AUDU BAKO COLLAGE OF

AGRICULTURE
DANBATTA

LECTURER: NASMATU BELLO TAMBAI

Programme: HND Pest Management Technology

Course Title: Rodents and Control
Course Code: PMT 324
Credit Units: 2 (30 hours: 15 Lecture, 15 Practical)

📘 Lecture: week 1 Rodents of Economic

Importance

Introduction
Rodents are among the most widely distributed and economically significant groups of
mammals. This lecture introduces the course Rodents and Control by focusing on the rodents of
economic importance.
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
 Define and classify rodents within the animal kingdom.
 Describe their general morphology, particularly the unique features
that make them successful survivors and pests.
 Identify the major rodent pest species and outline their distinguishing
characteristics.
 Recognize rodent droppings as reliable evidence of infestation.
 Differentiate between rats and mice based on anatomical and
behavioral traits.
1.1 Taxonomy and Morphology of Rodents
Definition
Rodents are small to medium-sized mammals that are best known for their habit of gnawing—
that is, biting or chewing things repeatedly with their strong front teeth. Their front teeth, called
incisors, never stop growing. To prevent these teeth from becoming too long, rodents must chew
constantly on food, wood, wires, or other hard objects.
This behavior is a survival necessity for rodents, but it also makes them destructive pests.
Through their continuous gnawing, they damage crops, contaminate stored food, weaken
furniture, and even destroy parts of buildings.
Rodents belong to the order Rodentia, which is the largest order of
mammals, making up about 40% of all mammalian species worldwide. In
pest management, they are studied as small to medium-sized animals, many
of which cause serious problems in agriculture and human environments.

Classification
 Kingdom: Animalia
 Phylum: Chordata
 Class: Mammalia
 Order: Rodentia
Important Families of Rodents:
 Muridae – includes rats, mice, and gerbils.
 Cricetidae – includes hamsters, voles, and lemmings.
 Sciuridae – includes squirrels and chipmunks.
 Caviidae – includes guinea pigs and capybaras.
 Dipodidae – includes jerboas.
Note: Not all rodents are harmful pests. Some species are extremely valuable, for instance, in
medical research where they are used as model organisms. Others play vital roles in maintaining
ecological balance. However, a subset of rodents directly interferes with human welfare and
economic activities, and these are the focus of pest management.

Morphological Features
Rodents share several morphological characteristics that allow them to survive and adapt to
diverse environments:
 Teeth: They possess ever-growing incisors and lack canine teeth.
Between the incisors and molars lies a gap known as the diastema.
 Body: Typically compact and covered with fur. The size varies greatly—
from very small species like the house mouse to very large ones like
the capybara.
 Tail: Can be long and scaly (as seen in rats and mice) or bushy (as in
squirrels).
  Feet: Adapted for different activities such as running, digging, or
climbing depending on the species.
 Senses: Most rodents have poor eyesight but compensate with highly
developed senses of smell, hearing, and touch. Their whiskers
(vibrissae) are particularly sensitive.
 Reproduction: Rodents are prolific breeders, characterized by short
gestation periods and high reproductive rates.

1.2 Major Pest Species

Several rodent species are of particular concern in agriculture, food storage, and public health.
These include:
 Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Large rodent with a blunt snout, small ears, and a relatively short tail. Commonly inhabits
drains, burrows, and basements. Its droppings are large and blunt. This species is
notorious for transmitting diseases and destroying stored food stocks.
 Roof Rat (Rattus rattus)
More slender than the Norway rat, with a pointed snout, long tail, and large ears. It is an
excellent climber, often found in attics, roof spaces, and trees. Its droppings are spindle-
shaped. It feeds mainly on fruits, grains, and nuts.
 House Mouse (Mus musculus)
A small rodent with large ears and a long, thin tail. It is very common in residential
buildings and warehouses. Its droppings are tiny and pointed. The house mouse
contaminates food and can also cause structural damage.
 African Giant Rat (Cricetomys gambianus)
A very large rodent, often identified by its white-tipped tail. It is commonly found on
farms and in grain storage barns. It produces very large and numerous droppings and is a
serious pest of stored grains.
 Multimammate Mouse (Mastomys natalensis)
Medium-sized rodent, with females possessing an unusually high number of mammary
glands. It is common in African farms and households. Importantly, this species is known
to carry the Lassa fever virus.

1.3 Identification of Rodents

Correct identification of rodent species is critical for effective pest management. Identification is
based on observable characteristics such as:
 Body size and proportions
 Shape of the snout (blunt vs. pointed)
 Relative size of ears to the head
 Tail length compared to the body
 Shape and size of droppings
1.4 Droppings as Evidence
Rodent droppings are one of the most reliable indicators of infestation. Each species leaves
behind droppings with distinctive size and shape:
 Norway rat: large, blunt droppings (~20 mm).
 Roof rat: medium-sized, pointed droppings (~10–14 mm).
 House mouse: very small, rod-shaped droppings (~3–6 mm).
 African giant rat: very large and numerous droppings.
These fecal traces are not only evidence of rodent presence but also assist in identifying the
specific species involved. They further help in determining whether an infestation is current or
old.

1.5 Droppings as Infestation Indicators

Rodents produce droppings in large numbers, which can also be used to estimate the scale of
infestation:
 A single rat produces about 30–50 droppings per day.
 A single mouse produces about 70–100 droppings per day.
👉 Fresh droppings are moist and shiny, indicating an active infestation.
👉 Old droppings are dry and dusty, suggesting a past infestation.
By counting droppings, pest managers can estimate rodent populations, identify rodent runways,
and evaluate the effectiveness of control strategies.

1.6 Distinguishing Rats from Mice

Rats and mice are often confused, but they can be differentiated based on several physical and
behavioral characteristics:
Feature Rats (Norway & Roof) Mice

Size Large (200–500 g) Small (15–30 g)

Broad (Norway) or pointed

Head Small, triangular
(Roof)

Small (Norway) or large

Ears Large relative to head
(Roof)

Short, thick (Norway) or long Thin, approximately equal to body

Tail
(Roof) length

Dropping
Large (10–20 mm) Very small (3–6 mm)
s

Behavior Cautious, suspicious Curious, exploratory

Feature Rats (Norway & Roof) Mice

Practical Exercise: Students should observe preserved specimens and record the differences
between rats and mice.

