MODULE 2 – MEMORY (Moderately Detailed Notes)
Definition of Memory
Memory is the mental system responsible for receiving, encoding, storing and retrieving
information. It helps us learn, retain knowledge and use past experiences in the present.
Processes of Memory
Encoding: Converting information into a usable form. Better when attention and meaning are
involved.
Storage: Maintaining information over time in STM or LTM.
Retrieval: Bringing stored information back to awareness when needed.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). Memory consists of three interacting stores: Sensory
Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory. Information flows in a linear way with help
of attention and rehearsal.
Store Duration Capacity Function
Sensory Memory Very brief (0.25 sec visual)
Very large Registers raw sensory information
Short-Term Memory (STM) 18–20 seconds without7±2
rehearsal
chunks Temporary storage for information in use
Long-Term Memory (LTM) Potentially lifelong Unlimited Permanent store of knowledge and experiences
Working Memory
A modern understanding of STM proposed by Baddeley. It is an active system used for reasoning,
comprehension and tasks requiring simultaneous processing.
Components:
• Phonological Loop – verbal and auditory info
• Visuospatial Sketchpad – visual/spatial info
• Central Executive – attention control and coordination
• Episodic Buffer – links WM with LTM
Types of Long-Term Memory
Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Conscious recall of facts and experiences. Includes episodic
(personal events) and semantic (general knowledge).
Procedural (Implicit) Memory: Memory for skills and actions. Learned behaviours performed
automatically such as cycling or typing.
Prospective vs Retrospective Memory
• Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future tasks (e.g., taking medicine).
• Retrospective Memory: Remembering past events (e.g., school memories).
Flashbulb Memory
Highly vivid and emotional memory of learning about shocking events (e.g., a celebrity death).
Feels permanent due to strong emotional involvement.
Chunking
Combining separate items into larger meaningful units to increase STM capacity (e.g., 123-456-789
instead of 123456789).
Forgetting
Encoding Failure: Poor attention or shallow processing prevents memory formation.
Storage Failure: Memory traces fade (decay) or weaken by disuse.
Retrieval Failure: Memory exists but cannot be accessed temporarily.
Interference:
• Retroactive: New learning interferes with old.
• Proactive: Old learning interferes with new.
Repression & Suppression:
Unconscious (repression) or conscious (suppression) forgetting of painful memories.
State-Dependent Learning
Memory improves when internal state at recall matches state during learning (mood, alertness,
intoxication).
Mnemonics
Memory aids like acronyms, acrostics, chunking and visualization help recall by creating stronger
cues.
Strategies to Improve Memory
• Elaborative processing improves long-term retention.
• Selection and organization of key points reduce overload.
• Overlearning prevents forgetting during exams.
• Spaced practice is more effective than cramming.
• Retrieval practice strengthens memory pathways.
• Sleep supports consolidation and reduces interference.
Expected Exam Questions
1. Explain the process of memory.
2. Describe the Multi-Store Model of Memory.
3. What is working memory? Explain its components.
4. Discuss types of long-term memory.
5. What is forgetting? Explain interference theory.
6. Mention strategies to improve memory.