain Sudha, K.R., Raju, Y.B., Sekhar, A.C., 2016. Fuzzy C-Means clustering for robust
Shams Eng. J. 6, 893–911. decentralised load frequency control of interconnected power system with
Sahu, R.K., Gorripotu, T.S., Panda, S., 2016a. Automatic generation control of generation rate constraint. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 37, 58–66.
Sudha, K.R., Santhi, R.V., 2011a. Robust decentralised load frequency control of
multi-area power with divers energy sources using teaching learning based
interconnected power system with generation rate constraint using Type-2
optimisation algorithm. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 19, 113–134.
fuzzy approach. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 33, 699–707.
Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., Padhan, S., 2015b. A hybrid firefly algorithm and pattern
Sudha, K.R., Santhi, R.V., 2011b. Robust decentralised load frequency control of
search technique for automatic generation control of multi-area power
interconnected power system with generation rate constraint using Type-2
systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 9–23.
fuzzy approach. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 33 (3), 699–707.
Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., Rout, U.K., 2013. DE Optimized parallel 2-DOF PID controller
Sudha, K.R., Santhi, R.V., 2012. Load frequency control of an interconnected
for load frequency control of power system with governor dead-band
reheat thermal system using Type-2 fuzzy system including SMES units. Int.
nonlinearity. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 49, 19–33.
J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 43, 1383–1392.
Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., Sekhar, G.T.C., 2015c. A novel hybrid PSO-PS optimised
Sun, Y., Li, N., Zhao, X., Wei, Z., Sun, G., Huang, C., 2016. Robust H∞ load
fuzzy PI controller for AGC in multi area interconnected power systems. Int.
frequency control of delayed multi-area power with stochastic disturbances.
J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 880–893.
Neurocomputing 193, 58–67.
Sahu, R.K., Panda, S., Yegireddy, N.K., 2014. A novel hybrid DEPS optimised fuzzy
T, Fathima, A.P., 2018. NERC’s control performance standards based load fre-
PI/PID controller for load frequency control of multi-area interconnected
quency controller for a multi-area deregulated power system with ANFIS
power systems. Energy Convers. Manage. 24, 1596–1608.
approach. Ain Shams Eng. J. 9, 2399–2414.
Sahu, B.K., Pati, S., Mohanty, P.K., Panda, S., 2015. Teaching-learning based
Taher, S.A., Fini, M.H., Aliabadi, S.F., 2014. Fractional order PID controller design
optimisation algorithm based fuzzy-pid controller for automatic generation
for LFC in electric power systems using imperialist competitive algorithm.
control of multi-area power system. Appl. Soft Comput. 27, 240–249.
Ain Shams Eng. J. 5, 121–135.
Sahu, B.K., Pati, T.K., Nayak, J.R., Panda, S., Kar, S.K., 2016b. A novel hybrid LUS- Talaq, J., Al-Basri, F., 1999. Adaptive Fuzzy gain scheduling for load frequency
TLBO optimised fuzzy-PID controller for frequency control of multi-source control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 14 (1), 145–150.
power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 74, 58–69. Tan, W., Xu, Z., 2009. Robust analysis and design of load frequency controller
Sathya, M.R., Ansari, M.M.T., 2015. Load frequency control using BAT inspired al- for power systems. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 79, 846–853.
gorithm based dual mode gain scheduling of PI controllers for interconnected Tan, W., Zhang, H., Yu, M., 2012. Decentralised load frequency control in
power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 365–374. deregulated environments. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 41, 16–26.
Sathya, M.R., Ansira, M.M.T., 2016. Design of biogeography optimisation based Tan, W., Zhou, H., 2012. Robust analysis of decentralised load frequency control
dual gain scheduling of fractional order PI load frequency controllers for for multi-area power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 43, 996–1005.
multi-source interconnected power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. Thao, N.G.M., Uchida, K., 2017. A two-level control strategy with fuzzy logic for
83, 364–381. large scale photovoltaic farms to support grid frequency regulation. Control
Saxena, S., Hote, Y.V., 2016. Decentralized PID load frequency control for Eng. Pract. 59, 77–99.
perturbed multi-area power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 81, Thirunavukarasu, R., Chidambaram, I.A., 2016. Pi2 controlled based coordinated
405–415. control with redox flow battery and unified power flow controller for
Sekhar, G.T.C., Sahu, R.K., Baliarsingh, A.K., Panda, S., 2016. Load frequency improved restoration indices in a deregulated power system. Ain Shams Eng.
control of power system under deregulated environment using optimal J. 7, 1011–1027.
firefly algorithm. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 74, 195–211. Toulabi, M.R., Shiroei, M., Ranjbar, A.M., 2014. Robust analysis and design of
Selvaraju, R.K., Somaskandan, G., 2016. Impact of energy storage units on load power system load frequency control using the Kharitonov’s theorem. Int. J.
frequency control of deregulated power systems. Energy 97, 214–228. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 55, 51–58.