Conclusion
Rodents are a highly diverse and adaptable group of mammals. While some species are
beneficial within ecosystems, many others are destructive pests. They cause massive economic
losses by:
 Destroying crops in the field.
 Contaminating and consuming stored food.
 Damaging buildings, wiring, and equipment.
 Transmitting dangerous diseases to humans and livestock.
👉 Effective rodent management requires accurate identification of species, a clear understanding
of their biology, and carefully targeted control methods.

Suggested Readings
Textbooks
 Aplin, K.P., Brown, P.R., Jacob, J., Krebs, C.J., & Singleton, G.R. (2003).
Field Methods for Rodent Studies in Asia and the Indo-Pacific.
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
 Buckle, A.P., & Smith, R.H. (2015). Rodent Pests and Their Control (2nd
ed.). CABI Publishing.
 Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker’s Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Journal Articles
 Singleton, G.R. et al. (1999). “Rodents as Pests and Disease Vectors.”
International Pest Management Journal.
 Meerburg, B.G., Singleton, G.R., & Kijlstra, A. (2009). “Rodent-borne
diseases and their risks for public health.” Critical Reviews in
Microbiology, 35(3).
Online Resources
 World Health Organization (WHO): Guidance on rodent control in public
health.
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Manuals on rodent pest
management in agriculture.
 National Pest Management Association (NPMA): Pest rodent
identification resources.
WEEK 2
AUDU BAKO COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE,
DANBATTA

LECTURER: Nasimatu Bello Tambai

Programme: HND Pest Management Technology
Course Title: Rodents and Control
Course Code: PMT 324
Credit Units: 2 (30 hours: 15 Lecture, 15 Practical)

📘 Lecture: Week 2 – Life History and Ecology of Rodents

Introduction
Rodents are highly adaptive mammals whose survival depends largely on their ability to exploit
different environments. Their life history and ecology determine not only how they live but also
why they are difficult to control. This lecture focuses on the habitats, burrow patterns, breeding
conditions, reproduction, and identification of rodent breeding sites and offspring.
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
Identify the habitats of common rodents both in the field and in stores.
Describe the burrow patterns of rodents and their ecological significance.
Recognize burrows of different rodent species.
Explain the climatic and environmental conditions favorable for rodent breeding.
Outline the reproductive features of major rodents.
Identify breeding places and offspring of rodents.

Habitat of Common Rodents in the Field and Store

Rodents are found in almost every environment that provides food and shelter. Their habitats are
commonly divided into:
Field habitats: Grasslands, farmlands, forest edges, and swampy areas where rodents like Rattus
rattus, Mus musculus, squirrels, and grass-cutters thrive. Burrows provide protection, breeding
sites, and food storage.
Store habitats: Rodents such as the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and house mouse (Mus
musculus) thrive in storage structures, silos, and warehouses. They contaminate and destroy
stored food and spread diseases like salmonellosis and leptospirosis.
Key point: Rodents adapt quickly wherever food and shelter are available.

Burrow Patterns of Rodents

Burrows are structured shelters with tunnels, entrances, and chambers.
Structure: Narrow entrances lead into networks of tunnels, sometimes with separate nesting and
food storage chambers.
Functions:
Protection from predators
Safe breeding environment
Food storage
Temperature and humidity regulation
Example: The Nile grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus) makes shallow burrows, while grass-cutters
(Thryonomys swinderianus) construct more elaborate ones.

Identification of Burrows of Various Rodents

Different species can be identified by the size and pattern of their burrows:
Rats (Rattus spp.): Entrances 5–7 cm wide, often near fences, walls, and refuse. Multiple exits.
Mice (Mus spp.): Smaller burrows (<2–3 cm), often hidden in crevices or shelves.
Grass-cutters: Large burrows with multiple chambers, often in swampy areas.
Squirrels: Arboreal nests in trees; ground squirrels dig shallow burrows with visible soil heaps.
Field confirmation can be done by observing droppings, tracks, or activity at dusk.

2.4 Climatic and Environmental Conditions Favorable for Breeding of Rodents

Rodent breeding success depends on environmental factors such as:
Temperature: Moderate ranges (20–30°C) support breeding. Extreme cold reduces reproduction.
Rainfall and moisture: Rainy seasons favor breeding due to food abundance and easier
burrowing.
Food availability: Abundant food (e.g., post-harvest grains) triggers population explosions.
Shelter: Tall grasses, bushes, and stored commodities offer cover for breeding.
Farmers often experience increased rodent damage during rainy or harvest seasons.

Reproduction in Rodents
Rodents are prolific breeders with high reproductive potential.
Birth rate:
Rats: 6–12 pups per litter, 6–7 litters per year.
Mice: Similar but smaller litter size.
Grass-cutters: 150–160 days gestation, fewer litters due to body size.
Gestation period:
Rats: 21–23 days
Mice: 19–21 days
Grass-cutters: 150–160 days
Life cycle:
Mice live ~1 year in the wild.
Rats live 1.5–2 years.
Grass-cutters may live up to 5 years in captivity.
Their rapid breeding makes rodent control a continuous process.
Identification of Rodent Reproduction Places and Their Offspring
Breeding places:
Field: burrows, tree holes, grass nests.
Stores: cracks, dark corners, cardboard boxes, roof spaces.
Offspring features:
Newborns are blind, hairless, and dependent.
At 2–3 weeks, young begin exploring.
Signs of breeding include squeaks, nesting materials, and young rodent sightings.

Conclusion
Rodents are highly adaptive animals with complex life histories and ecological strategies. Their
ability to exploit both field and store habitats, construct protective burrows, and reproduce
rapidly explains why they are difficult to control. Effective management requires a clear
understanding of their habitats, burrows, breeding patterns, and offspring identification.

Suggested Readings
Textbooks
Aplin, K.P., Brown, P.R., Jacob, J., Krebs, C.J., & Singleton, G.R. (2003). Field Methods for
Rodent Studies in Asia and the Indo-Pacific. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research.
Buckle, A.P., & Smith, R.H. (2015). Rodent Pests and Their Control (2nd ed.). CABI Publishing.
Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker’s Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University
Press.
Journal Articles
Singleton, G.R. et al. (1999). “Rodents as Pests and Disease Vectors.” International Pest
Management Journal.
Meerburg, B.G., Singleton, G.R., & Kijlstra, A. (2009). “Rodent-borne diseases and their risks
for public health.” Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 35(3).
Online Resources
World Health Organization (WHO): Guidance on rodent control in public health.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Manuals on rodent pest management in agriculture.
National Pest Management Association (NPMA): Pest rodent identification resources.

