CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

According to Mohanty, “sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency, and green

chemistry are guiding the development of the next generation of materials, products, and

processes.” There is a vital need for development of innovative bio-based products and

technologies that are not dependent on fossil fuel. (Mohanty, A.K.; Misra, M.; Drzal, T. 2002)

Particleboard is defined as a panel product manufactured from lignocellulosic materials,

primarily in the form of discrete particles, combined with a synthetic resin or other suitable

binder and bonded together under heat and pressure. The primary difference between

particleboard and other reconstituted wood products, such as waferboard, oriented strand

board, medium density fiberboard, and hardboard, is the material or particles used in its

production. The major types of particles used to manufacture particleboard include wood

shavings, flakes, wafers, chips, sawdust, strands, slivers, and wood wool.

The particle board industry fully depends on the use of formaldehyde-based resin such

as urea formaldehyde (UF), due to its low cost and excellent properties of its panel binders. (P.

S. H’ng, S.H. Lee, Y. W. Loh, W. C. Lum, and B. H. Tan, 2011)

However, the benefits in term of cost saving are time dependent owing to the continual

rise of petroleum prices (J. Konnerth, G. Hahn, and W. Gindl, May 2009) and, hence, the

production of UF which uses petroleum as the raw material will increase the cost of producing

this resin (S. D’Amico, M. Hrabalova, U. Muller, and E. Berg Hofer, Feb.2012 & E.

Papadopoulous, P. Nakos, S. Tsiantzi, and E. Anthanassiadou, 2008). One alternative that

could be used to replace or minimize the use of UF in the manufacturing of particle boards is the
use of natural adhesive such as starch and natural rubber (G. Tondi, S. Wieland, T. Wimmer,

and T. Schnabe, June 2011 & A. Moubarik, A. Allal, A. Pizzi, F. Charrier, and B. Charrier, 2010).

Starch binders which are majorly produce from cassava, possess good ductility, good

bind-ability, self-curing properties and hygroscopicity-resistance in their incorporated

composites. Starch can be modified by physical or chemical methods to improve its structure

and binding property as applicable to foundry as a main binder.

Recently, the Provincial Government of Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines introduces the

“Gahung-Gahung Organic Cassava Farming System: A Climate Change Adaptive and Poverty-

Alleviating Farming Strategy” [8] that guides farmers on how to plant cassava on a one-hectare

farm by dividing it equally to ten plots and utilizing only one plot each month until he completes

the whole cycle on the tenth month which produces amass by-product of cassava roots.

(Cerilles A.W.E., 2015)

Development of α-starch based composite binders by (X. Zhou, 1996) in earlier stage

can be regarded as a main starch binder for foundry. The thermoplastic properties of starch

have been extensively studied (H. Levine and L. Slade, 2013) while many technologies have

been used to process starch, the easiest way of obtaining a film is by casting from a solution. To

obtain useful materials from starch, the native properties must be enhanced because of starch’s

high-water sensitivity. The influence of water content and of external plasticizers like glycerol

and sorbitol has been investigated to decrease the brittleness of these materials. (J. M. V.

Blanshard and P. Lillford, 1993)

Natural rubber (NR) primarily comprises polyisoprene and is harvested from the milky

white latex of a number of species of plants which flourish in the tropics, above all from the

Spurge family. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) has achieved considerable commercial
importance. The tree is native to the Amazon region and is now cultivated in all tropical regions

of South America, Africa and Asia. Rubber has such remarkable and desirable properties that

encourages it used many engineering applications seal in addition to the manufacturing of bulk

products like tires, tubes, belts, hoses among others. It is the most highly deformable material

exhibiting complete recovery and it is virtually incompressible with a bulk modulus some

thousand times greater than its shear or young modulus. The significance of plant proteins as

binders in cellulosic paper composites are to; increase the kaolin retention in the paper

composites, increase the paper strength properties, enhance the opacity of the cellulosic paper

and aid higher paper strength than protein free paper composites. Natural rubbers are favorable

than synthetic adhesive because they are biodegradable and do not pose any health challenges

to the environment during paper recycling.

In the Philippines, Region IX hosts 65,084 hectares of rubber plantations, with the

provinces of Zamboanga Sibugay, Basilan, Zamboanga del Sur and del Norte being the major

growing areas. Most of the rubber plantations are being managed by the Agrarian Reform

Communities with more than 30 rubber associations throughout the peninsula. (Daily "The

Manila Times", Manila; 8 May 2013)

The selected raw materials are of natural source in which both the reinforcement and the

binders are of natural origin. These natural materials have high strength to weight ratio are easy

to process, biodegradable, environmentally friendly and are of low cost. They have a much

lower undesirable impact on the environment since they are made from renewable resources.

