CHAPTER - 2

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

2.1 PN JUNCTION DIODE

2.1.1 CONSTRUCTION

p n
Fixed
negative ion
(Acceptor) Fixed positive
ion (donor)
Mobile holes Free electrons

Fig. 2.1: PN junction

When a sample of silicon is doped with both donor and acceptor impurities so as to form a
region of p-type and a second region of n-type material in the same crystal lattice as shown in
Fig. 2.1, the boundary where the two regions meet is called a p-n junction. A diode is so called
because it has two terminals: the anode, which is the positive terminal, and the cathode, which is the
negative terminal. In the case of a p-n junction diode the anode is the p-type and the cathode is the
n-type.

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

P n

(a) Symbol (b) Construction

Fig. 2.2: Diode

As shown in Fig. 2.2 (a) and (b), diode is a two-layer, two-terminal, pn semiconductor device.
It has one pn junction formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth. The two terminals of the
diode are called anode and cathode.
16 Electronics - I

2.1.2 FORWARD BIAS

p n

Electron
flow
+ –

VD
Fig. 2.3: Forward bias
Fig. 2.3 shows a battery connected across a diode such that the positive terminal is connected
to the anode and the negative terminal to the cathode. The electric field produced by the battery
will cause holes and electrons to be swept toward the junction, where recombinations will take
place. For each of these an electron from the battery will enter the cathode. This would have the
effect of disturbing the charge balance within the semiconductor, so to counterbalance this, a fresh
electron-hole pair will be created in the p-type. This newly freed electron will then be attracted to
the positive plate of the battery and the hole will be swept towards the junction. The circuit is
complete resulting in a movement of holes and electrons in the semiconductor. Therefore, when the
anode of the diode is made positive with respect to the cathode it will conduct and it is said to be
forward biased.
Fig. 2.4 shows the schematic representation of the forward biased diode. When the source
voltage Vs is less than knee voltage, the diode current is zero. Beyond knee voltage, the diode
current rises rapidly with the increase in forward voltage. The knee voltage is around 0.7 V for Si
and 0.3 V for Ge. The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf) to current flow.
When the diode conducts, there is a small voltage drop, the magnitude of which depends on the
manufacturing process and junction temperature.
mA
D

V
+ –
R
Battery
Fig. 2.4: Schematic representation of the forward biased diode
Semiconductor Diodes 17

2.1.3 REVERSE BIAS

p n

depletion layer
– +
VD
Fig. 2.5: Reverse bias
Fig. 2.5 shows a battery connected across a diode such that the positive terminal is connected
to the cathode and the negative terminal to the anode. The electric field of the battery will sweep all
the mobile holes into the p-type and all the free electrons into the n-type. This leaves a region on
either side of the junction which has been depleted of all of its mobile charge carriers. This layer
acts as an insulator and current cannot flow. The diode is said to be in its blocking mode. Depletion
layer does not act as a perfect insulator and there will still be some thermally generated electron-
hole pairs. If such a pair is generated in the p-type region, the electron will be swept across the
junction by the electric field of the battery. Similarly, if the pair is generated in the n-type, the hole
will be swept across the junction. A very small reverse current (in the order of micro amps) will
flow and is known as the reverse leakage current. Since the leakage current is the result of thermally
generated electron-hole pairs, it increases with temperature.
mA
D

I=0

V
– +
R
Battery
Fig. 2.6: Schematic representation of the reverse biased diode
Fig. 2.6 shows the schematic representation of the reverse biased diode. The junction resistance
becomes very high and no current flows. In practical circuit, a small current (of the order of µA)
flows in the reverse direction (called reverse saturation current (Is)) due to the minority carriers
because the applied reverse bias appears as forward bias to minority carriers. If reverse voltage is
18 Electronics - I

increased continuously, the kinetic energy of minority carriers may become high enough to knock
out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this stage breakdown of the junction occurs,
characterized by a sudden rise of reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier
region. This may destroy the junction permanently.
2.1.4 NO APPLIED BIAS
Under no-bias conditions, minority carriers (holes) in the n-type material will pass directly into
the p-type material. Similarly minority carriers (electrons) of the p-type material will pass directly
into the n-type material. In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