WEEK 2 DEEP EXPLANATION:

Week 2: Life History and Ecology of Rodents
Rodents are among the most widespread and successful groups of animals on earth. Their
survival in nearly every environment — from wild forests and open farmlands to homes and food
stores — is largely due to their ability to adapt quickly and reproduce rapidly. The life history
and ecology of rodents refer to how they live, where they live, how they reproduce, and the
environmental factors that influence their existence. Understanding these aspects is essential for
any student or professional dealing with pest management, because knowing how rodents
survive makes it easier to control them effectively.
Rodents are small to medium-sized mammals that belong to the order Rodentia. They are easily
recognized by their two pairs of strong, ever-growing front teeth known as incisors. These teeth
grow continuously throughout their life, and to keep them sharp and at the right length, rodents
constantly gnaw on food materials, wood, and other objects. This unique feature is one of the
reasons rodents are so destructive, as their gnawing habits damage crops, wires, storage sacks,
and even household structures. Apart from their strong teeth, rodents have other adaptations such
as sharp claws for digging, flexible bodies that can squeeze through small openings, and highly
developed senses of smell and hearing, which help them locate food and detect danger.
Habitat of Common Rodents in the Field and Store
The word habitat refers to the natural home or environment where an animal lives, feeds, and
reproduces. Rodents are highly adaptable animals, which means they can survive in almost any
place that provides food, water, and shelter. Generally, rodent habitats can be divided into two
broad types: field habitats and store habitats.
In the field, rodents such as the grass-cutter (Thryonomys swinderianus), the African grass rat
(Arvicanthis niloticus), and different species of mice and squirrels occupy open lands, farms, and
forest edges. They are commonly found in grasslands, rice fields, maize farms, and areas covered
with thick vegetation. These places offer them food from growing crops, seeds, and insects, as
well as cover to hide from predators. Most field rodents build burrows in the soil, particularly in
loose and moist areas where digging is easy. These burrows provide shelter from bad weather
and serve as safe hiding places. For example, the African grass-cutter often makes its burrows in
swampy or tall grassy areas, and sometimes near farmlands where crops are readily available.
These burrows usually contain chambers for nesting and storing food.
In contrast, store habitats are man-made environments such as food warehouses, silos, barns, and
domestic kitchens. These areas provide rodents with an uninterrupted food supply and
comfortable living conditions. The house mouse (Mus musculus) and the brown rat (Rattus
norvegicus) are the most common species found in such locations. They live inside wall cracks,
roof spaces, ceiling holes, and other hidden corners where they can remain safe during the day
and come out at night to feed. Because of their small size and flexible bodies, mice can enter
through holes as small as a coin. Rodents living in stores are serious pests because they
contaminate food with their droppings, urine, and hair, and they also spread diseases such as
leptospirosis and salmonellosis. They can even chew through packaging materials and electric
wires, which makes them dangerous not only to stored food but also to property.
In summary, the habitats of rodents are determined by the availability of food and shelter.
Wherever there is enough food, warmth, and protection from predators, rodents will establish
themselves and breed rapidly. This is why rodent control must begin with understanding and
eliminating the environmental conditions that attract them.
Burrow Patterns of Rodents
One of the most remarkable features of rodents is their ability to dig and build burrows. A
burrow is not just a hole in the ground — it is a complex system of tunnels and chambers that
serve many important purposes. The pattern of a burrow varies depending on the species, the
type of soil, and the surrounding environment.
A typical rodent burrow starts with a narrow entrance on the surface, which leads down into a
network of tunnels. Some of these tunnels may be short and simple, while others may be long
and have several branches. Many burrows have more than one entrance, which allows rodents to
escape quickly from predators. Inside the burrow, there are special chambers for nesting and
food storage. The nesting chamber is usually lined with soft materials such as grass, leaves, or
shredded paper, while the food storage chamber holds seeds, grains, or tubers collected from
nearby fields.
Burrows serve many purposes. First, they provide protection from enemies such as snakes, cats,
and birds of prey. Second, they offer a safe environment for breeding and raising the young.
Third, the underground temperature of a burrow is usually more stable than the temperature
outside, so it protects rodents from extreme heat or cold. Finally, burrows serve as food storage
centers, allowing rodents to survive during dry seasons when food is scarce. For instance, during
the dry months, field rodents collect grains and seeds and keep them inside their burrows for
later use.
Different species of rodents make different types of burrows. The Nile grass rat, for example,
digs simple shallow burrows just a few centimeters deep, while the larger grass-cutter makes
elaborate systems with several chambers. The number and shape of burrow openings in a farm
often indicate how many rodents are present — the more holes, the more serious the infestation.
Identification of Burrows of Various Rodents
In pest management, identifying the burrows of different rodent species helps to determine which
species are present in a given area. Each type of rodent builds a characteristic burrow based on
its size and habits.
The burrow of a rat, such as Rattus norvegicus, is usually found near fences, walls, drains, or
refuse dumps. The openings are round and about five to seven centimeters wide. Rat burrows
often have smooth edges because the animals frequently enter and leave them. A single burrow
may have two or three entrances: one main entrance and others that serve as emergency exits.
The burrow of a mouse is much smaller, usually less than three centimeters wide. Mice often live
indoors, so instead of digging into soil, they create small nests in wall crevices, under furniture,
or inside stored materials. Their nests are built with soft materials such as cloth, paper, and dry
leaves.
The burrow of the grass-cutter is much larger and more complex. It can be found in grassy or
swampy areas near water sources. These burrows may have several interconnected chambers and
are often shared by groups of animals. On the other hand, squirrels that live on the ground make
shallow burrows in open areas, while tree squirrels build nests on branches or in hollow trees
using dry leaves and twigs.
In the field, burrow identification can be confirmed by looking for signs such as fresh droppings,
gnaw marks, or soil heaps near the entrance. Observing rodents early in the morning or at dusk,
when they are most active, also helps confirm which species are responsible.
Climatic and Environmental Conditions Favorable for Breeding
Rodent breeding depends heavily on environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, food,
and shelter. These factors determine how often rodents reproduce and how many of their young
ones survive.
Temperature plays a major role in rodent reproduction. Most species breed best at moderate
temperatures between twenty and thirty degrees Celsius. In very cold environments, their
breeding activities slow down because food becomes scarce and survival is difficult. On the
other hand, warm and moist environments encourage continuous breeding.
Rainfall and moisture also influence rodent populations. During the rainy season, food becomes
abundant in the form of sprouting crops and seeds. Moist soil is also easier to dig, which helps
rodents build nests and burrows. As a result, rodent numbers usually increase during and after
the rains.
Food availability is perhaps the most important factor of all. When food is plentiful — especially
after harvest — rodents reproduce more quickly. For example, when farmers store newly
harvested grains in their barns, they unknowingly provide an unlimited food source for rats and
mice, leading to a population explosion.
Shelter and cover are equally important. Tall grasses, bushy areas, and piles of materials around
buildings give rodents perfect hiding places. In short, the combination of moderate temperature,
rainfall, abundant food, and sufficient shelter creates ideal conditions for rodents to breed
rapidly.
Reproduction in Rodents
Rodents are famous for their high reproductive rate. They breed at an early age, give birth to
many offspring at a time, and can reproduce several times within a single year. This ability is one
of the main reasons they are so difficult to control.
A female rat can give birth to between six and twelve pups in one litter and may have as many as
six or seven litters in a year. The gestation period — that is, the time between conception and
birth — is about twenty-one to twenty-three days for rats and nineteen to twenty-one days for
mice. The grass-cutter, being larger, has a much longer gestation period of about one hundred
and fifty to one hundred and sixty days and usually produces fewer litters.
Rodent babies are born blind, hairless, and completely dependent on their mothers. The mother
nurses them until they are about two or three weeks old, after which they begin to move about
and eat solid food. The young ones reach maturity in about two months and then start
reproducing on their own. Because of this short reproductive cycle, a single pair of rats can
multiply into hundreds within a year if not controlled.
The life span of rodents also varies by species. The house mouse typically lives for about a year
in the wild, while the brown rat lives for up to two years. Grass-cutters, when kept in captivity or
farmed, can live up to five years if properly managed. Their relatively short lives are
compensated by their ability to produce many offspring in a short time.
Identification of Rodent Reproduction Sites and Their Offspring
Rodents are careful about where they breed. They usually choose locations that are quiet, dark,
and safe from human activity and predators. In the field, they build their nests inside burrows,
under dense vegetation, or in tree holes. In stores and houses, they select hidden spots such as
behind cabinets, inside cardboard boxes, or under roof ceilings.
A typical rodent nest is made from soft and warm materials — paper, cloth, straw, or dried grass
— arranged into a small ball or chamber. Inside these nests, the female gives birth and raises her
young. Newborn rodents are small, pink, and blind. They grow fur after about one week and
open their eyes at around two weeks of age. At three weeks, they start exploring outside the nest.
Signs of breeding in an area include squeaking sounds, the presence of soft nesting materials,
smaller droppings from young ones, and increased sightings of small rodents moving about.
Identifying these signs early helps pest managers know where to focus their control efforts
before the population increases.
Summary and Conclusion
The study of the life history and ecology of rodents helps us understand why these animals are so
successful and difficult to control. Their adaptability allows them to live in both natural
environments like fields and human-made structures such as stores. Their burrowing behavior
provides safety and a comfortable space for breeding. Favorable environmental conditions such
as moderate temperature, sufficient rainfall, and abundant food make their reproduction rapid
and continuous. Because of their high fertility, even a few rodents can quickly grow into a large
population if left unchecked.
For effective rodent control, it is not enough to kill the animals; we must also understand their
habits and ecology. This means removing their food sources, blocking access to shelters, and
maintaining good hygiene in both fields and storage facilities. By studying their life patterns,
pest management students and professionals can design better strategies to reduce rodent damage
and protect agricultural productivity.

