WEEK 1-2 - Thales, regarded as the Father of Philosophy,

lived between 624 and 546 BCE and is known

HOLISM - is a philosophical position that the for seeking the ultimate substance underlying
system should be studied as a whole instead of all things.
attempting to reduce it to respective parts.
- Thales’ rational approach, seeking
ETHICS – is the branch of philosophy that explanations for natural phenomena without
explores the nature of moral virtue and the intervention of gods, marked a departure
evaluates human action. from Greek mythological religion and
EPISTEMOLOGY – a branch of philosophy which highlighted the difference between religion
deals with nature, sources, limitations and (based on faith) and philosophy (based on
validity of knowledge. reason).

AESTHETICS – is a branch of philosophy deals - Philosophical Activity

with the science of the beautiful in its various - Scope of Philosophy: Philosophers focus on
manifestations. big questions about truth, justice, beauty,
METAPHYSICS -- a branch of philosophy which is existence, and knowledge, going beyond
only an extension of a fundamental and specialized knowledge (e.g., science, history,
necessary drive in every human being to know economics) to explore the nature of knowledge
what is real. itself.

B - Let’s Discuss - Philosophy and Fundamentals: Philosophical

ideas are foundational, supporting all
- Definition of Philosophy knowledge—without core ideas like
consciousness and existence, knowledge would
- Philosophy comes from the Greek words
collapse.
"philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom),
traditionally defined as the love of wisdom. - Desire to Integrate: Philosophers aim to
integrate diverse elements into a coherent
- It may seem unusual to link philosophy with
whole, exemplified by Thales' attempt to find
love, but like romance and passion, philosophy
unity (One) in the multiplicity of things (Many).
can be pursued with intensity and devotion.
- Branches of Philosophy
- Philosophers, such as Socrates, have even
died for the pursuit of truth, illustrating the - Metaphysics: Studies the nature of reality,
passionate nature of philosophical inquiry. asking fundamental questions like “What is the
universe?” and exploring its laws. It includes
- Origin of Philosophy
ontology (the study of existence) and
- Western philosophy originated in ancient philosophical anthropology (the study of human
Greece, specifically in Miletus (modern-day nature).
Turkey).
- Epistemology: The branch that examines
human knowledge—how we acquire
knowledge, whether through reason, intuition, answering questions to stimulate critical
or perception, and the possibility of certainty. It thinking.
guides how we know what we know.
- Dialectics: Contradictory arguments between
- Cognitive Branches: Metaphysics and opposing sides, aiming to establish truth.
epistemology form the cognitive branches, Developed further by Hegel and later influenced
concerned with what “is” (existence and Marx.
knowing).
B. Logical Reasoning:
- Normative Branches of Philosophy:
- A method of using logic to form conclusions,
- Ethics: Focuses on what humans "ought" to institutionalized by Greek philosophers,
do, providing a moral code that guides choices particularly Aristotle.
and actions, defining what is good or virtuous
for human beings. - Deductive Reasoning: Moves from a general
premise to a specific conclusion.
• Politics: A social application of ethics,
politics defines the principles of a proper social - Example:
system. It presupposes knowledge of what a Premise 1: All human beings are mortal .
human being is and relies on metaphysical and Premise 2: But the President of the Philippines
epistemological foundations. is a human being.
• Aesthetics: Studies the nature of art and Conclusion: Therefore, the President of the
beauty, addressing questions of artistic value Philippines is mortal.
and objective judgments of beauty. - Inductive Reasoning: Moves from specific
- Philosophy as a science: Unlike other sciences instances to a general conclusion.
that use observation and experimentation, - Example:
philosophy relies on reason to attain knowledge
or truth. Premise: Student A, B, C, D, E, F….. are wearing
School ID.
Philosophical Tools and Processes
Conclusion: Therefore, All students are wearing
A. Philosophical Questions: ID
- Ignorance prompts questions, leading to - Logic forms the foundation for constructing
knowledge. Once one stops questioning, they philosophical arguments, seen across branches
cease to be a philosopher. like epistemology and ethics.
- Philosophers like Socrates asked not just C. Philosophical Reflection:
personal questions but also posed them to
others, sparking dialogue and critical thinking. - Philosophy seeks to differentiate essentials
from accidentals and necessary from
- Socratic Method (dialectics): A cooperative contingent.
argumentative dialogue involving asking and
 - Reflection: Involves analyzing thoughts, - The line divides the space into singular
feelings, and actions to learn from experience (individual) above and plural (collective) below.
and see the bigger picture.
- Individuals are singular but also part of a
- Gabriel Marcel’s two types of reflection: collective (e.g., family, community).

