Inheritance

It can be defined as the transmission of genetic information from generation to

generation from parents to offspring.

Genes:
It is a part of DNA molecules coding for one protein.
 Each gene has a specific function.

 A gene determines eye colour.

 Another determines height.

Allele:
Each gene has different forms. Different form of the same genes are called Alleles.
Gene for height has 2 alleles, short or tall.

DNA:
 DNA is a deoxyribonucleic acid.
 It is a molecule which carries genetic information. DNA controls cell function by
controlling the production of proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers and
receptors for neurotransmitters.
 It consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix
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 DNA is a polymer.
 The basic unit of DNA is called a nucleotide.
 The two strands are formed when many nucleotides join together to form a chain.
 Each nucleotide is made up of:
• a deoxyribose sugar,
• a phosphate group
• a nitrogenous base.

 There are 4 types of nitrogen containing bases in DNA.

These bases are:

• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)

 The bases on opposite DNA strands are joined by complementary base pairing.
 Adenine on one strand will always pair against thymine.
 Guanine will always pair against cytosine.
 The two DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.

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Structure of Gene:
• Each Gene consist of 2 polynucleotide chains.
• One of the chain which determines the type of protein made is called "template
strand". Template strand contains different sequences of nucleotides.
• 3 nucleotides code for one amino acid. This 3 nucleotide sequence is called a triplet
code or codon.
• One gene carries the information for the production one particular protein.
• The gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus. Using the information of
the base sequences in the gene an mRNA molecule is made in the nucleus and then
move to the cytoplasm. The mRNA passes through ribosomes which assembles
amino acids into protein molecules. The specific sequence of amino acids is
determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA.
• Different proteins are made of different combinations of amino acids . The
sequence of amino acids in the chain determines how the chain will fold up to make
the protein, so different proteins have different three-dimensional shapes. The
three-dimensional shape of a protein determines its function.

Control of Genes:
Every normal body cell has a complete set of chromosomes e.g. in humans all body
cells have 46 chromosomes. However not all genes present in a cell express
themselves. The genes which do not express themselves are said to be switched off
e.g. during childhood children have the ability to digest milk, due to the presence of an
enzyme lactase. But as the children grow older it is common to lose the ability.

Sex determination:
There are 2 types of cells present in the body of a human these are sex cells which are
produced by meiosis and somatic cells which are produced by mitosis. Human somatic
cells contain 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. Sex
chromosomes play an important role in determining sex of the baby. Whether a baby
is a girl or boy is determined by sex chromosomes.
In humans there are 2 sex chromosomes, X and Y chromosomes. A boy will have X and
Y chromosomes where as a girl has two X chromosomes. Human females will produce
gametes which are egg cells all having X chromosomes, where as human males will
produce gametes which are sperm cells which produce 2 types of sperms; some
containing X chromosomes and other Y chromosomes.

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 Monohybrid Inheritance:
Genotype:
It is the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present.
Homozygous:
An organism is said to be homozygous for trait if the 2 alleles controlling the trait are
same e.g. if a person has both alleles for tallness (TT) or dwarfness (tt).

Heterozygous:
An organism is said to be heterozygous for a trait if the alleles controlling the trait are
different e.g. Tt .
Phenotype:
It is a physical feature of an organism due to genotype. Your genotype controls your
phenotype.
Homologous Chromosomes:
• In living organisms such as plants and animals chromosomes comes in pairs.

• One chromosome comes from male parent and other from female parent.

• Homologous chromosomes are similar in shape and size with the exception of
sex chromosomes.

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Dominant Allele:
An allele which expresses itself when present and gives same phenotype in both
homozygous and heterozygous conditions e.g. a person who is tall have either TT or Tt
genotype. Dominant allele is always expressed by a capital letter.
Recessive Allele:
It does not express itself in heterozygous conditions. It only expresses itself in
homozygous condition (tt). Thus a person will be dwarf if he has tt genotype. Recessive
allele is always expressed by a small letter.