2.2 FORMATION OF DEPLETION LAYER

At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region
begin to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the
junction as illustrated in Fig. 2.7. The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse into
the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine.
The result is that there is a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two
layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion layer. Depletion region is emptied of
charge carries (free electrons and holes). The depletion region acts as a barrier to the further
movement of free electrons across the junction.

x y

P n

+
charge
–

Fig. 2.7: Formation of depletion layer

Barrier Potential (Knee Voltage)

As already explained in the preceding section, region x acquires a net negative charge and
region y acquires an equal but positive net charge. The region between the dotted lines is only about
1 mm wide. The negative charge on x prevents further diffusion on electrons from the n type.
Similarly the positive charge on y prevents further diffusion of holes from the p-type. This
redistribution of charge results in a potential barrier across the junction. Barrier potential (Vknee) is
Semiconductor Diodes 19

the potential difference that exists across the depletion layer. The barrier potential of a pn junction
depends upon several factors including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of doping
and temperature. In the case of silicon, this barrier potential will be in the order of 0.6 to 0.7 V and
for germanium about 0.2 to 0.3 V.

2.3 V-I CHARECTERISTICS OF DIODE

I Forw ard
voltage drop

Reverse
leakage current

VS
Reverse Cut in
breakdown voltage= 0.7V

Fig. 2.8: Diode v-i characteristics

When the anode voltage is more positive than that of the cathode, the diode is said to be
forward biased. When the source voltage Vs is less than cut-in voltage, the diode current is zero.
Beyond cut-in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon
diode, the cut-in voltage is around 0.7 V. When the diode conducts, there is a small voltage drop of
the order of 0.8 V to 1 V. The magnitude of this drop depends on the manufacturing process and
junction temperature. The forward and reverse characteristics of diode are shown in Fig. 2.8.
When the cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
Under the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current (leakage current) flows. The leakage
current increases slowly with reverse voltage until the avalanche or breakdown voltage is reached.
For most practical purposes, a diode can be regarded as a switch.
Volt-ampere or v-i characteristic of a pn junction is the curve between voltage across the
junction and the circuit current. Usually, voltage is taken along x- axis and current along y-axis. The
characteristics can be studied under two heads, namely forward bias and reverse bias.

2.4 DIODE LEAD IDENTIFICATION AND PACKAGE TYPES

Fig. 2.9 shows some of the typical diode package types. Many diodes have the cathode lead
(K) identified by a coloured band.
20 Electronics - I

K
A
K K
A
A K K
A
A K

K
A
K A
K K
A K A
K
A
Fig. : Diode package types

2.5 RATINGS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE DIODES

Knee Voltage (VK)

In the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the
knee voltage of the diode. The knee voltage equals the barrier potential. Analysis of diode circuits
usually comes down to determining whether the diode voltage is more or less than the knee voltage.
If it’s more, the diode conducts easily. If it’s less, the diode conducts poorly. Knee voltage of a
silicon diode is defined as:
VK  0.7 V
The knee voltage of a germanium diode is approximately 0.3 V. This lower knee voltage is an
advantage and accounts for the use of a germanium diode in certain applications.
Bulk Resistance (RB)
Above the knee voltage, the diode current increases rapidly and small increases in the diode
voltage cause large increases in diode current. After the barrier potential is overcome, ohmic
resistance of the p and n regions opposes the current flow. This is called the bulk resistance R B of
the diode. It is defined as:
RB = RP + RN
where RP = resistance of the p region
RN = resistance of the n region
The bulk resistance depends on the size and doping levels of the p and n regions.
Semiconductor Diodes 21

Maximum DC Forward Current (IFmax)

If the current in a diode is too large, the excessive heat can destroy the diode. For this reason,
a manufacturer’s data sheet specifies the maximum current a diode can safely handle without
shortening its life or degrading its characteristics. The maximum forward current is one of the
maximum ratings given on a data sheet. This current may be listed as Imax, IF(max), ID etc., depending
on the manufacturer. For instance, a 1N456 has a maximum forward current rating of 135 mA.
This means that it can safely handle a continuous forward current of 135 mA.
Power Dissipation (PD)
Power dissipation of a diode equals the product of diode voltage and current.
PD = VDID
The power rating is the maximum power the diode can safely dissipate without shortening its
life or degrading its properties.
Pmax = VmaxImax
where Vmax is the voltage corresponding to Imax. For example, if a diode has a maximum
voltage and current of 1 V and 3 A, its power rating is 3 W.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) is the maximum reverse
voltage that can be applied across the diode without any damage or destruction.