WEEK 3
AUDU BAKO COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DANBATTA

LECTURER: Nasimatu Bello Tambai

Programme: HND Pest Management Technology
Course Title: Rodents and Control
Course Code: PMT 324
Credit Units: 2 (30 hours: 15 Lecture, 15 Practical)

📘 Lecture: Week 3 – Damages Caused by Rodents in the Field and Store

Introduction
Rodents are notorious for their destructive activities in agriculture and human environments.
Their gnawing, feeding, and contaminating behavior results in massive economic losses
annually. Farmers in rural areas often complain that rodents consume nearly as much as they
harvest, while traders in urban markets struggle to protect stored goods from rodent infestations.
In this lecture, we will carefully examine:
The types and extent of damages caused by rodents in both fields and storage facilities.
The signs of infestation that help us detect their presence.
The agricultural produce most vulnerable to rodent attacks.

Types and Extent of Damages by Rodents in the Field and Store

Rodent damages can be grouped into direct damages (eating and gnawing) and indirect damages
(contamination, disease transmission, and secondary spoilage).
(a) Damages in the Field
Rodents directly compete with humans for food by attacking crops during different growth
stages:
Seedling destruction: Rodents dig up freshly planted seeds (e.g., maize, groundnut, beans),
reducing germination rates and forcing farmers to replant.
Stem cutting: Some species, such as grass-cutters (Thryonomys swinderianus), cut down young
maize, sugarcane, and rice plants to feed on the juicy stems.
Fruit and tuber feeding: Rodents damage fruits like watermelon, cucumber, and tomatoes, as well
as root crops like yam, cassava, and potatoes by gnawing holes into them.
Girdling of trees: Squirrels and rats sometimes strip bark from fruit trees, weakening or even
killing them.
Example: In rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia and Nigeria, farmers often lose 10–15% of
their crops to rodents each season, with localized losses rising to 50% in rodent outbreak years.

(b) Damages in Storage

Stored products are particularly vulnerable because rodents find continuous food supply,
warmth, and shelter inside storage facilities.
Feeding losses: Rodents eat large amounts of stored grains, tubers, and legumes. For instance, a
single rat can consume 10–15 kg of grain per year.
Gnawing damage: Their sharp incisors allow them to chew through wooden crates, plastic
containers, and even cement floors to reach food.
Contamination: Food is spoiled by urine, feces, hair, and nesting material, making it unfit for
human consumption. Contaminated food can spread diseases such as leptospirosis and
salmonellosis.
Structural damage: Rodents gnaw on electrical wires, sacks, doors, and even building
foundations, creating fire hazards and costly repairs.
Case Example: The African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus) is notorious in West Africa for
invading barns and grain silos, leaving behind hundreds of droppings per night.