Co-Dominance:
Sometimes neither a pair of allele is completely dominant or completely recessive.
Both have an equal effect on the phenotype. This is called co-dominance. Inheritance
of blood groups is an example of co-dominance. Human blood types are determined
by 3 different alleles.

1. IA 2. IB 3. IO
The IO allele is recessive but IA and IB are co-dominant. These 3 possible alleles can give
us following pairs:
 IA IA
 IO IO
 IB IB
 IA IB
 IA IO
 IB IO

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These 6 different genotypes gives us 4 different phenotype which means 4 different
blood groups A, B, AB, O.

 IA IA and IA IO allele pairs gives blood group A

 IB IB and IB IO allele pairs gives blood group B.

 Blood group AB has 2 co-dominant alleles IA IB

 Blood group O has IO IO the recessive pair.

Sex Linked Inheritance:

Some genetic disorders such as colour blindness are more common in males than
females. The recessive allele causing the disorder is found on part of the X chromosome
and there is no equivalent part on the Y chromosome, because it is smaller to carry
either a dominant or a recessive allele. This means that males only need to have one
copy of the recessive allele to show colour blindness whereas females would need 2
copies.

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Determining Genotypes:
One of the major problems faced by geneticists is to determine the genotype of an
organism. Phenotypes are observed easily but genotypes are not.
An organism having recessive trait will be easy to identify as recessive trait will appear
only if organism is homozygous for that trait.
On the other hand an organism having a dominant trait e.g. tall height in pea plant is
may be due to TT or Tt genotype.
Test Cross:
The genotypes of an organism showing dominant trait can be determined by crossing
it with an organism that is homozygous recessive. This is known as test cross e.g.
height in plea plants. If the organism is heterozygous and crossed with homozygous
recessive.

In the diagram of a monohybrid cross, when two heterozygous parents are crossed, the
offspring that have the feature controlled by the dominant allele and the offspring that
have the feature controlled by the recessive allele appear in a 3:1 ratio.

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 Differences in traits between individuals of the same species
Variation:
Caused by either genetic difference or by effect of environmental factors on the
expression of genes.
Genotypic Variation:
Caused by difference in number or structure of chromosomes or difference in genes
carried by chromosomes. Tongue rolling for example is controlled by genes or eye
colour, blood groups or complexion.
Phenotypic Variation:
Phenotypic variations may be caused by different environmental factors including
climate, food supply etc. These variations can’t be passed on to the next generation as
they do not involve genes.
Classification of Variation
Continuous Variation:
Includes a characteristic that can have any value in a range. Continuous variation
results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, including body length and
body mass,height and complexion.
Discontinuous Variation:
A characteristic can have specific alternative for example blood group have definite
categories. Blood group A, B, AB or O. There can’t be blood groups in between
categories.
Mutation
A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when
the DNA is copied or as a result of environmental factors such as ionizing radiations or
cigarette smoke.

• Our DNA can undergo changes or mutations in the sequence of bases A, G, C and T
• This results in changes in protein structure.
• Mutations , meiosis, random mating and random fertilization of gametes are
sources of genetic variation in populations within a species.
• Mutations occur during DNA replication.

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• Mutations can also occur as the result of exposure to environmental factors such as
exposure to radiation, cigarette smoke, and some other chemicals.
• Most mutations are harmful for example cancer which is caused by mutation.
• Some mutations are beneficial to individuals for example a mutation may bring
about changes that allow the individual an advantage to survive in a particular
environment.

Example of Gene Mutation: (Sickle Cell Anemia)

• It is an example of mutation which affects the production of haemoglobin
• Normal haemoglobin, HbA is produced by normal genes whereas a mutated gene
produces haemoglobin S, HbS in which only one amino acid is not in its proper
place.
• This causes a change in the shape of the haemoglobin molecule.
• The amount of oxygen that can be carried by these cells is reduced.
• As the mutated gene is recessive it only expresses itself in the person who is
homozygous for this allele.
• People with this disease die at a very young age.