2.6 TYPES OF DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

2.6.1 ZENER DIODE

Fig. 2.10: Zener diode symbol

Fig. 2.10 shows the Zener diode symbol. Zener diodes behave similar to standard rectifying
diodes when forward-biased. They have a forward voltage drop which is about 0.7 volts. In reverse-
bias, they do not conduct until the applied voltage reaches or exceeds the Zener voltage. At this
point the diode is able to conduct large current and maintain a constant voltage. The Zener voltage
is indicated by the abrupt rise in reverse current as the reverse bias increases. The diode will not be
harmed as long as the power dissipated by the reverse current does not exceed the diode’s thermal
limits. Zener diodes are manufactured with Zener voltages ranging from a few volts to hundreds of
volts.
Applications
 Zener diode is popularly used as a voltage regulator device in common power supply circuit.
22 Electronics - I

2.6.2 SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE (HOT CARRIER DIODE)

Fig. 2.11: Schottky diode symbol

Schottky barrier diode (Hot Carrier Diode) is the most commonly used mixer and detector
diode at microwave frequencies. It has a metal semiconductor junction. Most Schottky diodes are
made with N-type silicon on which a thin metal layer is deposited. The semiconductor forms the
cathode and the metal forms the anode. Commonly used semiconductor materials for the fabrication
of schottky barrier diode are Si and GaAs. Typical anode materials include nickel chromium,
aluminum and gold. The Schottky diode is extremely small and has a tiny junction capacitance. It
also has a low bias threshold voltage. The Schottky diode can switch off faster than an ordinary
diode. It can easily rectify frequencies above 300 MHz. Fig. 2.11 shows the schematic symbol of
a Schottky diode.
Applications
 Widely used in balanced modulators, mixers, signal detectors and other low level signal
operations.
 Used as fast switches at microwave frequencies
 High speed computers
 Low-voltage bridge rectifiers
2.6.3 VARACTOR DIODE

Fig. 2.12: Varactor diode symbol

All semiconductor junction diodes exhibit a junction capacitance when reverse biased. The
depletion layer is between the p region and the n region. The p and n regions are like the plates of
a capacitor and the depletion layer is like the dielectric. When a diode is reverse-biased, the width
of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage. Since the depletion layer gets wider with
more reverse voltage, the capacitance becomes smaller. Capacitance is controlled by reverse
voltage. A semiconductor diode that is designed to maximise the capacitance variation with applied
reverse bias is the varactor. Fig.2.12 shows the symbolic representation of varactor diode. The
varactor is also called voltage variable capacitance (VVC), varicap, epicap, capacitor diode and
tuning diode. Varactor diodes are made with gallium arsenide and optimized for use at microwave
frequencies. Variation in capacitance can be utilised to change resonant frequency of a tuned
circuit. This is the principle behind electronic tuning.
Applications
 Microwave frequency multipliers
 Parametric amplifiers
Semiconductor Diodes 23

 Frequency modulators
 TV receivers, FM receivers and communication equipment for tuning purposes
2.6.4 VARISTORS

Fig. 2.13: Varistor symbol

Lightning, power line faults and transients can pollute the ac line voltage by superimposing
dips and spikes on the normal 230 V rms. Dips are severe voltage drops lasting microseconds or
less. Spikes are very brief overvoltages up to 2000 V or more. Varistor is a device used between
the power line and the primary of the transformer to eliminate the problems caused by ac line
transients. It is also called a transient suppressor. Fig. 2.13 shows the symbolic representation of
varistor. This semiconductor device is like two back-to-back zener diodes with a high breakdown
voltage in both directions. Varistors are commercially available with breakdown voltages from 10
to 1000 V. They can handle peak transient currents in the hundreds or thousands of amperes.
Applications
 Varistor are used to eliminate the problems caused by ac line transients.
2.6.5 STEP-RECOVERY DIODE (SNAP-OFF VARACTOR)