This interest has become the subject of scientific research, in which authors present the

profitability of utilizing the great volume of agricultural products such as cassava root crops,

natural rubber and wood chips or saw dust (from wood industries waste products) as

sustainable local material in producing particleboard in the industry and this will give the solution
for the high cost of commercially produced construction materials. Thus, this study was

designed to provide information on the benefits and feasibility that we could get from using the

two natural eco-friendly binders in the production of particle board.

With this study, it may serve also as a reference to future researchers who also engaged

in ecological – green engineering solutions on providing low-cost environmental products.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study presents the analysis and results of every mix

designed for the conduct of the study. Different mixes would probably provide different results

that may serve as the determinants on what would be best mixture is effective with in terms of

using two different ratios of binder paste in making an experimental particle board (EPD).

The study is designed to make two (2) mixes namely; Mix-A mixing wood chips with

cassava root paste (CRP) and natural rubber (NR) as binder producing a 600kg/m 3 MDF

(medium-density fiberboard) and Mix-B having the same process but forming an 700kg/m 3 MDF

increasing the quantity of materials ratio proportionally. The size of the experimental particle

board (EPB) will be 120mm x 80mm x ¾ inch (19.05mm), mass of the rubber latex and the

cassava starch will be measured by relating its density to the fixed mass of the particle board in

order to obtain the required volume of each materials needed.

Result of the study will give data and information as to the production of a sustainable

and eco-friendly product. Thus, it would also be a reference to other researchers and use this as

bases for future conduct of studies related to this.

 PARTICLEBOARDS USING CASSAVA ROOT PASTE & NATURAL RUBBER AS
REPLACEMENT BINDER FOR FORMALDEHYDE-BASED RESIN

Two mixes will be introduced;

 Mix A – producing 600kg/m3 MDF

 Mix B – producing 700kg/m3 MDF

PARTICLE BOARD

Figure 1. Schematic Model of Study

Statement of the Problem

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the feasibility on replacement of binder

for formaldehyde-based resin by fractional mixture of cassava starch and natural rubber.

Specifically, this study suit to answer the following questions;

1. To make particle board manually using Cassava Root Paste and Natural Rubber as

binder.

2. Is the bending strength of the experimental particle boards (EPD) produced surpass or

equals to the formaldehyde-based particle board (FPB)?

3. Is there any significant difference among the EPD and FPB modulus of rupture?
Null hypothesis

There is no significant difference among the bend strengths of the mixes.

Scope and Limitation

The study intends to determine the significance and potential of using cassava starch

and natural rubber as replacement for binding compound on formaldehyde-based particle

board. It is limited on determining the flexural strength of the by-product using the cassava

starch and natural rubber as replacement for binding compound on particle board.

Significance of the Study

This study is focusing on the possibility of using cassava starch and natural rubber as

replacement for binding compound on particle board. It is designed on determining the flexural

strength of the by-product particle board. Thus, this study will provide data and information on

the importance of cassava starch and natural rubber as a binding compound for any individuals

who engaged in the industry; future researchers and consumers as basis for them researches

or for further study.

Definition of Key Terms

For better understanding of the terms used in the study, here are the following words

which operationally and conceptually defined:

Cassava Starch. starch extracted from the storage roots of the cassava plant, a species

native to the north and central-west region of Brazil.

 Cassava Root Paste (CRP). The cassava is grated, pressed, fermented and fried, then

mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste. In West Africa the cassava root is pounded,

mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste and cooked like eba.

Flexural strength. Also known as modulus of rupture, or bend strength, or traverse

rupture strength is a material property, defined as the stress in a material just before it yields in

a flexural test.

Formaldehyde. Is a colorless, strong-smelling gas used in making building materials

and many household products. It is used in pressed-wood products such as; particle board, etc.

Particle board. Particleboard is defined as a panel product manufactured from

lignocellulosic materials, primarily in the form of discrete particles, combined with a synthetic

resin or other suitable binder and bonded together under heat and pressure.

Rubber. Initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with

minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water.

Ecological. of or relating to the science of ecology or the patterns of relationships

between living things and their environment, there was no ecological damage.

Eco-friendly. Eco-friendly literally means earth-friendly or not harmful to the environment

Engineering. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines,

structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings.

Sustainability. Focuses on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their needs.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies that is seen in

conceptualizing this study.

Related literature

The term particleboard sometimes is used generically to include waferboard and

oriented strand board, which are manufactured primarily with wood flakes and wafers. However,

for the purposes of this report, particleboard pertains only to panels manufactured from a

mixture of wood particles or otherwise from wood particles other than wafers and flakes.