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 Chromosomal Mutation
• Down’s syndrome is a form of mental and physical disability, which results from a
chromosome mutation.
• During the process of meiosis an ovum is produced having one extra chromosome 21.
• As a result, the ovum carries 24 chromosomes instead of 23, and the resulting zygote
has 47 instead of the normal 46 chromosomes.

Adaptive Features
Adaptive features are inherited features that helps an organism to survive and reproduce
in its environment.
Fitness:
The probability of an organism to survive and reproduce in the environment in which it
lives.
• Adaptive features improves the chances of survival of an organism
• The organisms that are more fit than others are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Adaptive Features of Plants:

Hydrophytes
These are the plants which grow in water partially or completely.

Features:
• Roots are poorly developed or completely absent.
• Root hairs are absent.
• Stem is slender, spongy, flexible and long.
• Large flat leaves on surface for floatation.
• Thin cuticle.
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 Xerophytes:
• These are the plants which are able to live in very dry places.
• In abundant supply of water their rate of transpiration is the same as other plants.
• However in a drought they have survival mechanisms to survive.

Features:
• Stomatal closure.
• Sunken stomata i.e. hidden in depression of leaf structure
• Increased water storage.
• Thick cuticle.
• Less number of leaves, leaves have reduced surfaces e.g. spines of a cactus.

Selection
The study of fossils tells us that animals and plants have undergone several changes
gradually. Populations have evolved and to understand evolution a lot of theories were
put forward.
Charles Darwin put forward a theory of ‘Natural Selection’ to explain the evolutionary
process. The key components of Darwin’s theory are:

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• Variation:
Within a population organisms exhibit individual variations. Some variations are
better adapted in a particular environment than others.
• Production of Offspring:
Animals and plants produce more offspring than will ever survive.
• Competition for Resource:
There is a considerable amount of competition for resources which ultimately
affects survival of organisms.
• Struggle for Survival:
The organisms which are well adapted to their environment will survive i.e. survival
of the fittest.
• Reproduction by individuals that are better Adapted:
The organisms which are better adapted to the environment will be able to
reproduce and will pass on their advantageous characteristics to their offspring.
• Passing on of these genes to the next Generation:
As the process will continue, over many generations organisms with the best
features will survive and make a larger population and those individuals who have
other features will eventually go extinct.

Antibiotic Resistance
• Antibiotic resistance in an example of natural selection. Antibiotics work by killing
bacteria. Bacteria reproduce very rapidly and some of the bacteria will have some
random genetic mutations.
• These mutations may allow a bacterium to survive antibiotic attack, then that
bacterium will carry on to reproduce and all the other bacteria which lack that
mutation will die. Therefore the genes for antibiotic resistance are passed on with
a much greater frequency to the next generation
• Over time the whole population of bacteria becomes antibiotic-resistant because
the bacteria are best suited to their environment.
• Increases in the population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria cause infections and
diseases which are harder to control as it is difficult to find antibiotics that certain
strains of bacteria are not resistant to.

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• An example of this is MRSA, a very dangerous bacterial strain that is resistant to
most antibiotics.
• If someone gets infected with MRSA they cannot be treated easily.
• This is a reason why so many antibiotics are developed.

Artificial Selection
• Selective breeding is a process or method used to produce plants and animals
with desirable traits. Through selective breeding humans have produced new
breeds of animals and plants.
• In plants humans have produced crops with higher yields which offer better
resistance to pests and disease. Similarly, humans have produced new breeds of
animals for meat, milk and riding.
• The process of selective breeding involves humans selecting individuals with
desirable features. These individuals are then cross-bred to produce the next
generation. Offspring with the most desirable features are chosen to continue
the breeding programme and the process is repeated over many generations.

Difference between Artificial and Natural Selection:

• In natural selection new varieties are produced due to natural mutations.

