CHAPTER 1 FUNCTION AND LIMIT

Function: Function is a rule that assigns each value of set to a unique value of another set, while a relation
is a map between two non-empty sets which may or may not be a function
A relation can be checked either it’s a function or not graphically
Vertical Line Test: Draw the graph of a given relation and then draw vertical lines if each vertical line
intersects the graph of relation at only one point then this relation will be a function otherwise not a function
Horizontal Line Test: Horizontal lines are drawn to check whether a function is onto or not in similar sense of
vertical line test
Even Function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an even function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), note that graph of even
function is symmetric about y-axis.
Odd Function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an even function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), note that graph of odd
function is not symmetric about y-axis.

Laws of Limit
lim {𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} = lim 𝑓 (𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) lim {𝑓 (𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)} = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 lim𝑥→𝑎 {𝑓 (𝑥 )}𝑛 = {lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)}𝑛
lim = where n is constant
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝐴𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐴 lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim {𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝐴} = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐴
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Formulas of Limit
sin 𝜃 1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
lim =1 lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→0 𝜃 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎
tan 𝜃 1 𝑎𝑥 − 1
lim =1 lim(1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒 lim = 𝑙𝑛𝑎
𝑥→0 𝜃 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
Formulas of Hyperbolic functions
𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃 𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃 𝑒 𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝜃
sinh 𝜃 = cosh 𝜃 = tanh 𝜃 =
2 2 𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
2 2 𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
cosech 𝜃 = 𝜃 −𝜃
sech 𝜃 = 𝜃 coth 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑒 −𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝜃 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝜃
Existence of Limit: Limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to exist at 𝑥 = 𝑎, if
lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎
𝐿𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓 (𝑥) is known as left limit and 𝑅𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓 (𝑥) is known as right limit
𝑥→𝑎
Continues Function: A function𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continues function at 𝑥 = 𝑎, if
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
OR
lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
 CHAPTER 2 DIFFERENTIATION
Derivative is the rate of change of one variable w.r.t other variable at a point is called derivative
Mathematically,
𝒇(𝒙 + 𝜹𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙) 𝜹𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑶𝑹 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Example:
 Derivative of displacement w.r.t time gives velocity
 Derivative of velocity w.r.t time gives acceleration
 Derivative of momentum w.r.t time gives force
 Derivative of angular momentum w.r.t time gives torque

DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
cot 𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
d 1 d 1 d 1
sin−1 x = cos −1 x = − tan−1 x =
dx √1 − x 2 dx √1 − x 2 dx 1 + x2
d 1 d 1 d 1
sec −1 x = cosec −1 x = − cot −1 x = −
dx |x|√x 2 − 1 dx |x|√x 2 − 1 dx 1 + x2
DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
d d d
sinhx = coshx coshx = sinhx tanhx = sech2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
sechx = −sechx tanhx cosechx = −cosechx cothx cothx = −cosech2 x
dx dx dx
DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
d 1 d 1 d 1
sinh−1 x = cosh−1 x = tanh−1 x =
dx √x 2 + 1 dx √x 2 − 1 dx 1 − x2
d −1 d −1 d 1
sech−1 x = cosech−1 x = coth−1 x = −
dx x√1 − x 2 dx x√x 2 + 1 dx 1 − x2
SOME OTHER FORMULAS OF DERIVATIVES
Power rule Product rule Quotient rule
d n n
d d ′ ′ d u v. u′ − u. v ′
[f(x)] = n[f(x)] f(x) u. v = v. u + u. v ( ) =
dx dx dx dx v v2
Chain Rule 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 Where x=x(t) & y=y(t)
= ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Exponential function Exponential function with base ‘’e’’ Logarithmic function
d f(x) d d d d 1 d
a = af(x) ln|a|. f(x) ef(x) = ef(x) . f(x) ln|f(x)| = . f(x)
dx dx dx dx dx f(x) dx
McLaren’s series: If function f(x) is such that Taylor’s series: If function f(x) is such that f, f ′ , f ′′ , f ′′′ ,…
f, f ′ , f ′′ , f ′′′ ,… are differentiable at x=0, then are differentiable a point x, then
2 3
x x h2 h3
f(x) = f(0) + xf ′ (0) + f ′′ (0) + f ′′′ (0) + ⋯ f(x + h) = f(x) + hf ′ (x) + f ′′ (x) + f ′′′ (x) + ⋯
2! 3! 2! 3!
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR INCREASING/DECREASING FUNCTIONS:
i. A continues function f(x) is said to be increasing function on ]𝑎, 𝑏[ if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[
ii. A continues function f(x) is said to be decreasing function on ]𝑎, 𝑏[ if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[
iii. A continues function f(x) is said to be constant function on ]𝑎, 𝑏[ if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ ]𝑎, 𝑏[
SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR EXTREME VALUES:
i. A function f(x) is said to possess relative minima at x=a, if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) > 0, provided 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) =0
ii. A function f(x) is said to possess relative maxima at x=a, if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) < 0, provided 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0
INCREASING FUNCTION:
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏] if for every pair of points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such
𝑥1 > 𝑥2 => 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 )
DECREASING FUNCTION:
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏] if for every pair of points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such
𝑥1 > 𝑥2 => 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 )
REMARKS:
 A function which is either increasing or decreasing is called monotonic function
 If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be any curve then its derivative represents slope of tangent at some point
 A point on a curve where first derivative is zero i.e. 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟎 is called stationary point or critical point
 A point on a curve where second derivative is zero i.e. 𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝟎 is called point of infection
𝒅𝒚 𝒅
 First derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t 𝑥 is usually denoted by 𝒅𝒙 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒚′ 𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒚 where 𝑫 = 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝟐
 Second derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t 𝑥 is usually denoted by 𝟐
, 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒚′′ 𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝟐 𝒚 where 𝑫𝟐 = 𝒅𝒙𝟐 and
𝒅𝒙
so on
 An equation which contains derivatives or differentials is called differential equation
 CHAPTER 3 INTEGRATION
Integration is the process of finding anti-derivative of a function
∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 is called primitive, anti-derivative or integral. ∫ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙,
And dx is called differential of x.
For functions of one independent variables Integration is of two types
(i). Indefinite integrals, when limit of integration is not defined
(ii). Definite Integrals, when limit of integration is defined
Definite integrals are commonly used for determining area under the curve, while indefinite integrals
are used to solve ordinary differential equations.