Fig. 2.14: Step-recovery diode symbol

Fig. 2.14 shows the symbolic representation of step-recovery diode. It is a PN junction diode
made with gallium arsenide or silicon. When it is forward-biased, it conducts as any diode, but a
charge is stored in the depletion layer. When reverse bias is applied, the charge keeps the diode on
momentarily. Then suddenly the diode turns off abruptly. This snap-off produces an extremely high
intensity reverse current pulse with duration of about 100 picoseconds. It is extremely rich in
harmonics with high amplitude.
Step-recovery diodes are used as frequency multipliers with factors up to 5 and 10. Power
ratings of 50 W can be obtained. Operating frequencies up to 10 GHz are possible with an efficiency
of 80 percent or more.
Applications
 Microwave frequency multipliers with factors up to 5 and 10
24 Electronics - I

2.6.6 TUNNEL DIODE

Fig. 2.15: Tunnel diode symbol

Fig. 2.15 shows the symbolic representation of the tunnel diode (Esaki diode). It is a
semiconductor p-n junction diode in which the semiconductor materials are heavily doped resulting
in a thin depletion layer. This allows microwave operation of the diode because it considerably
shortens the time taken by the carriers to cross the junction. It has been observed that if the
depletion region is too narrow, the charge carriers may pierce through the junction with no bias
applied. This phenomenon is called tunnelling. The tunnel diode exhibits negative resistance under
low forward bias conditions. This means that an increase in forward voltage produces a decrease
in forward current. The negative resistance of tunnel diodes is useful in high-frequency circuits
called oscillators. These circuits are able to generate a sinusoidal signal.
Applications
 Low noise microwave (in excess of 50 GHz) amplifiers
 Self-excited mixers
 High speed switching and logic applications (Flip flops and gates)
 Low power oscillators up to 100 GHz

2.7 ZENER DIODE

When the reverse bias on a pn junction diode is increased, breakdown voltage is reached
where the reverse current increases sharply to a high value. The breakdown voltage is sometimes
called Zener voltage and the sudden increase in current is known as Zener current, named after the
American scientist C. Zener. The breakdown or Zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping.
If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and the breakdown of the junction will
occur at a lower reverse voltage. Zener diodes are manufactured to have well-defined, constant
avalanche voltages.

2.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

Forward
Zener current
voltage

o
Reverse Forward
voltage voltage

Knee voltage

Reverse current
Fig. 2.16: Zener diode VI characteristics
Semiconductor Diodes 25

The forward and reverse characteristics of Zener diode are shown in Fig. 2.16. When forward-
biased, Zener diodes behave similar to standard rectifying diodes. They have a forward voltage
drop which is about 0.7 volts. In reverse-bias, they do not conduct until the applied voltage reaches
or exceeds the Zener voltage. At this point the diode is able to conduct large current and maintain
a constant voltage. The Zener voltage is indicated by the abrupt rise in reverse current as the
reverse bias increases. The diode will not be harmed as long as the power dissipated by the reverse
current does not exceed the diode’s thermal limits. Zener diodes are manufactured with Zener
voltages ranging from a few volts to hundreds of volts. Zener diode is popularly used as a voltage
regulator device in common power supply circuit.
Suppose a certain Zener diode has an avalanche voltage of 12 V. If a reverse bias is applied
to the pn junction, the diode acts as an open circuit below 12 V. When the voltage reaches 12 V, the
diode starts to conduct. Current through the pn junction increases as the reverse bias is increased.
This effectively prevents the reverse voltage from exceeding 12 V.
The following points may be noted about the Zener diode:
1) A Zener diode is like an ordinary diode except that it has a sharp breakdown voltage, called
Zener voltage VZ.
2) A Zener diode is always reverse biased.
3) When forward biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode.

2.9 ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A simple shunt voltage regulating system is shown in Fig. 2.17. It consists of a zener diode and
series resistance, Rs. Proper operation requires that the input voltage Vi does not fall below Vz. The
series resistance Rs absorbs voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the load.