• It occurs when natural environmental conditions change and cause mutation.
• In artificial selection varieties are produced by selective breeding.
• Humans select varieties of organisms that suit their needs.

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 Biotechnology and genetic modification
Biotechnology :
It is the use of biological process, organisms or systems to manufacture products
intended to improve the quality of human life e.g. production of antibiotics,
hormones.
Genetic engineering :
It involves the transfer of genes from one organism to (usually) an unrelated species.
Use of bacteria in biotechnology and genetic engineering:
• Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms which are used extensively in biotechnology
due to their rapid reproduction rate.
• Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering because they can be
grown and manipulated without raising ethical concerns.
• They have a genetic code that is the same as all other organisms, so genes from
other animals or plants can be successfully transferred into bacterial DNA.
• If conditions are suitable one bacterium could become a billion bacteria in just 10
hours through binary fission.
• Similarly bacteria are used for their ability to synthesize complex molecules such as
vitamins and also hormones such as insulin using simpler nutrients.
• Scientists can take a gene from one organism and put it into another e.g. if a
bacteria have gene that produces poison to kill insects, researchers can insert this
gene into crops, making pest resistant crops.
• Bacteria are used for their plasmids because plasmids can be transferred easily and
reproduce.
• Genes are copied during reproduction of bacteria and new genes can be easily
inserted into it.

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Production of bread and ethanol by yeasts:

Flour, water, salt, oil and yeast are mixed to make a dough. Yeast has no enzymes
for digesting the starch in flour but the addition of water activates the amylases
already present in flour and these digest some of the starch to sugar. With highly
refined white flour, it may be necessary to add sugar to the dough. The yeast then
ferments the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Use of pectinase in fruit juice production:

Pectinases are used in fruit juice extraction. They increase the volume of juice as
well as making the final product clearer extracted from fruits by softening the peel
of citrus fruits for removal and to break the pectin present in cell walls of the fruit
cells to extract liquid.

Use of biological washing powders that contain enzymes:

Modern biological washing powders contain enzymes such as proteases and

lipases. When combined in washing powders they are effective in removing stains in
clothes caused by proteins, e.g. blood, egg and gravy, and fats, e.g. grease. Protein
and fat molecules tend to be large and insoluble. When they have been digested
the products are small, soluble molecules, which can pass out of the cloth. Enzymes
have the advantage that they can be used at lower temperatures than traditional
detergents. Enzymes used in washing powder come from bacteria.

Use of lactase to produce lactose free milk:

Lactose is the sugar found in milk. It can be broken down by enzyme lactase into
glucose and galactose. However, some people lack this enzyme and can’t break
down lactose leading to lactose intolerance. So such people are given lactose free
milk. For this we add enzyme lactase to milk so that it can break down milk sugar.
Lactose tolerance may cause bloating and abdominal pain.

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 Genetic engineering:
Genetic engineering is a process of taking a gene from one species and putting it into
another species.
Isolation of human gene Preparation of vector

β cells bacteria
human pancreas
mRNA from β cells, some with

the code for human insulin plasmids

from
mRNA with the code for human bacteria
insulin identified and isolated
free nucleotides restriction
reverse DNA restriction enzyme
polymerase enzyme
transcriptase
enzyme

single strand Plasmids from bacteria

cDNA are cut with the same
restriction enzyme to
produce sticky ends.

cDNA

mRNA is taken from ˜ cells and used to make DNA with the
help of reverse transcriptase. It is then cut to leave sticky ends.
ligase enzyme
Formation of recombinant DNA, identification and cloning
The insulin DNA and plasmid
DNA are mixed together
with a ligase enzyme. The
sticky end bases form
hydrogen bonds. The ligase
joins the DNA backbone and
The recombinant
A transformed a recombinant plasmid is
The gene is plasmid is
bacterium is identified. produced.
cloned by introduced into
growing the bacteria.
bacterium.