(c) Extent of Damage

The damage caused by rodents is not limited to physical loss but also includes hidden costs:
Quantity loss: Food directly eaten or destroyed.
Quality loss: Contamination and spoilage reduce nutritional and market value.
Economic loss: Farmers spend more on pesticides, traps, and replanting.
Health risk: Disease outbreaks in humans and livestock increase medical costs.
According to FAO estimates, rodents account for 5–15% of global food losses annually,
translating into billions of dollars. In regions with poor rodent management, losses may exceed
30% of harvested crops.

Signs of Rodent Infestation in the Field and Store

Early detection of rodents is essential for control. Students and farmers must learn to recognize
the following signs:
Droppings:
Norway rat: large, blunt (~20 mm).
Roof rat: spindle-shaped (~12 mm).
House mouse: very small (~3–6 mm).
Fresh droppings are moist and shiny; old ones are dry and dusty.
Gnaw marks: Sharp-edged marks on sacks, wood, fruits, and electrical cables.
Burrows: Holes around fields, near walls, or inside storage floors with smooth edges (indicating
regular use).
Tracks and tail marks: Visible on dusty floors or soft soil.
Nests: Made of shredded paper, cloth, or straw, usually hidden in corners, ceilings, or crop fields.
Sounds and odor: Squeaking, scratching, or scurrying at night; strong smell of rodent urine.
Damaged crops and products: Half-eaten maize cobs, gnawed yams, chewed groundnut shells.
Practical Tip: Farmers often estimate rodent population density by counting droppings or
burrow openings in a given area.

Agricultural Produce Most Susceptible to Rodent Attack

Rodents have a wide diet, but certain crops and stored products are more attractive due to their
high energy and protein content.
(a) Field Crops Susceptible to Rodents
Cereals: maize, rice, millet, sorghum, wheat. These are soft, abundant, and highly nutritious,
making them a top target.
Legumes: groundnut, beans, cowpea, soybeans. Rodents feed on pods and seeds.
Root and tuber crops: yam, cassava, sweet potato, potato. Often gnawed underground or during
storage.
Fruits and vegetables: tomato, melon, cucumber, watermelon. Attacked at ripening stage.
(b) Stored Products Susceptible to Rodents
Grains: maize, rice, millet, wheat.
Legumes: beans, cowpea, groundnut.
Tubers: yam, cassava, potato.
Observation: Rodents usually attack crops at their most vulnerable stages: seedlings in the field
and dry grains/tubers in storage.

Conclusion
Rodents are responsible for significant agricultural losses in both fields and stores. Their
damages range from direct consumption of crops to indirect contamination and disease
transmission. Recognizing the signs of infestation—such as droppings, gnaw marks, and burrows
—is critical for early intervention. Furthermore, farmers must pay particular attention to highly
susceptible crops like cereals, legumes, and tubers, which form the bulk of rodent diets.
An effective pest management strategy begins with a clear understanding of how rodents cause
damage, where they attack, and which crops are most at risk.

Suggested Readings
Textbooks
Buckle, A.P., & Smith, R.H. (2015). Rodent Pests and Their Control (2nd ed.). CABI Publishing.
Aplin, K.P., Brown, P.R., Jacob, J., Krebs, C.J., & Singleton, G.R. (2003). Field Methods for
Rodent Studies in Asia and the Indo-Pacific. ACIAR.
Journal Articles
Singleton, G.R., Belmain, S.R., Brown, P.R., & Hardy, B. (2010). Rodent Outbreaks: Ecology
and Impacts. International Rice Research Institute.
Meerburg, B.G., Singleton, G.R., & Kijlstra, A. (2009). “Rodent-borne diseases and their risks
for public health.” Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 35(3).
Online Resources
FAO: Manuals on rodent damage in agriculture.
WHO: Public health guidance on rodent control.

WEEK 3 DEEP EXPLANATION:

Week 3: Damages Caused by Rodents in the Field and Store
Rodents are among the most destructive groups of animals known to agriculture and food
production. Their feeding, gnawing, and contaminating activities have made them one of the
most difficult and costly pests in human history. In both rural and urban settings, they compete
directly with humans for food and shelter. Farmers often complain that rats and mice consume
almost as much as they harvest, while traders and warehouse owners in cities constantly battle to
protect their stored produce. Understanding the types of damage rodents cause, the signs of their
presence, and the crops most at risk is essential for anyone studying pest management or working
to safeguard food supplies.
Rodent damage occurs everywhere—from the farmer’s field to the household store. These
animals are not only destructive because they feed on crops, but also because they contaminate
and spoil much more than they actually eat. In many developing countries, where food storage
conditions are often poor, the losses caused by rodents can amount to several months of a
family’s food supply. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that between
five and fifteen percent of the world’s food is destroyed by rodents every year, and in areas
without effective control, losses may rise above thirty percent. To appreciate the seriousness of
this problem, it is important to examine how rodents cause damage and what evidence they leave
behind.
Rodent Damage in the Field
In the field, rodents destroy crops during every stage of growth—from seeds in the soil to mature
fruits ready for harvest. Their destructive activities can be divided into four main types: seedling
destruction, stem cutting, fruit and tuber feeding, and tree damage.
Seedling destruction occurs when rodents dig up newly planted seeds or seedlings. Maize, rice,
groundnuts, beans, and other grains are frequent targets because they contain high energy and are
easy to chew. When a farmer plants a field, rats or mice may follow the rows of freshly planted
seeds, digging and eating them one after another. This reduces germination rates and forces
farmers to replant, leading to wasted labor, time, and resources. Even if only a small percentage
of seeds are eaten, the uniform spacing of rows means that missing plants create gaps that lower
the overall yield.
Stem cutting is another common type of damage, particularly caused by larger rodents such as
the African grass-cutter (Thryonomys swinderianus). These animals bite through the stems of
young maize, sugarcane, and rice plants to reach the soft, juicy inner tissues. The result is that
entire sections of a field may appear flattened overnight, with plants lying on the ground or
wilting because the stems have been severed. This not only reduces yield but also makes
harvesting and weeding more difficult.
Fruit and tuber feeding takes place when crops have begun to mature. Rodents chew holes into
fruits such as tomatoes, melons, and cucumbers, or gnaw underground tubers like yams, cassava,
and potatoes. The damage may seem small at first, but even minor gnaw marks allow fungi and
bacteria to enter, causing rot. In yam and cassava stores, the gnawing of just a few tubers can
lead to spoilage of entire stacks within days, especially under humid conditions.
Girdling of trees is less common but still serious. Squirrels and some species of rats strip the bark
from fruit trees such as mango and guava, exposing the inner wood. This ring-barking interrupts
the flow of nutrients and can eventually kill the tree. In orchards, such behavior can ruin years of
investment.
The combined effect of these different kinds of field damage is devastating. In rice-growing
regions of Nigeria and other parts of Africa, rodent losses typically reach ten to fifteen percent
each season and can rise to fifty percent in outbreak years. Because rodents multiply rapidly, a
small infestation can grow into a large one within months if not controlled. Their presence also
discourages farmers, leading to reduced planting in future seasons.
Rodent Damage in Storage
Once crops are harvested and stored, the threat from rodents does not end. In fact, storage
facilities often provide the perfect living conditions for rats and mice. Food is concentrated in
one place, protection from weather is available, and human activity may be minimal at night
when rodents are most active. Thus, storage damage is often even more severe than field
damage.
The first type of storage damage is feeding loss. A single adult rat consumes about ten to fifteen
kilograms of grain in one year, while contaminating and spoiling several times that amount. In a
warehouse filled with hundreds of sacks, a small colony of rats can destroy tonnes of produce
within months. Unlike insects, which usually feed from the inside, rodents scatter and waste food
as they eat, leaving large quantities unfit for consumption.
The second type of storage damage is gnawing damage. Because rodents’ front teeth never stop
growing, they must constantly gnaw on hard objects to keep them sharp and short. As a result,
they chew through wooden doors, plastic containers, paper bags, and even thin layers of cement
or aluminum. Their gnawing damages not only food packaging but also structures. Electrical
wires that have been bitten by rats can cause short circuits and fires, while holes in walls or
floors allow other pests to enter.
The third type is contamination. Rodents are known to contaminate much more food than they
eat. They urinate and defecate wherever they feed, and their droppings and urine contain bacteria
that can cause diseases such as salmonellosis and leptospirosis. Even a small amount of
contamination is enough to make food unsafe for humans. In addition, rodent hair, nesting
material, and the smell of urine reduce the quality and market value of stored produce.
Finally, rodents cause structural damage. They weaken storage buildings by gnawing on beams,
doors, and floors, and they often build nests inside ceilings or walls. In large stores and grain
silos, they can damage machinery, plastic sacks, and packaging materials, increasing
maintenance costs. The African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus), for example, is notorious in
West Africa for invading barns and leaving behind hundreds of droppings each night.
Extent and Economic Importance of Damage
The economic losses caused by rodents extend beyond the visible destruction of food. There are
hidden costs that farmers and traders often overlook. These include the money spent on traps,
poisons, and labor for rodent control; the cost of replanting destroyed crops; and the loss of
income from reduced yields or spoiled goods. Moreover, diseases spread by rodents can infect
both humans and livestock, leading to medical expenses and reduced productivity.
The FAO estimates that rodents are responsible for between five and fifteen percent of all global
food losses each year, which amounts to billions of dollars. In some African and Asian countries,
the percentage can rise to thirty percent or more. Such losses contribute directly to food
insecurity and poverty. When we consider that one rat can destroy enough grain to feed a person
for a week, the importance of rodent management becomes clear.
Signs of Rodent Infestation
Early detection of rodents is crucial for effective control. Because rodents are mostly nocturnal,
they are rarely seen during the day. However, they leave behind several clear signs of their
presence. Students of pest management must learn to recognize these clues both in the field and
in storage facilities.
One of the most reliable signs is the presence of droppings. The size and shape of droppings can
help identify the species. Norway rat droppings are large and blunt, about twenty millimeters
long; roof rat droppings are smaller and spindle-shaped, about twelve millimeters; while mouse
droppings are tiny and rod-shaped, only three to six millimeters long. Fresh droppings are moist
and shiny, indicating an active infestation, whereas old droppings are dry and dusty.
Gnaw marks are another clear indication. Sharp-edged bite marks on wooden doors, sacks, or
even electrical cables reveal that rodents have been present. In fields, gnawed maize cobs or
bitten fruits also serve as evidence.
Burrows provide further proof. Active burrows around the edges of fields or near the bases of
buildings usually have smooth, compact entrances because the animals frequently pass through
them. In stores with earthen floors, small holes or tunnels may appear near the corners or under
shelves.
Other signs include tracks and tail marks on dusty floors, nests made of shredded paper or straw
hidden in dark corners, and the smell of urine, which is often strong in closed rooms. Noises such
as scratching, squeaking, or the sound of movement at night are also common indicators.
Observing and recording these signs allows pest managers to estimate rodent numbers and
decide where to place traps or bait.
Crops and Products Most Susceptible to Rodent Attack
Although rodents have a wide diet and can feed on almost any type of crop or stored product,
some foods are more vulnerable than others. Rodents prefer items that are rich in carbohydrates
and proteins because they provide more energy.
In the field, the most vulnerable crops are cereals, legumes, root and tuber crops, and fruits and
vegetables. Cereals such as maize, rice, millet, sorghum, and wheat are highly favored because
they are soft, abundant, and nutritious. Legumes like beans, groundnuts, and cowpeas attract
rodents due to their high protein content. Root and tuber crops, including yams, cassava, and
potatoes, are attacked underground or soon after harvest. Fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes,
cucumbers, and watermelons are eaten at their ripening stage when the flesh becomes sweet.
In storage, the same pattern continues. Stored grains, legumes, and tubers are the primary targets.
Maize and rice stores are especially prone to rodent attack because they are often kept in bags or
bins that can be easily penetrated. Once a few grains spill onto the floor, they attract more
rodents. Rodents usually attack crops at their most vulnerable stages: seedlings in the field and
dried grains or tubers during storage.
Health and Safety Concerns
Beyond economic losses, rodent damage has serious health implications. When rodents
contaminate food with their droppings or urine, they spread pathogens that can cause diseases in
humans. Leptospirosis, for example, is transmitted through contact with water or soil
contaminated by rat urine. Salmonella bacteria, found in rodent feces, can cause severe food
poisoning. Rodents also serve as carriers of parasites and fleas, some of which are vectors for
plague and other illnesses. In livestock farms, their contamination of feed and water can lead to
outbreaks of disease among animals. Therefore, controlling rodent infestations is not only a
matter of protecting food but also of safeguarding public health.
Managing and Preventing Damage
To reduce rodent damage, prevention must begin before infestations become large. Farmers and
store owners should maintain clean environments, eliminating food spills and removing clutter
that provides hiding places. Physical barriers, such as sealing holes in walls, using metal bins,
and raising grain stores above the ground, can limit access. Regular inspection for droppings and
gnaw marks helps detect infestations early. In serious cases, traps and bait stations may be used,
but these should be handled carefully to avoid contamination and ensure safety.
Community action is also important. Because rodents move freely between farms and houses,
controlling them in one place is not enough. Coordinated campaigns—where many farmers clean
and trap rodents at the same time—are more effective and prevent reinfestation from neighboring
areas.
Conclusion
Rodents are responsible for immense economic and health losses in both fields and stores. Their
damages include direct feeding on crops and indirect losses through contamination, disease
transmission, and structural destruction. In the field, they destroy seeds, stems, fruits, and roots;
in storage, they eat and spoil grains and tubers, gnaw through containers, and contaminate
everything they touch. Recognizing the early signs of infestation—such as droppings, gnaw
marks, and burrows—is essential for timely action. Certain crops, especially cereals, legumes,
and tubers, are more vulnerable and therefore require greater protection.
Effective rodent management begins with understanding how these animals live and how they
cause damage. By combining environmental cleanliness, proper storage practices, and
coordinated control measures, farmers and pest managers can significantly reduce the impact of
rodents on agriculture and food securi