Shabani, H., Vahidi, B., Ebrahimpour, M., 2013. A robust PID controller based Tripathy, S.C., Balasubramanien, R., Nair, P.S.C., 1992. Adaptive automatic gen-
on imperialist competition algorithm for load frequency control of power eration control with superconducting magnetic energy storage in power
systems. ISA Trans. 52, 88–95. systems. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 7 (3), 434–441.
Shankar, R., Bhushan, R., Chatterjee, K., 2016a. Small-signal stability analysis for Tripathy, S.C., Hope, G.S., Malik, O.P., 1982a. Optimisation of load frequency
two area interconnected power system with load frequency controller in control parameters for power systems with reheat steam turbines and
coordination with FACTS and energy storage devise. Ain Shans Eng. J. 7, governor dead band nonlinearity. IEE Proc D. Control Theory Appl. 129 (1).
603–612. Tripathy, S.C., Hope, G.S., Malik, O.P., 1982b. Optimisation of load frequency
Shankar, R., Chatterjee, K., Bhushan, R., 2016b. Impact of energy storage system control parameters for power systems with reheat steam turbines and
on load frequency control for diverse sources of interconnected power governor dead-band nonlinearity. IET Proc. 129 (1).
system in deregulated power environment. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. Tsay, T.S., 2011. Load frequency control of interconnected power system with
79, 11–26. governor backlash nonlinearities. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 33,
Sharma, G., Nasiruddin, I., Niazi, K.R., Bansal, R.C., 2016. Optimal AGC of a multi- 1542–1549.
area power system with parallel AC/DC tie lines using output vector feedback Tungadio, D.H., 2018. Optimal Active Power Control of Microgrids Interconnected
control strategy. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 81, 22–31. to a Power System (Ph.D. thesis), University of Pretoria.
 D.H. Tungadio and Y. Sun / Energy Reports 5 (2019) 436–454 453

Tungadio, D.H., Bansal, R.C., 2017. Active power reserve estimation of two Yousef, H., 2015. Adaptive fuzzy logic load frequency control of multi-area power
interconnected microgrids. Energy Procedia 105, 3909–3914. system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 68, 384–395.
Tungadio, D.H., Bansal, R.C., Siti, M.W., 2017. Optimal control of active power of Yousef, H.A., Al-Kharusi, K., Albadi, M.H., Hosseinzadeh, N., 2014. Load frequency
two microgrids interconnected with two ac tie-lines. Electr. Power Compon. control of a multi-area power system: An adaptive fuzzy logic approach. IEEE
Syst. 45 (19), 2188–2199. Trans. Power Syst. 29 (4), 1822–1830.
Tungadio, D.H., Bansal, R.C., Siti, M.W., 2018a. Energy flow estimation-control of Yuen, C., Oudalov, A., Timbus, A., 2011. The provision of frequency control
two interonnected microgrids. J. Energy South. Afr. 29 (4), 69–80. reserves from multiple microgrids. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 58 (1).
Tungadio, D.H., Bansal, R.C., Siti, M.W., Mbungu, N.T., 2018b. Predictive active Zamani, A., Barakati, S.M., Darmian, S.Y., 2016a. Design of a fractional order
power control of two interconnected microgrids. Technol. Econ. Smart Grids controller using GBMO algorithm for load frequency control with governor
Sustain. Energy 3 (3), 1–15. saturation consideration. ISA Trans. 64, 56–66.
Velusami, S., Chidambaram, A.I., 2006. Design of decentralised biased dual mode Zamani, A., Barakati, S.M., Darmian, S.Y., 2016b. Design of a fractional order PID
controllers for load frequency control of interconnected power systems. controller using GBMO algorithm for load frequency control with governor
Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 34, 1057–1075. saturation consideration. ISA Trans. 64, 59–66.
Velusami, S., Chidambaram, A.I., 2007. Decentralised biased dual mode con- Zamani, M., Ghartemani, M.K., Sadati, N., Parniani, M., 2009. Design of a fractional
trollers for load frequency control of interconnected power systems order PID controller for an AVR using particle optimisation. Control Eng.
considering GDB and GRC non-linearities. Energy Convers. Manage. 48, Pract. 17, 1380–1387.
