Social Processes: Associative and Dissociative

Meaning of Social Process

Society is a system of social relations. Social relationships may be studied by the kind or
mode of interaction they exhibit. These kinds or modes of interaction are called social
processes. Social processes are the fundamental ways in which men interact and establish
relationships.

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Definition of Social Processes

1. According to MacIver, “social process is the manner in which the relations of the members
of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character”.

2. According to Horton and Hunt opines “the term social process refers to the “repetitive
forms of behaviour which are commonly found in social life.”

TYPES OF SOCIAL PROCESSES

The major types of social processes are given below with a diagram under two broad
headings.

A. Associative process: Cooperation, Accommodation, Assimilation

B. Dissociative process: Competition, Conflict

A. ASSOCIATIVE PROCESS

Associative processes are also called the integrative or conjunctive social processes which
are essential for the integration and progress of the society.

1. Cooperation

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2. Accommodation

3. Assimilation

1. COOPERATION

Meaning of Cooperation

Cooperation is one of the most basic, pervasive and continuous social processes. It is the
very basis of social existence. The term “Cooperation” is derived from the two Latin words:
“co” means ‘together’ and ‘operari’ meaning ‘to work’. Hence cooperation means working
together or joint activity for the achievement of common goal or goals. So, it is a process in
which individuals or groups work unitedly for the promotion of common goals or objectives.
It is a goal oriented social process. It is very important as human society and its development
have been possible with cooperation.

Definition of Cooperation

1. Merrill and Eldredge: ‘cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more
person work together to gain a common end.’

2. A. W. Green: ‘cooperation is the continuous and common Endeavour of two or more

persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.’

3. Fairchild: ‘cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their
effort, in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common objective.’

Characteristics of Co-operation

Following are some of the important characteristics of co-operation:

1. Continuous Process: It is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective efforts

in co-operation

2. Personal Process: This is a process in which the individuals and the groups personally
meet and work together for a common objective.

3. Conscious Process: In the process of co-operation the organized individuals or the groups
work together consciously.

4. Universal Process: Co-operation is also a universal social process. Because it is found

everywhere in all periods of time.

5. Common Ends: Common ends can be better achieved by co-operation which is essential
for the welfare of both individuals and society.

6. Organized Efforts: Co-operation is a process of social interaction which is based on the

organized efforts of individuals and groups.

Types of Cooperation

Different sociologists have classified co-operation in different ways. Some of the important
types of co-operation are the following.

Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types namely, Direct
Cooperation and Indirect Cooperation.

1. Direct cooperation: In the process of cooperation when individuals and groups cooperate
directly with each other, that is called direct cooperation. There exists a direct relationship
among individuals and the groups. It permits the people to do things together because the
nature of work itself calls for the participation of men or groups in a together situation. It
brings social satisfaction. It makes the difficult tasks easy.
Examples of direct cooperation in societies

a. In rural communities the people co-operate in carrying the ill person to the doctor.

b. The people co-operate on marriage, birth, Eid’s and other occasions of celebration.

c. In urban communities people of a political party co-operate with one another in general
walks of social life.

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d. In urban areas, the people of a religious sect co-operate with one another with special
interest

2. Indirect cooperation: In the process of cooperation when people do things individually

and indirectly for the achievement of a common goal that is called indirect cooperation.
Here the goal is one or common, but the individuals perform specialized functions for its
attainment. This cooperation is based on the principles of division of labour and
specializations of functions. So, in modern society indirect cooperation plays an important
role as the present technological age requires specialization of skills and functions.

Examples of Indirect Cooperation

a. The owners of a mill and its workers co-operate with one another.

b. The businessmen and the customers co-operate on the selling rates of the products.

c. The exogamous system of marriage is a marriage between two families of different castes
and Biradari (means a caste or sub-caste, e.g., Goldsmith, Blacksmith, Skinner etc.). This
system is growing popular in urban social life.

d. The people living in urban communities co-operate in different acts of social life even if
they belong to different professions, castes, classes, sects and political parties.

e. Co-operation among the people of different professions is a nice example of this type. In
this way, they fulfill the needs of one another. This type of co-operation is indirect

Classifications of Cooperation given by A. W. Green are given below –

1. Primary cooperation: In this type of cooperation there is an identity of interests but no

self-interest among those who cooperate. Every member is conscious of the welfare of all. It
owes its origin to personal satisfaction. It is present in primary groups like family,
neighbourhood and children’s play groups. Here there is an identity or ends of interest and
all the members in some way or the other, derive benefit from primary cooperation.