- Primary Reflection: Focuses on logical - The Quadrants:

thinking and analyzing objects by breaking them
down into parts. - When the vertical and horizontal lines are
combined, they create quadrants:
- Secondary Reflection: Integrates
experiences into a holistic understanding of - UL (Upper Left): Interior of the individual
reality, looking at things as a whole. (mind).

- Reflection is applicable in various fields, - UR (Upper Right): Exterior of the individual

including research and moral theology, which (body).
uses the STOP method for moral decision- - LL (Lower Left): Interior of the collective
making (Search, Think, Others, Pray). (culture).
Philosophical reasoning also aids theological
reflection. - LR (Lower Right): Exterior of the collective
(society).
- Framework for Philosophical Reflection:
- Quadrants in Human Beings:
- A framework is a conceptual map consisting
of views and beliefs that shape our worldview - UL: Mind
(Abella, 2016).
- UR: Body
- The framework used is AQAL, an acronym for
- LL: Culture
"All Quadrants All Levels," introduced by Ken
Wilber in his book "Sex, Ecology, and - LR: Society
Spirituality".
- Application of AQAL to Issues:
- Vertical Line Distinction:
- Issues like poverty, corruption, and global
- The left side represents the **interior, warming can be analyzed through these
subjective** aspects (e.g., values, dreams, quadrants:
emotions).
- Subjective (UL): Psychological impact (e.g.,
- The right side represents the **exterior, self-pity in poverty).
objective** aspects (e.g., physical objects,
measurable entities). - Objective (UR): Physical effects (e.g.,
malnutrition).
- Example: A smile has an exterior (the visible
smile) and an interior (the happiness behind it). - Intersubjective (LL): Cultural influences (e.g.,
religious feasts).
- Horizontal Line Distinction:
 - Interobjective (LR): Social, economic, and - Purpose:
political aspects (e.g., inflation, political
systems). 1. To show how we can acquire knowledge.

- Example of Poverty: 2. To demonstrate whether the acquired

knowledge is truly knowledge.
- UL (Mental): Poverty affects how people
think, feel, and value things. The Nature of Knowledge:

- UR (Physical): Impacts nutrition, health, and - Definition of Knowledge: Knowledge is the