RS
IL
IZ
IR

Vi VZ = Vo RL

Fig. 2.17: Zener diode voltage regulator

26 Electronics - I

Line Regulation
Suppose that the input voltage Vi increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, Zener
current IZ increases while the load current IL remains constant. This will cause an increase in the
value of total current IR. Voltage drop across RS increases. Hence the output voltage VL remains
constant irrespective of the changes in the input voltage.

Load Regulation
Suppose that the input voltage Vi is constant, but the load resistance RL decreases. This will
cause an increase in load current IL. The additional load current will come from a decrease in zener
current IZ. Source current IR will remain constant. Voltage drop across RS will not change.
Consequently, the output voltage stays at a constant value.
Calculation of Rs
Voltage drop across RS = Vi – Vo ……….(1)
Current IR = IZ + IL ……….(2)
Applying Ohm’s law, we have
Vi - Vo
RS  ……….(3)
IZ  IL

2.10 THERMISTORS
The word “Thermistor” is a contraction of the words “thermal resistor”. It is a temperature
sensitive semiconductor device whose resistance varies with temperature. Thermistors are widely
used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors and self-
regulating heating elements.

(a) Rod (b) Bead (c) Disc (d) Symbol

Fig. 2.18: Thermistor
Thermistors are semiconducting ceramics composed of mixtures of several metal oxides.
Commercial thermistors are manufactured by making use oxides such as Nickel Manganese copper
oxides. Oxides are mixed in required proportions with a binder and then pressed into rods or discs.
It is then heat treated at 1200°C in a controlled atmosphere to form a hard ceramic body. Silver is
sprayed on to the faces of the discs or to the ends of the rods and then fired. Leads are soldered to
the silver contacts. Finally they are given a resin coating to provide external protection. Typical
thermistor structures along with symbol are shown in Fig. 2.18.
Semiconductor Diodes 27

There are two types of thermistors:

1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor: If the resistance decreases with increase
in temperature then it is called NTC thermistor.
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor: If the resistance increases with increase
in temperature then it is called PTC thermistor.
2.10.1 NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT (NTC) THERMISTOR

Resistance
Resistance decreasing with
temperature

Temperature
Fig. 2.19: NTC Thermistor characteristics
Typical characteristics of an NTC Thermistor are given in Fig. 2.19. When the temperature of
a semiconductor [such as germanium (Ge) or silicon (Si)] rises, more covalent bonds break. This
produces larger number of free electrons and holes. It now conducts better. In other words, the
resistance decreases. Ge or Si is not used for the construction of thermistors because the conducting
property of these materials is too sensitive to impurities.
Applications of NTC Thermistor
 Resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.
 Inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. In this application NTC thermistor
presents a higher resistance initially which opposes the flow of current at turn-on. Then as the
thermistor warms up (due to the flow of electricity through the device) its resistance drops
letting higher current to flow.
 Thermistors are useful for measuring temperature and gas flow or wind velocity.
 Thermistors are employed as bolometer elements to measure radio-frequency, microwave
and optical power.
 Automotive applications for monitoring coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the
engine.
 Modern digital thermostats
 Temperature compensation in transistor circuits, measuring instruments etc. These are the
electronic circuits in which the variation of resistance value with temperature cannot be
tolerated. In such circuits, thermistors are used to compensate for the change in resistance of
ordinary components.
28 Electronics - I

 Measurement of temperature, wind velocity, water level etc.