Particleboard manufacturing falls under Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code 2493,

reconstituted wood products, which includes hardboard, insulation board, medium density

fiberboard, waferboard and oriented strand board in addition to particleboard. The six-digit

Source Classification Code (SCC) for particleboard manufacturing is 3- 07-006.

According to the test results, the bending strength was the highest in MDF (877.0 N mm-

2), followed by new wood (550.7 N mm-2) and the lowest in particle board (542.8 N mm-2).

Bending strength of MDF is 59 % higher than new wood and 61% than particle board. (M.H.

Colakoglu , 2009)

Particleboard is produced in densities ranging from around 590 kilograms per cubic

meter (kg/m3) (37 pounds per cubic foot [lb./ft3]) to greater than 800 kg/m3 (50 lb./ft3). Most

particleboard is formed into panels. However, molded particleboard products such as furniture

parts, door skins, or molded pallets are also produced.

 Although some single-layer particleboard is produced, particleboard generally is

manufactured in three or five layers. The outer layers are referred to as the surface or face

layers, and the inner layers are termed the core layers. Face material generally is finer than

core material. By altering the relative properties of the face and core layers, the bending

strength and stiffness of the board can be increased.

Cassava starch, corn starch and gelatine at three different concentrations of 10, 20 and

30% wt./wt. were used as binders in the production of the briquettes at the predetermined

compacting pressure levels of 50, 100, and 150 kPa using Hydraulic Press. A charcoal kiln and

a punch and die were fabricated for carbonization and facilitation of the compaction of this

corncob into briquettes. Physical properties such as moisture content, density and compressive

strength were determined using standard procedures.

Cassava sour starch is a traditional food ingredient made by fermentation and sun drying

of native cassava starch. It shows good expansion upon heating, which makes it widely used in

baking. Expansion occurs after starch gelatinization, as a consequence of water vaporization

combined with appropriate paste fluidity, swelling and solubilization. Presence of carboxylate

functional groups, formed during fermentation/sun drying, has been correlated with expansion

performance.

Responsiveness was given to the effects of cassava starch and natural rubber as binders on the

flexural strength and the water absorptivity properties of the developed rattan particulate

reinforced paper pulp-based composites. Paper pulp was produced by chopping waste papers

into smaller pieces and soaked in boiled water after which it was stirred thoroughly to form

paper pulp.
Related Studies

Lightweight particleboards, bonded with an adhesive system, based on sour cassava

starch with added chitosan and wood fibers, were produced with densities between 207 kg/m3

and 407 kg/m3. These low-density values were obtained thanks to the good self-foaming

property of the starch, which allows for the separation of wood particles and the creation of low-

density domains while maintaining good cohesion. Very good internal bond strength and

thickness swelling values were obtained. The best overall performance corresponded to a panel

with a density of 318 kg/m3, an IB of 0.67 N/mm2, and a TS of 8.7%. Heat post-treatment

revealed to not be beneficial in terms of internal bond strength, but led to a decrease in the

thickness swelling.

Presently, agro wastes management practice in the country is that of burning or allowing

them to decay on farm. Whichever approach causes environmental contamination and pollution

aside from also resulting to enormous waste of resources. Burning of agricultural wastes on a

farmland affects soil biodiversity, geomorphic process and volatilizes large amount of the

nutrients in the soil including organic matter, while black carbon and particulate matters emitted

into the atmosphere during the process is also worrisome (Onuegbu et al., 2012).

While corncob can be directly utilized as fuels, they are nevertheless not directly suitable

apparently because of their bulkiness, uneven nature, and having low energy density;

characteristics that make them difficult to handle, store, transport, and utilize in their raw form;

hence, there is the need to subject them to conversion processes in order to mitigate these

problems as suggested by Oladeji (2010).

Lately, many studies had been conducted on the production of briquettes from

unprocessed or raw agricultural residues. For instance, briquettes from rice straw and rice bran

were feasible to be converted into solid biomass fuel using a hot-pressing temperature (Chou et

al., 2009).
 Green building practices seek to address these unwelcome environmental impacts by

promoting environmentally responsible construction practices and building schemes that reduce

the carbon footprint through energy and resource efficiency. LEED, an internationally

recognized green building rating system, and BERDE, a locally developed one based on LEED,

served as benchmarks for this study.

It is in the process of conditioning communities to become climate-resilient that green

engineering comes to play. Green engineering explores infrastructural designs that work around

the natural features of its surroundings. It considers a mode of transportation that gradually

does away with fossil fuels. It utilizes indigenous materials and reinforces the value of traditional

designs. It invests in a science that optimizes functionality and design in harmony with the

natural environment.