1691–1702. Zhang, W., Fang, K., 2017. Controlling active power of wind farms to participe
Venkat, A.N., Hiskens, I.A., Rawlings, J.B., Wright, S.J., 2008. Distributed MPC in load frequency control of power systems. IET Gener. Transm. Distrid. 11
strategies with application to power system automatic generation control. (9), 3194–2203.
IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 16 (6), 1192–1206. Zhang, C.K., Jiang, L., Wu, Q.H., He, Y., Wu, M., 2013. Further results on delays
Vigneysh, T., Kumarappan, N., 2016. Autonomous operation and control of dependent stability of multi-area load frequency control. IEEE Trans. Power
photovoltaic/ solid oxide fuel cell/battery energy storage based microgrid Syst. 28 (4), 4465–4474.
using fuzzy logic controller. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 41, 1877–1891. Zhang, Y., Liu, X., Qu, B., 2017. Distributed model predictive load frequency
Vrdoljak, K., Peric, N., Petrovic, I., 2010. Sliding mode based load frequency control of multi-area power system with DFIGs. IEEE/CAA J. Autom. Sin. 4
control in power systems. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 80, 514–527. (1), 125–135.
Wang, L., 2009. Model Predictive Control System Design and Implementation Zhang, Y., Liu, X., Yan, Y., 2015. Model predictive control for load frequency
using Matlab. Springer, London. control with wind turbines. J. Control Sci. Eng. 8, 1–17.
Wang, R., Zhang, X., Bao, J., 2019. A self-interested distributed economic model Zhao, J., Dorfler, F., 2015. Distributed control and optimisation in DC microgrids.
predictive control approach to battery energy storage networks. J. Process Automatica 61, 18–26.
Control 73, 9–18. Zhao, Z.Y., Tomizuka, M., Isaka, S., 1993. Fuzzy Gain scheduling of PID controllers.
Xiangping, M., Xiangyin, M., Dayou, L., Wanyu, T., 2001. Fuzzy sliding mode IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. 23 (5), 1392–1398.
load frequency control of multi-area interconnected power systems. In: IFAC Zhao, H., wu, Q., Guo, Q., Sun, H., Xue, Y., 2016. Optimal active power control
Conference on New Technologies for Computer Control, 19-252 2001, Hong of a wind farm equipped with energy storage system based on distributed
Kong, pp. 452–457. model predictive control. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 10 (3), 669–677.
Xiong, L., Li, H., Wang, J., 2018. LMI Based robust load frequency control for Zheng, Y., Jemkins, B.M., Kornbluth, K., Traeholt, C., 2018. Optimisation under
time delayed power system via delay margin estimation. Int. J. Electr. Power uncertainty of a biomass integrated renewable energy microgrid with energy
Energy Syst. 100, 91–103. storage. Renew. Energy 123, 204–217.
Yang, T.C., Ding, Z.T., Yu, H., 2002. Decentralised power system load frequency Zheng, Y., Xu, J., Zhang, Y., Qian, Z., 2017. A distributed model predictive control
control beyond the limit of diagonal dominance. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy based load frequency control scheme for interconnected power system using
Syst. 24, 173–184. discrete-time laguerre functions. ISA Trans. 68, 127–140.
yang, S., Huang, C., Yu, Y., Yue, D., Xie, J., 2017. Load frequency control of Zheng, Y., Zhou, J., Zhu, W., Zhang, C., Li, C., Fu, W., 2016. Design of a multi-mode
interconnected power system via multi-agent system method. Electr. Power intelligent model predictive control strategy for hydroelectric generating
Compon. Syst. 45 (8), 839–851. unit. Neurocomputing 207, 287–299.
Yazdizadeh, A., Ramezani, M.H., Hamedrahmat, E., 2012. Decentralised load Zhu, Q., Jiang, L., Yao, W., Zhang, C.K., Luo, C., 2017. Robust load frequency control
frequency control using a new robust optimal MISO PID controller. Int. J. with dynamic demand response for deregulated power systems considering
Electr. Power Energy Syst. 35, 57–65. communication delays. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 45 (1), 75–87.
Yesil, E., Guzelkaya, M., Eksin, I., 2004. Self-tuning fuzzy PID type load and Zribi, M., Rashed, M.A., Alrifai, M., 2005. Adaptive decentralised load frequency
frequency controller. Energy Convers. Manage. 45, 377–390. control of multi-area power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 27,
575–583.