Rules of Integration
1. Simplification: Simplify the given integrant from product, quotient or whole power into sum or
difference.
2. Completing the Derivative: If simplification is not possible, then try to complete derivative and use
the one of the two formulas
𝒏
{𝒇(𝒙)}𝒏
∫{𝒇(𝒙)} 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = + 𝒄, 𝒏 ≠ −𝟏
𝒏+𝟏
𝒇′(𝒙)
∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏|𝒇(𝒙)| + 𝒄
𝒇(𝒙)
3. Integration by Substitution:
(i).For the form ∫ 𝐹(𝑓(𝑥))𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥, put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡 and then proceed.
(ii).For the form ∫ 𝐹(√𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)𝑑𝑥, put √𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑡 and then proceed.
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
(iii).For the form ∫ 𝑙𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥, put ln(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑡 and then proceed.
𝑓(𝑥)
4. Integration for Existence of Quadratic expressions
(i).For form ∫ 𝑭(𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 )𝒙 𝒅𝒙, complete derivative of the quadratic expression
and then proceed
(ii).For the form ∫ 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒅𝒙, i.e. x is not present in the numerator then use
completing square technique the use appropriate formula.
(iii).For the form ∫ 𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒅𝒙, use substitutions as
(a).For form 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 , 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 (b).For the form 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 , 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
(c).For the form 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 , 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽
5. Integration for Trigonometric Function:
Trigonometric functions can be integrated by one of the following ways in order
(i).Simplify and use suitable formula from formula chart
(ii). If simplification is not easy then break the expression into two parts as function and its derivative
and the
Use (i) of the rule 3.
 (iii).If above two rules failed to work then break the trigonometric function into two parts and use by
parts integration.
6. Integration for Algebraic fraction:
𝑃(𝑥)
To integrate the integrals of form ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, if fraction is improper then use division to make the
fraction proper
When the fraction is proper try to factorize denominator if possible and use partial fractions to
simplify the integrant otherwise make some different technique.
7. Integration by Parts:

𝒅
∫(𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) (𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)𝒅𝒙 = (𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) (∫ 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) − ∫ (∫ 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) ( 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

8. Definite Integrals:
If 𝐹(𝑥) is primitive or integral of (𝑥) , then
𝒃
∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂)

FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION
1. 2.
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
3. 4.
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝑐
5. 6.
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −ln |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝑐
7. 8.
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥| + 𝑐
9. 10.
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐
11. 12.
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝑐
13. 14. 𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1
15 1 16. 𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑥 ln |𝑎|
17. 18.
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
19. 1 1 𝑥 20. 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐
𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎

Definite integrals are usually to determine area under a curve and between x-axis given as follows
𝑏 𝑏