 Temperature control sensors in air conditioners, refrigerators etc.
 Switching power supplies at high frequency
 Sensors for speed control of motors
 Time delay circuits
 Voltage regulators
 Volume control

IMPORTANT POINTS
 A diode has two terminals: the anode, which is the positive terminal, and the cathode, which is
the negative terminal. The anode is the p-type and the cathode is the n-type.
 In a forward biased diode, positive terminal of the battery is connected to the anode and the
negative terminal to the cathode. There is current through a diode only when it is forward-
biased. An ideal diode acts as a closed switch when forward-biased.
 In a reverse biased diode, positive terminal of the battery is connected to the cathode and the
negative terminal to the anode. There is a very small current in reverse bias due to the thermally
generated minority carriers. Avalanche occurs in a reverse-biased diode if the bias voltage
equals or exceeds the breakdown voltage. Reverse breakdown voltage for a diode is typically
greater than 50 V. An ideal diode acts as an open switch when reversed-biased.
 In the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the
knee voltage of the diode. Knee voltage of a silicon diode is approximately 0.7 V. The knee
voltage of a germanium diode is approximately 0.3 V.
 The Zener diode operates in reverse breakdown. There are two breakdown mechanisms in a
Zener diode: avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown. When V Z < 5 V, Zener breakdown
is predominant. When VZ > 5 V avalanche breakdown is predominant. A Zener diode maintains
a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of Zener currents. Zener
diodes are used as voltage regulators and limiters.
 A semiconductor diode that is designed to maximise the capacitance variation with applied
reverse bias is the varactor. The capacitance of a varactor varies inversely with reverse-bias
voltage.
 The Schottky diode has a metal-to-semiconductor junction. It is used in fast-switching
applications.
 Varistor is like two back-to-back zener diodes with a high breakdown voltage in both directions.
 Step-recovery diodes are used as frequency multipliers.
 Tunnel diode is also called as Esaki diode. It exhibits negative resistance under low forward
bias conditions. The tunnel diode is used in oscillator circuits
Semiconductor Diodes 29

 An LED emits light when forward-biased. LEDs are available for either infrared or visible
light.
 The photodiode exhibits an increase in reverse current with light intensity.
 The word “Thermistor” is a contraction of the words “thermal resistor”.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Fill in the blanks with appropriate word(s):

1. Zener diode is operated in bias.
2. diode uses transferred electron effect.
3. current is the current flowing through the photodiode in the absence of light.
4. Esaki diode is the other name for diode.
5. Hot carrier diode is the other name for diode.
6. is a semiconductor device with a single pn junction that conducts current in only
one direction.
7. The p region of a diode is called .
8. The n region of a diode is called .
9. The amount of energy required to produce full conduction across the pn junction in forward
bias is called .
10. The condition in which a diode conducts current is known as bias.
11. The diode does not conduct when it is biased.
12. diode is used as a voltage regulator
13. diode is designed to maximise the capacitance variation with applied reverse bias.
14. Varistor is like two back-to-back diodes.
15. The word is a contraction of the words “thermal resistor”.
16. Knee voltage of a silicon diode is .
17. In photodiode, reverse current increases with in light.
18. is a variable capacitance diode.
19. diode is designed for limiting the voltage across its terminals in reverse bias.

Answers
1. reverse 2. Gunn 3. Dark 4. Tunnel
5. Schottky 6. Diode 7. anode 8. cathode
9. barrier potential 10. forward 11. reverse 12. Zener
30 Electronics - I

13. Step-recovery 14. Zener 15. Thermistor 16. 0.7 V

17. increase 18. Varactor 19. Zener

Descriptive Type Questions

1. What is a pn junction? (2)
2. Which bias condition produces majority carrier current? (2)
3. What are the primary application areas for Schottky diodes? (2)
4. What is a hot-carrier diode? (2)
5. What is the key characteristic of a tunnel diode? What is its important application? (2)
6. What is the key feature of a varactor diode? Under what bias condition is a varactor operated?
What part of the varactor produces the capacitance? (3)
7. How is reverse current in a diode produced? When does reverse breakdown occur in a
diode? Define avalanche as applied to diodes. (4)
8. Describe the depletion region. Compare the depletion regions in forward bias and reverse
bias. (5)
9. What barrier potential? Explain how it is created. What happens to the barrier potential when
the temperature increases? What is the typical value of the barrier potential for silicon and
germanium diode? (5)
10. Write a note on ratings of commercially available diodes. (5)
11. Write a short note on thermistor. (5)
12. Describe forward and reverse bias of a diode. (6)
13. Explain the v-i characteristics of junction diode. (6)
14. Explain the working of Zener voltage regulator. (6)
15. List the types of diodes and mention their applications. (10)