WEEK 4

AUDU BAKO COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DANBATTA

LECTURER: Nasmatu Bello Tambai

Programme: HND Pest Management Technology
Course Title: Rodents and Control
Course Code: PMT 324
Credit Units: 2 (30 hours: 15 Lecture, 15 Practical)
📘 Lecture: Week 4: Methods of Managing Rodent Outbreaks
Rodents are among the most troublesome pests that threaten food security, farm productivity,
and public health. Their ability to reproduce quickly and survive in a wide range of environments
makes them difficult to control. Once rodents find food and shelter, their population can grow
rapidly and cause extensive damage both in the field and in storage. Therefore, effective rodent
management involves a combination of preventive and control methods aimed at reducing their
population and preventing re-infestation.
Managing rodent outbreaks does not simply mean killing rodents. It involves a series of planned
actions that include sanitation, exclusion, trapping, cultural and biological methods, and
sometimes the careful use of chemicals. These approaches must be combined for long-term
success because no single method can completely solve the problem.

1. Preventive Measures: Methods Used to Prevent Rodent Infestation

A. Sanitary Methods
Sanitation is the foundation of any successful rodent control program. Rodents thrive in dirty,
disorganized environments where food waste, spilled grains, and clutter provide hiding and
nesting spaces. Good sanitation removes the basic needs of rodents — food, water, and shelter —
thereby preventing their population from multiplying.
In farms, proper sanitation involves keeping the field clean by weeding regularly, clearing bushy
areas, and properly disposing of crop residues after harvest. Leaving heaps of stalks, rubbish, or
debris encourages rodents to nest and breed. Farmers should also avoid keeping piles of
firewood, sacks, or unused equipment near the farm.
In storage areas, sanitation means keeping the store clean, dry, and organized. Spilled grains
should be swept away immediately, and all food should be stored in sealed containers made of
metal or thick plastic. Floors and walls should be cleaned regularly to remove traces of food and
rodent droppings. Garbage bins must have tight-fitting lids, and water sources should be kept
closed to deny rodents access.
Sanitation is a continuous process. Once the environment becomes dirty again, rodents will
return quickly. A clean environment not only discourages rodents but also supports other control
methods.

B. Rat-Proofing (Structural or Physical Exclusion)

Rat-proofing refers to the process of designing or modifying buildings and storage structures in a
way that prevents rodents from entering. Because rodents can squeeze through very small
openings and climb rough surfaces, effective rat-proofing requires sealing all entry points.
Cracks and holes in walls, floors, and ceilings should be filled with cement or covered with metal
sheets or wire mesh, since rodents can chew through wood, rubber, and plastic but not metal.
Doors and windows should close tightly without gaps, and air vents or drain outlets should be
covered with fine mesh wire.
In grain storage, metal bins and silos are preferred over wooden boxes. In rural areas, farmers
often store maize in cribs raised on wooden or bamboo stilts. The stilts should be fitted with
metal guards or cone-shaped baffles to prevent rats from climbing up. This design helps protect
harvested grains from both rodents and moisture.
Rat-proofing provides long-term protection and is one of the most effective methods of
preventing rodent infestation.

C. Trapping
Trapping is a mechanical method of directly catching or killing rodents. It is especially useful in
small-scale situations such as homes, laboratories, and food stores where the use of poison might
be unsafe. Traps work by attracting rodents with bait (like groundnuts, maize, or fish) and then
capturing or killing them when triggered.
Common types of traps include:
Snap traps: These have a spring-loaded bar that kills the rodent instantly when it touches the bait.
Glue boards: Flat boards coated with sticky substances that hold rodents when they step on them.
Cage or live traps: These capture the rodent alive for later disposal or relocation.
Pitfall traps: Simple holes or containers buried in the ground to catch field rodents.
Traps should be placed along walls, behind objects, near burrow entrances, and in dark corners
since rodents prefer to move along edges. Traps should be checked daily, and captured rodents
must be removed and disposed of properly. The traps should also be cleaned and reset regularly.
Although trapping can be laborious, it is environmentally safe and can be reused many times.

D. Cultural Practices
Cultural control involves modifying farming methods and routines to make the environment less
favorable for rodents. These practices reduce rodent breeding and feeding opportunities without
using chemicals.
Some examples include:
Synchronized planting and harvesting: When all farmers in an area plant and harvest at the same
time, rodents cannot easily move from one field to another.
Weeding and clearing field boundaries: Removing tall grasses and weeds eliminates rodent
hiding places.
Post-harvest ploughing: Ploughing the soil after harvest destroys burrows and exposes rodents to
predators.
Proper waste disposal: Avoiding the accumulation of food waste or plant residues reduces the
availability of food sources.
Cultural control methods work best when adopted by the entire community rather than by a
single farmer. When everyone in an area practices the same method, rodent populations are
reduced more effectively.

E. Biological Control
Biological control uses natural enemies to manage rodent populations. In nature, rodents have
predators that help maintain balance in the ecosystem. Encouraging or protecting these predators
can help control rodents naturally without the use of poisons.
Common natural enemies of rodents include cats, dogs, snakes, owls, hawks, and other birds of
prey. Keeping cats in warehouses or allowing dogs to patrol farms discourages rodents from
nesting. In rural areas, protecting owl nests and installing perches in open fields can increase the
presence of birds of prey that feed on rats.
However, biological control alone cannot completely eradicate rodents. It is most effective when
combined with sanitation, trapping, and rat-proofing as part of an Integrated Rodent
Management (IRM) approach.