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑂𝑅 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑎
Indefinite integrals are used usually in solving differential equation for their exact solutions
 CHAPTER 4 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Distance Formula in Plane
1. Distance between the two points or length of line segment joining the two points
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in plane is
𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) 2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) 2
𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) 2
2. Perpendicular distance from the point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, is
|𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐|
𝑑=
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Mid-Point Formula
The mid-point of the line segment joining the points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in plane is
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
( , )
2 2
Ratio Formula
The point which divides the join of 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) to the ratio 𝑘1 : 𝑘2 resp. in plane is
𝑘1 𝑥2 +𝑘2 𝑥1 𝑘1 𝑦2 +𝑘2 𝑦1
( , )
𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑘1 +𝑘2

Translation of Axes
In rectangular co-ordinate system (𝑥, 𝑦) if origin 𝑂(0,0) is shifted to 𝑂′(ℎ, 𝑘) keeping the axes as parallel,
then transformation equation for new co-ordinate system (𝑋, 𝑌) are given as follows
𝑥 = 𝑋 + ℎ, 𝑦 =𝑌+𝑘
Rotation of Axes
In rectangular co-ordinate system (𝑥, 𝑦) if axes are rotated through an angle 𝜃 < 90°, keeping the origin as
same, then transformation equations for new co-ordinate system (𝑋, 𝑌) are given as follows
𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑌 = −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Note: Inverse transformations can be obtained by interchanging (𝑥, 𝑦) by (𝑋, 𝑌), (𝑋, 𝑌) by (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝜃 by
−𝜃
Slope of Line
𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑦1 −𝑦2
1. Slope ′𝑚′ of line joining points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given as 𝑚= OR 𝑚 =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥1 −𝑥2
2. Slope ′𝑚′ of line making angle 𝜃, with x-axis is given as 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜−𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎
3. Slope ′𝑚′ of line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, is 𝑚=− =−
𝑐𝑜−𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑏
Remarks:
 Slope of horizontal line or x-axis is always zero i.e. 𝑚 = 0
 Slope of vertical line or y-axis is always undefined i.e. 𝑚 = ∞
 If two lines having slopes 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 are parallel then 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
 If two lines having slopes 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 are parallel then 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1, this case is not applicable for
co-ordinates axes

𝐦 −𝐦
 Angle of intersection between lines having slopes 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 is 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛉 = 𝟏+𝐦 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏 𝐦𝟐
 Two lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 are not solvable or has no unique solution if
𝑎1 𝑏1
=
𝑎2 𝑏2
POINT OF INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES

The point of intersection b\w two lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 is given by

x −y 1
= a c =
b1 c1 1 1 a b1
| | |a c | | 1 |
b2 c2 2 2 a 2 b2

Equation of Line
1. General equation of line in plane is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
2. Symmetric form of line joining points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1
3. Determinant form of line joining 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is
𝑥 𝑦 1
| 1 𝑦1 1| = 0
𝑥
𝑥2 𝑦2 1
4. Equation of line through point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) having slope ′𝑚′ is
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
5. Slope intercept form of line is 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑦
6. Two-intercept form is 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1, a & b are respectively known as x-intercept and y-intercept
7. Normal form of line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is given as 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑦 = 𝑝,
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑐
Where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = √𝑎2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = √𝑎2 and 𝑝 = √𝑎2
+𝑏2 +𝑏2 +𝑏2

Co-linear Points
If points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) , 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝑅(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) lie on same line then they will be called as co-linear
points. In this case
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
𝑥3 −𝑥1 𝑦3 −𝑦1
|𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0 Or =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑥3 𝑦3 1
 Area of Triangle
Area of triangle having vertices 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) , 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝑅(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is given as
1 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
∆= |𝑥2 𝑦2 1|
2 𝑥 𝑦 1
3 3

Concurrent Lines
Three or more lines intersecting (meeting) at one point are called concurrent lines. If three lines
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 & 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 = 0
Are concurrent then
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 0
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Pair of Lines through origin
Pair of lines through origin is given as 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 0
𝟐
𝟐√𝒉 −𝒂𝒃
Angle of intersection between two lines in this case is given as tanθ = 𝒂+𝒃
Note: Lines will be real if ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏 ≥ 0 and will be coincident if ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0

Some important terms in plane Geometry

 A plane polygon having four sides is called quadrilateral
 A quadrilateral having opposite sides as equal and parallel is called a parallelogram
(i). If ABCD is parallelogram then the following holds 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶
(ii). If ABCD is parallelogram then the following holds
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐶
(iii). Diagonals of a parallelogram are always bisect.