This paper emphasizes the basis for developing a low-cost sustainable material that will

be used in the application of demonstrating ecological solutions for an eco-friendly building.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the design, layout of the study, the experimental materials and

tools, the procedures, research environment, statistical treatment, and all relevant parts that will

be involved in the development and presentation of this study.

Research Design

The researchers will use experimental research design to determine the suitability of

cassava root paste and natural rubber as a binder in making alternative particleboard with

commercially produced medium-density fiberboard (MDF). The study will be using an

experimental method by having the proportions of (7:2:2:2, & 7:4:4:4) (Saw dust: Cassava

Paste: Rubber: Water). The curing period will be in a 5 day sun dry. Experimental research will

be used in the study which series of action such as a treatment or procedure are carefully

observed.

Experimental Research Design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the

researcher to test the hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between

independent and dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the

experiment is conducted.

Data Gathering Procedure

A. Collection and preparation of saw dust, cassava root paste and natural rubber.
 The researchers will gather fifteen (15) kilograms of saw dust from the lumber yard

located at Guipos, Zamboanga del Sur, and will be buying six (6) kgs. of cassava root and (6)

kgs. of natural rubber in the nearby common supplier.

The researchers will prepare two mixtures. Each mixture was mixed with different

amount of cassava root paste and natural rubber. For mixture one (1), it will contain (7) kgs. of

saw dust, (2) kgs. of cassava root paste, (2) kgs. of natural rubber and (2) kgs. of water. Mixture

two (2) will have (7) kgs. of saw dust, (4) kgs. of cassava root paste and (4) kgs. of natural

rubber and (4) kgs. of water. Cassava root will be grated and cooked to produce paste.

Every treatment mixture will be placed on a 120mm x 80mm x ¾ inch (19.05mm) pre-

made mould (plywood/G.I. sheet) after it has been cooked.

Table 1. Experiment Materials and Tools

The following were used in the conduct of the experimental study:

MATERIALS MIXTURE 1 MIXTURE 2

Saw dust 7 kgs. 7 kgs.

Cassava root 2 kgs. 4 kgs.

Natural rubber 2 kgs. 4 kgs.

Water 2 kgs. 4 kgs.

120mm x 80mm x ¾ inch

1 pc 1 pc
(19.05mm) mould

a. Saw Dust / Particles

a. Saw Dust / Particles

b. Cassava Root (L) and Paste (R)

c. Natural Rubber d. Water

e. Moulder / Forms / Dryer f. Weighing Scale

B. Production of Particleboard

The following are procedures that must be followed by the researchers in conducting the

experimentation.

The researchers will provide all materials needed for the experimentation. The

researchers will take saw dust from a lumber yard located at Guipos, Zamboanga del Sur and

the cassava local producers in Mati, San Miguel Zamboanga del Sur. The researchers will peel

the cassava roots and then grate it. The grated cassava roots will be mixed with water to make

a paste, the natural rubber and saw dust in proportions as described in each treatment (2:2:2:7

& 4:4:4:7). Mixing of ingredients in a cooking range at desired temperature until evenly cooked.

This was poured into in 120mm x 80mm x ¾ inch (19.05mm) thick mixture mould. The product

will be cured for a period of 5 days on a sun drying method throughout the duration of the curing

period. The researchers will apply a pressing force on the boards in order for it not to warp. The

pressing process will be done through the application of an enough external load in order to

avoid the boards not to warp.

 Figure 2.0 Operational Diagram.

CASSAVA ROOT
PASTE NATURAL RUBBER, WATER & SAWDUST

GRATING &
HEATING MIXING BOWL
PROCESS

APPLICATION OF
COOKING RANGE EXTERNAL LOAD TO
AVOID WARPING

SAMPLE OFFICE TABLE

MOULD

EXPERIMENTAL FINISH PRODUCT

(PARTICLE BOARD) SUN DRY
Research Environment

The study will be conducted at JHCSC Main-Campus, Guipos, Zamboanga del Sur. The

finish products will be used to make a 1 set office table.

Statistical Treatment

Every part of the collected data from the analysis of different samples were tabulated

and presented in textual and tabular forms. The data gathered were categorized and analyzed

based on the specific objectives of the study. Descriptive statistic such as frequency counts,

percentage, ranks and weighted arithmetic mean were used to explain the results of the study.

The researcher will seek the assistance of the thesis statistician and panel for the

statistical tool that will be used in analyzing the data collected.

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