2. Chemical Control of Rodents

When other methods fail or when rodent populations become too large, chemical control may be
used. This involves the use of special chemicals called rodenticides to poison and kill rodents.
While effective, these chemicals must be used carefully to avoid harming humans, pets, and
livestock.
Rodenticides are classified into two main types:
Acute (single-dose) poisons:
These act very quickly—sometimes within hours—after a single feeding. Examples include zinc
phosphide and strychnine. Although effective, they are dangerous because other rodents may see
their dead companions and become cautious, refusing to eat the bait.
Chronic (multiple-dose) poisons or anticoagulants:
These act slowly, usually after several days of feeding. They prevent blood from clotting, leading
to internal bleeding and death. Examples include warfarin, bromadiolone, and brodifacoum.
Because death occurs gradually, rodents do not associate the poison with danger, making these
poisons more reliable.
When using rodenticides:
Mix the poison with bait materials like grains, flour, or peanut butter.
Place the bait near burrow entrances, corners, or areas where droppings are seen.
Always use bait boxes or stations to prevent pets and children from touching the poison.
Wear gloves when handling rodenticides and dispose of dead rodents properly.
Rodenticides should be used only when necessary and always in combination with sanitation and
exclusion for long-term success.

Classification of Rodenticides
Rodenticides can also be classified based on how they kill rodents:
Anticoagulants: Cause internal bleeding (e.g., warfarin, bromadiolone).
Acute toxins: Kill quickly by affecting the nervous or respiratory system (e.g., zinc phosphide).
Fumigants: Release toxic gas in burrows or enclosed spaces (e.g., aluminum phosphide).
Tracking powders: Stick to rodents’ fur and are swallowed when the rodent cleans itself.
While chemical control can be effective, it should be applied only under supervision and as a last
resort. Improper use can lead to chemical resistance, pollution, and danger to non-target animals.

3. Constructing Maize Cribs on Stilts with Rodent Stops or Traps

A maize crib is a simple structure designed to store maize safely after harvest. To protect maize
from rodents, farmers construct cribs on stilts — vertical wooden or bamboo supports that lift the
crib above the ground. Each stilt is fitted with a metal cone or disc, called a rodent stop, which
prevents rats from climbing up.
The crib is usually made from bamboo, wooden planks, or wire mesh, allowing air to circulate
and keep the grains dry. The roof is covered with a metal or roofing sheet to protect the maize
from rain. Inside the crib, traps can be set to catch any rodents that manage to enter.
Constructing rodent-proof cribs is a practical and affordable way for farmers to protect their
harvests without using chemicals. This structure helps reduce post-harvest losses and keeps
grains clean, dry, and safe for human consumption.

4. Integrated Rodent Management (IRM)

Integrated Rodent Management means combining different control methods in a planned and
coordinated way. Since rodents are intelligent and adaptable, using one method alone is rarely
effective.
IRM includes:
Sanitation to remove food and shelter.
Rat-proofing to prevent entry.
Trapping and biological control to reduce numbers naturally.
Careful chemical control when infestations become severe.
Community cooperation is essential in IRM because rodents move freely between farms and
houses. If only one household practices control, others may still suffer reinfestation. When the
entire community works together, rodent populations can be drastically reduced.

Conclusion
Rodent management is a continuous and multi-step process. The best results come from
combining preventive and control measures rather than relying on one method. Sanitary and
structural practices stop rodents from entering; trapping and biological control help reduce
existing populations; and chemical control should be used only when necessary.
Constructing rodent-proof maize cribs on stilts is a practical local solution that protects stored
crops. Finally, effective rodent management depends on cooperation among farmers,

Further Suggestions
Regular Monitoring and Record-Keeping:
Farmers and store managers should monitor rodent activity regularly by checking for droppings,
burrows, or gnaw marks. Keeping a simple record of rodent sightings and control actions helps
to know whether the population is increasing or decreasing.
Community-Based Rodent Control:
Since rodents move freely between neighboring farms and buildings, control efforts should
involve the entire community. Joint sanitation days, coordinated trapping, and shared education
programs produce better results than individual efforts.
Environmental Education:
Farmers, students, and rural dwellers should be educated on the dangers of rodents and the
importance of preventive measures. Demonstrations on constructing rodent-proof maize cribs or
safely handling rodenticides should be included in extension programs.
Safe Chemical Handling:
When using rodenticides, always wear gloves and protective clothing. Store chemicals in labeled
containers away from food and water. Avoid over-application and dispose of dead rodents
properly to prevent poisoning of pets or wildlife.
Adoption of Integrated Rodent Management (IRM):
Instead of depending solely on poisons, adopt an integrated approach that combines sanitation,
exclusion, trapping, biological control, and careful chemical use. This method is sustainable and
environmentally safe.
Encourage Local Innovation:
Promote the use of affordable local materials for constructing rodent-proof storage structures.
Farmers should be encouraged to share indigenous knowledge and techniques that work
effectively in their local environments.
Research and Continuous Improvement:
Universities and agricultural institutions should conduct ongoing research into improved rodent
management techniques. Students can be encouraged to carry out field studies on rodent
population patterns, feeding behavior, and control effectiveness.

References
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Publishing, Wallingford.
Prakash, I. (1988). Rodent Pest Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Greaves, J. H. (1994). Rodent Control Methods: A Practical Guide for Developing Countries.
FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 120. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Singleton, G. R., Hinds, L. A., Leirs, H., & Zhang, Z. (1999). Ecologically-Based Rodent
Management. ACIAR Monograph No. 59, Canberra.
Taylor, K. D. (1968). An Outline of Rodent Control in Tropical Africa. Ministry of Overseas
Development, London.
Ogunleye, A. O. (2007). Introduction to Agricultural Pest Management in the Tropics. Ibadan
University Press, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2003). Guidelines on Rodent Control in Agricultural
Systems. FAO Publications, Rome.
Nottidge, H. O. & Akande, M. O. (2011). Practical Animal Pest Control Techniques. University
of Ibadan Extension Series.
Umeh, V. C. (2014). Principles of Crop Protection and Pest Management in the Tropics. Enugu:
Snaap Press Ltd.