Manufacture
extraction and
purification of insulin
The transformed bacteria, containing
the insulin gene, can produce insulin.
These bacteria are now grown on an
industrial scale in large fermenters.
Insulin is extracted from the bacteria.
fermenter

pure human insulin

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The control of all the normal activities of a bacterium depends upon its single
chromosome and small rings of genes called plasmids. In genetic engineering pieces
of chromosome from a different organism can be inserted into a plasmid. This allows
the bacteria to make a new substance.
Using genetic engineering to put human insulin genes into bacteria:
• Human cells with genes for healthy insulin are selected.
• A chromosome (a length of DNA) is removed from the cell.
• The insulin gene is cut from the chromosome using restriction endonuclease enzyme.
• A suitable bacterial cell is selected. Some of its DNA is in the form of circular
plasmids.
• All the plasmids are removed from the bacterial cell.
• The plasmids are cut open using the same restriction endonuclease enzyme.
• The human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmids using ligase enzyme.
• The plasmid are returned to the bacterial cell
• The bacterial cell is allowed to reproduce in a fermenter.
• All the cells produced contain plasmids with the human insulin gene.

FERMENTERS
• Fermenter can be used to produce various products such as hormones like insulin
and antibiotics such as penicillin or we can grow fungus in it which can be used as
food source such as single cell protein.
• The fermenter is a steel tank which can be filled with nutrient broth such as corn
steep liquor.
• Nutrient broth contains all the essential nutrients such carbohydrates which are
used as a source of energy and amino acids to synthesize protein.
• The fermenter and the medium are sterilized to kill the other microorganisms
which may contaminate the food.
• Other essential mineral ions are added.
• pH is kept around 5-6 optimum for the growth of microorganisms.
• Temperature is kept between 25 to 350C based on the type of organism .

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• Sterilized air is pumped into the fermenter for the aerobic respiration of fungi.
• Starter culture containing microorganism is added into the medium.
• The medium is stirred to mix all the contents.
• Under these conditions the microorganism begins to multiply using the nutrients
and start producing the product.
• The product will be extracted purified and used.

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 The importance of this process:
 Diabetics need a source of insulin to control their blood sugar level. In the past cow
insulin has been used, but some people are allergic to it. Human insulin produced from
genetically engineered bacteria will not trigger an allergic reaction.
 The insulin is acceptable to people with a range of religious belief who may not be
allowed to use insulin form animals such as cows or pigs.
 The product is very pure.
 Human insulin can be made on a commercial scale, reducing costs.

Use of genetic modification in crop plants:

• The bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, produces a toxin that kills caterpillars and other
insect larvae. The toxin has been in use for some years as an insecticide. The gene for
the toxin has been successfully introduced into some plant species using a bacterial
vector. The plants produce the toxin and show increased resistance to attack by
insect larvae. The gene is also passed on to the plant’s offspring.
• Gene technology has been used to produce herbicide resistant strains. Growing a
herbicide-resistant crop allows fields to be sprayed with herbicide after the crop has
germinated, killing any weeds that would otherwise compete with the crop for space,
light, water or ions. This increases the yield of the crop.
• Gene technology has been used to produce golden rice. In golden rice a gene for
vitamin A production was inserted in rice plants so that rice can have vitamin A which
can prevent blindness in children due to its deficiency.

Advantages and disadvantage of genetic engineering:

Advantages:
 Genetic engineering can be used to cure or treat people with serious illness.
 In plants a gene which codes for a toxin (poison) which kills insects, has been
inserted into crop plants. These plants have a natural protection against insect
pests, so that there is no need to spray pesticide into maize plants.

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Disadvantages:
There is a huge concern regarding the possible harmful effects of Genetic engineering
 Crops which contains toxin may be dangerous for human consumption.
 Other worries are that gene for producing this toxin might spread to other plants
through pollination and may be harmful to insect populations and might have
damaging effects on food chains and ecosystems.
 Apart from specific hazards, there is also a sense of unease about introducing
genes from one species into a totally different species. This is something that does
not happen ‘in nature’ and therefore long-term effects are not known.

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