2. Secondary cooperation: In these groups the individuals cooperate with each other for the
achievement of some self-interest. This is the characteristic feature of modern civilized
society which is very much witnessed in political, economic, religious, commercial,
educational and other groups. It does not provide equal benefits to all its members.
3. Tertiary cooperation: Primary and secondary cooperation is the characteristic of an
individual person while tertiary cooperation characterizes the interaction among various
social groups, large or small. These groups make certain adjustments voluntarily with each
other under certain compelling circumstances. The attitude of groups cooperating with each
other is selfish and opportunistic in the extreme.

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For example, in an election when two political parties cooperate with each other to defeat
the rival party, it is called tertiary cooperation.

Role and importance of cooperation:

Being a universal and continuous social process, cooperation plays a dominant role but it is
very much essential for the welfare of the society as well. So, the role of cooperation may be
discussed by two angels. They are –

a. From an individual point of view.

b. From the point of view of society.

Role of cooperation from individual point of view:

1. Man can fulfil his basic and fundamental needs such as food, clothing and shelter by
cooperation. It also fulfils many psychological needs of human beings.

2. It is not possible for individuals to reach their respective goals without the active
cooperation of other members in society.

3. Cooperation is the foundation on which our social life is built up. The existence of society
and the survival of human beings depend upon the cooperative spirit and mutual aid of men
and women.

4. With the solid and active cooperation of his fellow beings, man can lead a happy and
comfortable life.

Role of cooperation from the point of view of society:

1. It helps society to progress. Progress can be better achieved through united action.
Progress in science, technology, agriculture, industry, transport and communication etc. has
been possible with cooperation.

2. It is the mainspring of collective life. It builds society, it conserves society. In a democratic

country, cooperation has become a necessary condition of collective life and activities.

3. It provides solutions for many international problems and disputes. Because cooperation
as a process of integration has the quality to bring end to different problems through united
activities.
4. Progress is granted permanence only by cooperation. Because conflict inspires the
individual to progress, but he does so not only if he gets cooperation.

So, it may be concluded that cooperation is very indispensable for individuals as well as
social life.

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2. ACCOMMODATION

Meaning of Accommodation

It refers to understanding, adjustment or agreement. It is a process of getting along inspite

of differences. Accommodation is one of the principal types of social processes. It is through
this process that social order arises. Park and Burgess have said that human social
organization is fundamentally the result of an accommodation of conflicting elements.
Throughout his life man has to face a number of conflicting situations.

For example, the workers of an industry or a factory may go on strike today for some reason
but they are bound to come back tomorrow after some settlement with the management.
The husband and wife may quarrel for serious things at one time or another but most of the
time they live together with mutual love and affection.

Definition of Accommodation

Some of the important definitions of accommodation are given below –

1. Maclver and Page define that, “accommodation refers particularly to the process in which
man attains a sense of harmony with his environment.”

2. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to

describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”

3. According to Gillin and Gilllin, “Accommodation is the process by which competing and
conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to
overcome the difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or conflict.”

4. According to George A. Lundberg, “Accommodation has been used to designate the

adjustments which people in groups move to relieve the fatigue and tensions of competition
and conflict.”

5. In the opinion of Biesanz, “In one sense, accommodation is the basis of all formal social
organization.”

It is evident from the above definition that it is the basis of all formal social organizations.

Characteristics of Accommodation
1. Universal Process: It is found in all societies at all times in all fields of social life. Since no
society can function smoothly in a state of perpetual conflict, accommodation becomes
necessary.

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2. Continuous Process: This process is not limited to any fixed social situation. It follows
sooner or later as and when conflict takes place. The continuity of accommodation does not
break at all.

3. Both conscious and unconscious process: Accommodation is a conscious process when

the conflicting individuals or groups make efforts consciously to get accommodated to
situations but accommodation is mainly an unconscious activity.

4. End-result of conflict: The hostile individuals or groups realize the importance of

accommodation only after they get involved in some kind of conflict. If there is no conflict,
there can be no question of accommodation.

5. It is a mixture of love and hatred: According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, accommodation is

the combination of love and hatred. Love leads to co-operation while hatred leads to
conflict.

Forms or methods of accommodation

Accommodation takes place in different ways and accordingly assumes different forms.
Some of the important forms or methods of accommodation are:

1. Yielding to coercion: Most of the hostile individuals or groups yielding to physical or some
kind of power exhibit the spirit of accommodation in order to end a conflict. For example,
the weaker party submits to the stronger one out of fear and the stronger party can
pressurize the weaker party by its superior strength. For example, an act of this kind
happens after a war between two nations comes to an end.