 A parallelogram whose all interior angles are 90° is called rectangle. In rectangle diagonals
are always equal in length
 A parallelogram whose all sides are equal in length is called rhombus. In rhombus diagonals
are not equal in length but always perpendicular to each other
 A square is a rhombus whose all interior angles are 90° and diagonals equal in length
 A triangle having one of its angles is of 90° is called a right angle. In right angle base and
perpendicular must be at right angle to each other and following holds (𝐻𝑌𝑃. )2 = (𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸)2 +
(𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑃. )2
 A triangle having two sides of equal in length is called an isosceles triangle
 A triangle having all sides equal in length is called equilateral triangle and each interior angle is
60°
 CHAPTER 6 CONIC SECTIONS
Circle: Set of points in plane whose distance from a fixed point is always constant.
Fixed point is called center while distance is called radius
Mathematically
𝐴 = {𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦): (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 }
General equation of circle is, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
With center: 𝐶(−𝑔, −𝑓) and radius: 𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
Standard equation of circle is (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 , where 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) is center of circle and r be the radius.

Parabola: Set of all points in plane whose distance from a fixed point and a fixed line is always constant. Fixed point
is called focus and fixed line is called directrix. A line through focus and perpendicular to directrix is called Axis of
Parabola. Point of intersection of parabola and axis of parabola is known as vertex. A chord through focus of parabola is
called focal chord. A chord through focus and perpendicular to axis of parabola is called latusrectum. For parabola
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 , length of latusrectum is |4𝑎|

Standard Equation of Parabola

(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)

Vertex: 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘) Vertex: 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘)
Axis: Since degree of x is one so axis parallel to x-axis. Axis: Since degree of y is one so axis parallel to y-axis.
Focus: 𝐹(ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘) Focus: 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑎)
Directrix: 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑎 Directrix: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑎
Eccentricity of parabola is always ‘1’

Ellipse:
Set of all points in plane ratio of whose distance from a fixed point and a fixed line bears a constant ratio, i.e. the fixed
point is called focus and fixed line is called directrix.
In case of ellipse there exist two foci and two directricies. If 𝐹 be one of the foci and 𝑃 is any point on the ellipse,
distance from 𝑃 to 𝐹 is |𝑃𝐹| and distance from 𝑃 to corresponding directrix is |𝑃𝑀| then
|𝑃𝐹|
=𝑒<1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′𝑒′ Is constant and known as eccentricity
|𝑃𝑀|

General Equation of Ellipse

(𝑥 − ℎ) 2
(𝑦 − 𝑘) 2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1 + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
Center: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) Center: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘)
Major Axis: |𝑎| > |𝑏|, then major axis parallel to x- axis Major Axis: |𝑎| < |𝑏|, then major axis parallel to y-axis
Vertices: 𝐴(ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) Vertices: 𝐴(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏)
Co-vertices: 𝐵(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏) Co-vertices: 𝐵(ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘)
Foci: 𝐹(ℎ ± 𝑎𝑒, 𝑘), where 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 (1 − 𝑒 2 ) Foci: 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏𝑒), where 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 (1 − 𝑒 2 )
𝑎 𝑏
Directrices: 𝑥 = ℎ ± 𝑒 Directrices: 𝑦 = 𝑘 ± 𝑒
 Hyperbola:
Set of all points in plane ratio of whose distances from a fixed point and a fixed line bears a constant ratio, i.e. the fixed
point is called focus and fixed line is called directrix.
In case of ellipse there exist two foci and two directricies. If 𝐹 be one of the foci and 𝑃 is any point on the ellipse,
distance from 𝑃 to 𝐹 is |𝑃𝐹| and distance from 𝑃 to corresponding directrix is |𝑃𝑀| then
|𝑃𝐹|
|𝑃𝑀|
=𝑒>1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′𝑒′ Is constant and known as eccentricity

General Equation of Hyperbola

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
− =1 − = −1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
Center: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) Center: 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘)
Major Axis: The major axis parallel to x- axis Major Axis: The major axis parallel to y-axis
Vertices: 𝐴(ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) Vertices: 𝐴(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏)
Co-vertices: 𝐵(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏) Co-vertices: 𝐵(ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘)
Foci: 𝐹(ℎ ± 𝑎𝑒, 𝑘), where 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑒 2 − 1) Foci: 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏𝑒), where 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 (𝑒 2 − 1)
𝑎 𝑏
Directrices: 𝑥 = ℎ ± 𝑒 Directrices: 𝑦 = 𝑘 ± 𝑒