immune system. mental grasp of reality, obtained either through
perceptual observation or by reasoning based
- LL (Cultural): Influences religious practices on observation (Ayn Rand, 1990).
and cultural norms.
- Characteristics:
- LR (Social): Economic and political factors like
inflation and government policy contribute to - Knowledge allows us to understand the
poverty. nature of something and retain that awareness
over time (Binswanger, 2014).
The AQAL framework provides a holistic view by
examining the mental, physical, cultural, and - Methods of Acquiring Knowledge:
social dimensions of any issue. - Empiricism: Using senses (seeing, hearing,
WEEK 3-4 tasting, touching, smelling) to acquire
knowledge (e.g., knowing the table is brown by
Epistemology - is a science devoted to the seeing it).
discovery of the proper method of acquiring
and validating knowledge” (Rand 1990). - Rationalism: Using the mind and reasoning
to acquire knowledge (philosophers like
Knowledge - is a “mental grasp of reality Descartes and Leibniz support this).
reached either by perceptual observation or by
a process of reason based on perceptual Acquiring Knowledge:
observation” 1. Reality:
Truth is knowledge validated and is based on - Knowledge begins by knowing something,
the facts of reality. termed "reality" or "existence" (Peikoff, 1990).
Opinion – statement having preferences and is - Existence includes everything in the
asserting something that is beyond what the universe, both external (e.g., objects) and
facts state. internal (e.g., thoughts, emotions).
Epistemology: - Without existence, knowledge is impossible.
- Definition: Epistemology is the science of
discovering the proper method of acquiring and
validating knowledge (Ayn Rand, 1990). 2. Perception:
 - Our first contact with reality is through - A proposition is a statement used to describe
sensory perception. an existent (object, person, action, or event)
(Rand, 1990).
- Perception gives us knowledge of things
(entities like dogs, cats, chairs) and their aspects - Propositions express either assertions
(e.g., qualities, quantities, relationships). (affirmative) or denials (negative) about a
subject.
- These Aristotelian categories (e.g., qualities
like "red" or actions like "walking") cannot exist - Examples:
independently from the entities themselves.
- Affirmative: "Men are mortals" (S is P
3. Concept: structure).

- After perceiving things, we group similar - Negative: "Men are not mortals" (S is not P
objects into categories or concepts (e.g., structure).
grouping individuals into the concept of "man").
- Propositions can be either true or false,
- Concept Formation: which are called their "truth values" (Hurley,
2011).
- We name groups (e.g., "man" or "human
being") and define their identity (Peikoff, 1990). 5. Inference:

- First-Level Concepts: Basic concepts of - To prove a statement is true, we provide an

things like dogs or cats. argument.

- Higher-Level Concepts: Formed by - Argument Structure: A set of premises that

abstracting from these first-level concepts. support a conclusion (Hurley, 2011).

- Types of Abstraction: - Example:

- Wider Generalizations: Creating broader - Premise 1: "All men are mortals."

categories (e.g., from "man" to "animal" to
"living organism"). - Premise 2: "Socrates is a man."

- Subdivisions: Creating finer distinctions - Conclusion: "Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

within a concept (e.g., man subdivided by race - This reasoning process is called inference,
or profession). where arguments support or prove a
- This creates a hierarchy of concepts, with conclusion.
sense perception at the base. The Nature of Truth:

4. Proposition: - Validating Knowledge:

- Epistemology includes not only acquiring

knowledge but also validating it.
 - Validation involves retracing the steps used - Based on facts of reality.
to acquire knowledge, a process called
"reduction" (reverse engineering of perception- - Can be confirmed by sources.
concept-proposition-inference). - Independent of personal preferences and
- All true knowledge rests on sense perception. biases.

- Example: Statements like "I am alive," "I have - Opinion Characteristics:

a body," and "I can breathe" can only be - Based on emotions.
validated through sensory observation.
- Open to interpretation and cannot be
- Proof and Sense Perception: confirmed.
- Not all statements can be directly validated - Inherently biased.
by the senses; some require a multi-step
validation process called proof. - Example:

- Even complex beliefs, such as human rights, - The statement "Jose Rizal died in 1896" is a
ultimately rely on facts that can be proven fact-based truth, while "Jose Rizal is the
through sensory perception. greatest man who ever lived" is an opinion
based on personal interpretation.
- Example: The belief that humans have a right
to life is based on factual observations, such as Theories of Truth:
humans being living organisms.
1. Correspondence Theory:
- Consensus:
- A belief is true if it corresponds to reality.
- Truth can sometimes be determined by
- Example: If I say, "The sky is blue," and see a
consensus, but this method has limitations.
blue sky, the statement is true.
- False beliefs, like the Nazi view of Jews during
- Criticism: This theory struggles with
WWII, can be supported by faulty consensus,
paradoxes like "I am lying," leading to
leading to catastrophic outcomes.
contradictions.
- Action-Based Testing:
- Facts are circumstances, while beliefs are
- Some truths are validated through action, opinions about facts.
such as determining whether someone is
friendly by interacting with them.
2. Coherence Theory:
- Example: The Nike slogan "Just do it" applies
here. - Truth is determined by how well a belief fits
within a larger system of ideas.
Truth vs. Opinion:

- Truth Characteristics:
 - Example: Dropping a ball can be explained by Human Nature -a general term refers to the
multiple factors beyond gravity, requiring a deepest and natural behaviour of a person that
system of complex ideas. distinguish human from animals. A collective
traits that formed and considered the very
- Criticism: It lacks justification for use in essence of humanity. Nobody can be
empirical matters and natural phenomena. considered man without human nature.
- Supported by rationalist philosophers like - What is Human Person?
Spinoza and Hegel.
- A human person is an individual with both a
3. Pragmatist Theory: biological classification and birth rights.
- A belief is true if it has practical application - From a biblical perspective, humans come
or usefulness in the world. from Adam and Eve; scientifically, from apes
- Example: Believing in ghosts may help under the class Mammalia.
someone explain strange phenomena, but this - Over time, humans evolved, learning power,
doesn’t necessarily make it true. politics, and economics, leading to structured
- Criticism: Truth based on usefulness can be systems and individual rights.
ambiguous. A belief may be useful but not true. - A human person has a tangible body and
- Nietzsche argued that untruths can intangible components: soul, mind, and spirit.
sometimes be more useful than truths. - Two components of a human person:
WEEK 5-6 1. Cognitive Self: Deals with thoughts,
Man - generally and commonly define to beliefs, desires, and dreams (internal aspects).
represent the entire human race. 2. Physical Self: Refers to body type,
Human -a term used to refer for various strength, and appearance (external aspects).
classifications and species. For a living man, - What is Embodied Spirit?
human is under the classification of Mamalia.
- The embodied spirit refers to the animating
Human Being - a term used to separate man core within us that drives thoughts, actions, and
from other Human Classifications like animals words.
Person -refers to an individual who possess self- - In Christian philosophy, the embodied spirit
awareness, self-determination, rational mind, is the inseparable union of body and soul.
and the capacity to interact with other and with
himself/herself. - The body and soul work together and are not
separate from one another.
Personhood -a general term refers to the state
of being a person with unique, sacred and - What is Human Person as Embodied Spirit?
ethical status within him/herself.
 - Self-awareness: A person’s clear 2. Right intention
understanding of their thoughts, emotions, and
identity. 3. Right speech

- Example: Recognizing one's dreams and 4. Right action

thoughts is a reflection of *interiority* (self- 5. Right livelihood
awareness).
6. Right effort
- Externality: The ability to connect with
others beyond oneself. 7. Right concentration

- Example: Interacting with others or 8. Right mindfulness

animals, despite having internal thoughts and
- Universal principles, like those in Buddhism,
emotions.
show the power to transform one's situation
- Self-determination: The ability to make and transcend to a better state.
choices based on personal preferences and
WEEK 7-8:
goals.
Anthropocentrism - this view believes that
- Example: Choosing a career path or making
humans are the most important species on the
a life decision, knowing that each choice has
planet and they are free to transform nature
consequences (morality).
and use its resources.
- Dignity: The inherent value of every human
Biocentrism - this view advocates ethical
being, which cannot be diminished.
treatment of animals.
- Example: Rights are inalienable; they are
Ecocentrism - this view believes that humankind
inseparable from one's humanity, similar to
is a part of a greater biological system or
how slaves were denied their humanity by
community and that we have a significant role
stripping them of rights.
as stewards or guardians of nature.
- Human Transcendence:
- Reflection on human waste and negligence,
- Humans have the power to surpass their causing environmental damage such as blocked
limits and improve situations, as noted by St. drainage, flooding, diseases, and pollution.
Thomas Aquinas.
- Inefficient use of natural resources like
- Transcendence- refers to overcoming electricity and water are significant issues.
limitations using physical and mental abilities.
- Humans should act as stewards of the earth,
- Example: The Buddha transcended his royal taking responsibility for its future.
life and suffering through the Four Noble Truths
- I.. Environmental Philosophy
and Eightfold Path, which guide self-
improvement: - Definition: Studies the moral relationship
between humans and the environment.
1. Right view
 - Human Interaction: Humans interact with - Immanuel Kant: Believes that the
both living and non-living elements of the orderliness of nature leads to a deeper religious
environment, and these interactions affect both perspective.
the environment and humanity.
- Herbert Marcuse: States that humans have
- Three Environmental Philosophical Views: power over nature.