2. Compromise: The conflict between the hostile individuals or groups having equal strength
comes to an end through compromise in the process of accommodation. This is based on
the principle of give and take. Here the involved parties have to make some sacrifices
voluntarily for each other. So, it is a kind of voluntary accommodation. When the conflicting
parties realize that the continuation of conflict would cause sheer waste of their time,
energy and money, they automatically want a kind of accommodation which is called
compromise.

3. Tolerance: Tolerance is a method of accommodation in which two or more contesting

parties tolerate each other with sympathy and try to understand the viewpoint of others.
They patiently bear the differences that exist between them. For example, the co-existence
of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc. in Indian society is due to the method of tolerance.
This is the best form of accommodation.
4. Arbitration: When the hostile individuals or groups have equal strength and are
determined to stick to their view point, there is intervention of a third party, who acts as
their arbitrator or mediator. The decisions of the arbitrator are binding on the parties
concerned. For example, the conflict between the labour and management is resolved
through the arbitration or arbitrator.

5. Conciliation: This is another method of accommodation in which the third party only gives
some suggestions in order to terminate a conflict. But the acceptance of these suggestions is
not the binding force. It is up to the discretion of the contending parties.

6. Conversion: This form of accommodation involves a sudden rejection of one’s beliefs,

convictions and loyalties and the adoption of others. As a result of which the convincing
party is likely to accept the viewpoints of the other party. In consequence, the party which
has been convinced is quite likely to abandon its own ideas or beliefs or religion or claims in
preference for the viewpoint of the other side with which it tries to identify itself. For
example, ordinarily conversion is thought of only in connection with religion.

7. Sublimation: This is a method which involves the substitution of non-aggressive attitudes

and activities for aggressive ones. In this method the conflicting groups give vent to their
tendencies of aggression that is harmless to anyone else and also obviates conflict. For
example, Mahatma Gandhi conquered violence and hatred by love and compassion.

8. Rationalization: In this method the contending parties try to justify their action on the
basis of some imaginary ideas to avoid conflict. Hence, one blames others instead of
accepting one’s defects, one can retain self-respect. For example, sometimes the students
believe that failure in the examinations is due to the defects in the valuation of answer
scripts; they do not see the fact that their preparations for examinations are quite
inadequate.

Accommodation is a significant integration social process. It is not only useful to the

individuals or groups but also to the entire society.

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1. Society functions smoothly with accommodation. It checks conflict and maintains

cooperation among the individuals and groups which is essential for social life.

2. It helps the individuals and groups to adjust themselves to changed functions and statutes
which are brought about by changed conditions. It helps them to carry on their life activities
together even with conflicting interests.

3. The realization of people that they should lead a happy and comfortable life has become
possible only through accommodation.
4. It is the very foundation of a social organization. Because it consists in the avoiding and
delaying of conflict with disagreeable circumstances. The contending forces are adjusted to
balance in this process. Hence, society maintains its balance.

Thus, accommodation is essential for social harmony. It is close to cooperation and conflict
and thus must take trends on both fields into consideration.

3. ASSIMILATION

Meaning of Assimilation

Assimilation is one of the types of interaction. Like accommodation it is also a form of social
adjustment. But it is more permanent than accommodation. Assimilation is concerned with
the absorption and incorporation of the culture by another. It has reached this stage of
assimilation only after accommodation. Assimilation makes the dissimilar individuals or
groups similar because it is a process by which individuals or groups come to share the same
sentiments and goals. Hence assimilation requires more fundamental changes than
accommodation. For example, in India, the religious tolerance among the different religious
groups is the most appropriate one as they have assimilated many points of each other’s
culture into their own and have made them integral part of their own social conduct.

Definition of Assimilation

Some of the following definitions given by eminent scholars are the following:

1. According to Young and Mack, “Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously
distinct groups into one.”

2. According to Bogardus, “assimilation is a process whereby attitudes of many persons are

united and thus develop into a united group.”

3. According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby individuals
or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals.”

4. Hurton and Hunt say that, “the process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons
and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation.”

5. Ogburn and Nimkoff define assimilation, “As the process whereby individuals or groups
once dissimilar because similar, that is, because identified in their interest and outlook.”

6. In the words of Park and Burgess, “Assimilation is a process of interpenetration and fusion
in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and attitudes of other
persons or groups and, by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated into a
common culture life.”

Characteristic of Assimilation
From the above definitions of assimilation, the following characteristics have been pointed
out. They are:

1. Universal Process: Assimilation as a process of integration is present in every society, all

the time.

2. Unconscious process: Usually the individuals or groups involved in the process of

assimilation are unconscious of what is taking place. Unconsciously one assimilates himself
with others.