General Equation of conic in Plane

𝒂 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒉𝒙𝒚 + 𝒃𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
1. If ∆= |ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 | = 0, then conic represents a pair of straight lines
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐
2
2. If ℎ − 𝑎𝑏 = 0, then conic is parabola
3. If ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏 > 0, then conic is hyperbola
4. If ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏 < 0, then conic is ellipse
2ℎ
Angle of rotation for axis of conic is 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑎−𝑏 , where 𝜃 < 90°
Transformation equations for axes of rotation are 𝑥 = 𝑋 cos 𝜃 − 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑋 sin 𝜃 + 𝑌 cos 𝜃
Remarks:
 If ℎ = 0 then axis of conic will be parallel to co-ordinate axes
 If ℎ = 0, 𝑔 = 0, 𝑓 = 0 & 𝑐 = 1 then axes of conic coincides with co-ordinates axes
 If 𝑐 = 0, then conic passes through origin
 If 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0 & ℎ = 0, then conic will be a straight line
 If ℎ = 0 & 𝑎 = 𝑏 then conic will be a circle
 Equation of circle having center at origin 𝐶(0,0) and radius 𝑟 is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
 A circle whose radius is zero is called a point circle.
 Standard equations of parabola are 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 , 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 if 𝑎 > 0 then parabola opens right, upward resp.
if 𝑎 < 0 then parabola opens towards left, down resp.
𝑥2 𝑦2
 Standard equation of ellipse is 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 =1
𝑥2 𝑦2
 Standard equation of hyperbola is 𝑎2
− 𝑏2
=1
 Eccentricity ‘e’ of parabola is one (e=1), of ellipse less than one (e<1) and for hyperbola greater than one (e>1).
MPORTANT NOTE: (i). CIRCLE: The set of all points in plane whose distance from a fixed point is the
same, fixed point is called center and fixed distance is called radius
(ii). PARABOLA: The set of all the points in plane whose distance from a fixed point and a fixed line is
constant, fixed line is called directrix & fixed point is called focus.
(a). a line passing through focus of parabola and perpendicular to the directrix is called AXIS of parabola
(b). The point of intersection of parabola and axis of parabola is called vertex of parabola ‘’ note that the
distance b/w vertex to directrix and vertex to focus is the same
(c). LATUSRECTUM: A perpendicular focal chord is called latusrectum. For parabola,
length of latusrectum = |4𝑎|
(iii). TANGENT: A line which touches any curve only at its one point is called tangent to that curve
(iv). NORMAL: A line perpendicular to the tangent and passing through the point of tangency. Point of
tangency is the common point b/w conic and the tangent.
(v). CHORD: A line segments whose end points lie on any curve
A chord which passes through the center of a circle is called diameter
(vi). HYPERBOLA: Set of all points in plane whose distance from a fixed point & a fixed line gives constant ratio
whose value is greater than 1 & this constant ratio is called eccentricity denoted by ‘e’
(a). fixed point is known as focus, a hyperbola has two foci and two fixed lines known as directricies
(b). MAJOR AXIS: A line perpendicular to directricies and passing through foci is called major axis
(c). CENTER: the midpoint of foci is called center. A line perpendicular to axis of hyperbola & passing through
the center of hyperbola is called minor axis.
ELLIPSE: Set of all points in plane whose distance from a fixed point & a fixed line gives constant ratio whose
value is less than 1 & this constant ratio is called eccentricity denoted by ‘e’
(a). fixed point is known as focus, an ellipse has two foci and two fixed lines known as directricies
(b). MAJOR AXIS: A line perpendicular to directricies and passing through foci is called major axis
(c). CENTER: The midpoint of foci is called center. A line perpendicular to axis of an ellipse & passing through
the center of ellipse is called minor axis.
General Equation of Conic in Polar Form

Axis (Major axis) along x-axis Axis (Major axis) along y-axis

𝑙 𝑙
𝑟= 𝑟=
1 ± 𝑒 cos 𝜃 1 ± 𝑒 sin 𝜃

Parabola Ellipse Hyperbola Circle

𝑒=1 𝑒<1 𝑒>1 𝑒=0

Note: 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙 = 𝑒𝑑, where d is distance between focus and directrix, if the axes do not coincide with
𝒍 𝒍
coordinate axes, then conic becomes 𝒓 = 𝟏±𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽−𝜽 𝒐𝒓 𝒓 = 𝟏±𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽−𝜽 ) , where 𝜃𝑜 is angle
𝒐) 𝒐
between new axis and x-axis
 Parabola (𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙)

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Ellipse ( 𝟐
+ = 𝟏)
𝒂 𝒃𝟐

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Hyperbola ( 𝟐
− = 𝟏)
𝒂 𝒃𝟐