1. Anthropocentrism: Humans are central to - George Herbert Mead: Argues that humans
the environment, using nature's resources to have responsibilities toward nature.
meet their needs. Example: People clearing
forests for agriculture without considering long- - III. Sustainable Development
term environmental impacts. - Definition: Development that meets current
2. Biocentrism: All organisms have inherent needs without compromising future
value, and humans should protect them. generations' ability to meet theirs.
Example: Ethical treatment of animals and - Principles of Sustainability:
protection of endangered species.
1. Environmental Integrity: Human activities
3. Ecocentrism: Emphasizes the importance should not disrupt the environment excessively.
of ecosystems and communities, viewing Example: Implementing eco-friendly farming
humans as part of a larger system. Example: practices that do not harm local ecosystems.
Preserving forests for biodiversity and
ecosystem balance. 2. Economic Efficiency: Minimize waste when
using natural resources. Example: Using
- II. Environmental Aesthetics renewable energy sources like solar power to
- Definition: The belief that maintaining reduce waste.
environmental order enhances natural beauty 3. Equity: Ensuring natural resources are
and contributes to the well-being of humans conserved for future generations. Example:
and organisms. Reducing deforestation to maintain forests for
- Ancient Thinkers: future use.

- Anaximander: Describes nature as IV. Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy

indeterminate and boundless, with the genesis - Deep Ecology
of the world involving opposites like warm and
moist regions. - Arne Naess, the proponent, emphasizes that
all living things have equal value, regardless of
- Pythagoras: Sees nature as embodying order their usefulness to humans.
and harmony, and believes humans have a
relationship with the universe involving love for - This theory promotes shifting from an
living things (biophilia) and the cosmos anthropocentric view (human-centered) to an
(cosmophilia). ecocentric view (earth-centered).

- Modern Thinkers:
 - Example: Viewing humans as a part of nature, - Prudence helps individuals manage resources
with a responsibility to protect the planet, not carefully, benefiting both personal and common
dominate it. good.

- Social Ecology - Example: Practicing prudence by using

resources like water and electricity wisely,
- Proposed by Murray Bookchin, this theory recognizing that human well-being depends on
suggests that ecological problems stem from a fragile natural world.
social problems like hierarchy and class
structures. - Frugality

- These societal structures exploit natural - Frugality refers to careful management of

resources for profit and self-interest. one’s resources, particularly material ones like
money.
- Example: Capitalist societies using their
authority to overexploit natural resources, - A frugal person seeks to reduce waste, reuse
leading to environmental damage. materials, and recycle, which directly benefits
the environment.
- Ecofeminism
- Example: Using less electricity or water,
- This theory links ecological problems to male- practicing the principles of "reduce, reuse,
centered views of nature and social hierarchies recycle" to minimize environmental impact.
that oppress women.
- Frugality not only saves money but also
- It believes that addressing environmental reduces harm to natural resources.
issues requires ending the superiority of men
over women, and that societies that oppress
women also exploit the environment.

- Example: Patriarchal and capitalist systems

exploit both women and nature, highlighting
the need for social and environmental justice.

V. Prudence and Frugality

- Prudence

- Prudence is the ability to direct one’s actions

wisely and responsibly, avoiding risks.

- It is considered the first and most important

virtue among the four cardinal virtues (justice,
fortitude, temperance).