3. Slow and gradual process: The process of assimilation cannot take place suddenly. Rather
it takes time. It depends upon the nature of contacts. If it is primary, assimilation is natural
and rapid. If it is, secondary assimilation is slow.

4. It is a two-way process: It is based on the principle of give and take. When one cultural
group is in contact with another, it borrows from its certain cultural elements and
incorporates them into its own culture. So, it affects both.

5. It is confined to multiple fields: The process of assimilation is not confined to a single field
but it is confined to multiple fields. In the religious field, for example, it may take place when
an individual or a group of individuals of a particular religious background get converted into
some other religious set or group.

Role and importance of assimilation

1. In this integrative social process, the individuals or groups acquire the culture of another
group in which they come to live by adopting its pattern of thinking, behaving, its attitudes
and values.

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2. As assimilation is a cultural and psychological process. It results in the promotion of

cultural units.

3. It plays a very significant role in the development of human personality.

4. It brings similarity among dissimilar individuals or groups.

5. It brings change in old culture, customs, traditions, folkways, mores, morals, law and
religions etc.

Factors contributing towards assimilation or factors promoting assimilation

1. Toleration: When the people of one culture tolerate the spread of another culture
irrespective of their differences, tolerance takes place. Here, people of different cultures
maintain balance by developing contacts, by participating in common social and cultural
activities. So, toleration is an essential condition for promoting assimilation which is in turn
helpful in unity and integrity of the community.
2. Intimacy: The development of close social relationships makes the process of assimilation
natural and its degree become high. But when social relationships are not close and artificial,
the process becomes slow. So, intimacy is another condition for assimilation.

3. Cultural equality: If there are striking similarities between the cultures, then there is no
bar for assimilation to take place. When the degree of intimacy and toleration becomes high,
it facilitates the growth of this process.

4. Equal economic standard: Difference in economic standard hinders assimilation. But

individuals or groups having equal economic standards can easily establish intimacy which in
turn avoids jealousy, hatred and conflict. Here assimilation progresses.

5. Amalgamation: When individuals or groups come into close contact with one another,
amalgamation takes place. For example, the matrimonial relationship between the Hindus
and Non-Hindus facilitate the process of assimilation.

Factors hindering assimilation or harmful to assimilation

There are some factors which are harmful to the growth of assimilation or the factors which
obstruct the process of assimilation. These factors are explained below –

1. Isolation: Individuals who live separately or feel isolated cannot establish good social
relationships with others in the society. So due to lack of close or intimate relationship, the
process of assimilation is hampered or even it does not take place.

2. Cultural differences: Differences in culture also hinder assimilation. The cultures having
different religions, races, languages, customs, traditions do not have close relationships with
each other. If assimilation takes place there, it is very difficult for its continuity.

3. Differences in economic standard: Difference in economic standard encourages the

feeling of inferiority and superiority. There occurs the feeling of high and low. People with
the feeling of superiority decline to establish social relations with those having a sense of
inferiority. So, differences in economic standard stand as an obstruction in the process of
assimilation.

4. Physical differences: Differences in physical characteristics like colour of the skin, growth
of human body and other physiological features act as hindrances to assimilation. For
example, the differences in the physical features of the black and white hinder assimilation
among them.

5. Domination and subordination: Intimate social relation is very much essential for
assimilation. But assimilation is absent or is hampered when one group dominates the other.
It lacks social relationships.
B. DISSOCIATIVE PROCESSES

Dissociative social processes are also called the disintegrative or disjunctive social processes.
These processes hinder the growth and development of society, their absence results in
stagnation of society.

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1. Competition

2. Conflict

1. COMPETITION

Meaning of Competition

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a natural result of the
universal struggle for existence. It is based on the fact that all people can never satisfy all
their desires. Competition takes place whenever there is an insufficient supply of things that
human beings commonly desire. Whenever and wherever commodities which people want
are available in a limited supply, there is competition.

Definition of Competition

There are many definitions of competition given by different scholars. Some of the
important definitions are given below:

1. Park and Burgess: “Competition is an interaction without social contact.”

2. Biesanz: “Competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same goal which is
limited so that all cannot share.”

3. Horton and Hunt: “Competition is the struggle for possession of rewards which are limited
in supply, goods, power, love – anything.”

4. Competition may also be defined as “the process of seeking to monopolise a reward by

surpassing all rivals.”

From the above definitions it may be concluded that competition is a process in which
individuals or groups try to obtain things or things which have limited supply and which they
cannot achieve or share collectively.

Features of Competition

Competition as disintegrative social process has the following characteristic features:

1. Universal Process: It is the most universal social process present in all societies, whether
civilized or uncivilized, rural or urban, traditional or modern in all periods of history and
among all classes of people like doctors, engineers, workers, students and farmers etc.
2. Continuous process: Competition is a continuous process as it never comes to an end. If
one process of competition ends then another process of competition stands there. The
desire for status, power and wealth in an ever degree makes competition a continuous
process.

3. Unconscious process: The individuals or the groups who are involved in the process of
competition do not bother about themselves but they are primarily concerned with the
achievement of goal or reward. Hence competition takes place on an unconscious level.

4. Impersonal process: Those who take part in competition do not know one another at all.
They do not compete with each other on a personal level. They focus their attention on the
goal or reward which they are trying to achieve. They do not have any contact whatsoever.

5. Always governed by norms: Nowhere competition is unregulated. It is always and

everywhere governed by norms. Competitors are expected to use fair means to achieve
success.

Forms or types of Competition

Competition as a universal social process is found in all fields of social life. In our day to day
life we come across many types or forms of competitions. Some of the important
competitions are the following.

1. Political Competition: This type of competition is found in the political field. For example,
during elections each and every political party competes for getting majority. This is not only
found at national level but at international level. Also, there is keen competition between
nations who are wedded to different political ideologies.

2. Social competition: To get high social status usually this social competition is mostly
observed in open societies where an individual's talent, capacity, ability as well as merit are
given weightage.

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3. Economic Competition: In the economic field economic competition is fairly observed. It

is the most vigorous form of competition. It is reflected in the process of production,
distribution and consumption of goods. In the economic field men compete for salaries, jobs
and promotions etc. they generally compete for higher standard of living. This economic
competition is not only present at individual level but also at group level.

4. Cultural Competition: Cultural competition is present among different cultures. When

two or more cultures try to show their superiority over others, this type of competition takes
place. For example, in modern society there is cultural competition between the Hindus and
the Muslims. In the ancient period, there was a strong competition between the cultures of
Aryans and Non-Aryans.
5. Racial competition: Like cultural competition, racial competition is found among the
major races of the world. When one race tries to establish its supremacy over other races, it
gives birth to racial competition. For example, the competition between Negroes (Black) and
the whites is the bright example of racial competition.

2. CONFLICT

Meaning of conflict

Conflict is an ever present process in human society. Whenever a person or persons or

groups seek to gain reward not by surpassing other competitors but preventing them from
effective competition, conflict takes place.

In other words, it is a competition in its more hostile and personal forms. It is the process of
seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is seen that
conflict makes an individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or group
who are seeking the same object. It implies a struggle or fight among individuals or groups
for a particular purpose or a number of purposes.

For example, the movements like Civil Disobedience, Non-Cooperation and Satyagraha
launched by Mahatma Gandhi against the Britishers in India before Independence are in
conflict. Even in today’s society conflict is found in every sphere like caste, religion, language,
culture and so on. Thus, it is considered as a universal social process.

Definition of Conflict

1. Kingsley Davis defines conflict, “as a modified form of struggle.”

2. Maclver and Page state that, “Social conflict included all activity in which men contend
against one another for any objective.”

3. A. W. Green says, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of
another or others.”

4. Majumder defines that, “Conflict is an opposition or struggle involving an emotional

attitude of hostility as well as violent interference with autonomous choice.”

From the above definitions, it is clear that individuals or groups involved in conflict try to
oppose, resist or coerce each other deliberately. It is the opposite of cooperation. It is a
process which leads two or more persons or groups to try to frustrate the attempts of their
opponents to attain certain objectives.

Some of the examples which take us to different dimension are:

a. The conflict between nations leads to national conflict.

b. The conflict between different political parties leads to political conflict.

c. Caste conflict, class conflict and racial conflict etc.

Features of conflict

From the above definition the following characteristics may be noted.

1. Universal Process: Conflict is found in all societies in all periods of time. The degree and
the form of conflict may vary from society to society and from time to time but it is present
in all types of societies.

2. Conscious process: This is a process in which the conflicting parties are very much
conscious in causing loss or injury to persons or groups. They attempt to fight or oppose and
defeat each other consciously.

3. Personal process: The chief aim of conflict is to cause harm or to bring loss to the
opponents. The conflicting parties personally know each other. So in this form of struggle to
overcome the opponents, the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary
importance.

4. Intermittent process: Conflict is not as continuous as competition. It is an intermittent

process. It takes place suddenly and comes to an end quickly. It never continues for ever due
to the occasional occurrence of conflict.

5. Conflict is based on violence: Sometimes conflict takes the form of violence. Violence is
harmful to the growth of the society and retards the process as it creates a number of
problems.

If conflict occurs non-violently, it maintains peace in the society which is helpful for its
development.