STREAMFLOW

Introduction: A stream can be defined as a flow channel into which the surface runoff
from a specified basin drains. Generally, there is considerable exchange of water between
a stream and the underground water; therefore, watershed runoff is composed of three
components (surface runoff, subsurface runoff and baseflow) which may at a given time
occur separately or simultaneously with varying magnitudes. The three runoff
components finally converge in a stream to form streamflow. Surface runoff is composed
of overland flow and channel flow. Streamflow is measured in units of discharge (m3/s)
occurring at a specified time and space and constitutes historical data.
1) Classification of streams: Streams are variable in width and length and may contain
water perennially or intermittently or along only part of the water course. However,
streams cannot be arbitrarily be defined by length, size or shape. Streams vary in
these dimensions from storm to storm and season to season. Definitions which are
most accurately descriptive are based on the permanency of flows as follows:

i. Ephemeral streams: carry only surface runoff and hence flow

only during and immediately after periods of precipitation or
snowmelt. They have no permanent or well defined channels but
follow slight depressions in the natural contour of the ground
surface. The drainage basin is either impervious or the
groundwater table is always below the bed of the ephemeral
stream throughout its entire length.
ii. Intermittent streams: carry flow during wet seasons and are dry
during dry seasons. The Groundwater Table lies above the bed of
the stream during the wet season but drops below the bed during
dry seasons. Hence the flow is derived principally from surface
runoff but during wet seasons receives a contribution from
groundwater.
iii. Perennial streams: Flow at all times. In such streams, even during
most severe droughts, the groundwater table never drops below
the bed of the stream and therefore maintains a continuous supply.
These types of streams are also referred to as effluent streams.
Whereas the opposite is influent where groundwater table is below
river bed level and therefore river flow continuously recharges
groundwater reservoir at deeper depths. Illustrate using sketch a
distinction between influent and effluent streams.
2) Streamflow generation: The mechanisms of streamflow generation verified by field
experiments can be summarized as those dominated by overland flow mechanisms
(Hortonian and Saturation overland flow) and subsurface flow mechanism:

i. Hortonian overland flow: If soil has an infiltration capacity (f) ,

expressed in mm depth absorbed per hour, then when rain
intensity (i) is less than (f) the rain is all absorbed and there is no
surface runoff. If I is greater than (f), surface runoff will occur at
the rate i-f. Horton termed this difference (i-f) “rainfall excess”.
Horton considered surface runoff to take the form of a sheet flow

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 whose depth may be measured in mm. As flow accumulates going
down a slope, its depth increases until discharge into a stream
channel occurs. Along with overland flow there is depression
storage in surface hollows and surface detention storage
proportional to the depth of overland flow itself. The soil stores
infiltrated water and the slowly releases it as subsurface flow to
enter the stream as baseflow during rainless periods. Hortonian
overland flow is applicable for impervious surfaces in urban areas,
and for natural surfaces with thin soil layers and low infiltration
capacity as in semiarid and arid lands. Hortonian flow rarely
occurs on vegetated surface in humid regions. Under these
conditions, the infiltration capacity of the soil exceeds observed
rainfall intensities for all except the most extreme rainfalls.
Subsurface flow then becomes a primary mechanism for
transporting stormwater to streams.

ii. Saturation overland flow: Is produced when subsurface flow

saturates the soil near the bottom of a slope and overland flow
then occurs as rain falls onto saturated soil. Saturation overland
flow differs from Hortonian overland flow in that in Hortonian
overland flow the soil is saturated from above by infiltration ,
while in saturated overland flow it is saturated from below by
subsurface flow. Saturation overland flow occurs most often at the
bottom of hill slopes and near stream banks. The velocity of
subsurface flow is so low that not all of a watershed can contribute
subsurface flow or saturated overland flow to a stream during a
storm and so the emergence of the term variable source areas
commonly used if forest hydrology.

iii. Subsurface flow mechanism: The subsurface flow ( interflow and

groundwater) delivers water directly to a permanent stream or
expanding intermittent channel network in a variable source area.
The control on the subsurface flow is hydrogeology. The recharge
to groundwater is controlled by the overlying unsaturated zone.
The velocity of subsurface flow is normally so low that subsurface
flow alone cannot contribute a significant amount of storm
precipitation directly flow except under special circumstances
where the hydraulic conductivity of the soil is very high.
3) Streamflow hydrograph: A streamflow or discharge hydrograph may be defined as
a graph or a table showing the flowrate as a function of time at a given location on the
stream. In effect, the hydrograph is an integral expression of the physiographic and
climatic characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff of a
particular drainage basin.

A typical total hydrograph may divided into three components (1) baseflow recession
(AB) (2) rising limb(BC) and (3) falling limb(CD). Prior to the time of intense

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rainfall, baseflow is gradually diminishing (segment AB)- see Fig 1. Direct runoff
begins at B, picks at C and ends at D. Segment(DE) follows as normal baseflow
recession begins again. Direct runoff is considered to consist of surface runoff and so
called quick interflow whereas baseflow consist of delayed interflow and
groundwater runoff.

Q A
D
C
B

Time (t)

Fig. 1 Components of the streamflow hydrograph during a storm.

Though total hydrograph define the relationship between total rainfall and watershed
rainfall, it is much easier to visualize the linear relationship between excess or
effective rainfall and the direct runoff hydrograph due to the short time interval
between input and response functions. Direct runoff hydrograph is the remainder
hydrograpgh after subtracting baseflow from total hydrograph. Baseflow separation is
done using various methods e.g.
Ø straight line method – see Fig 2
Ø fixed base method – make sketch
Ø variable slope method –make sketch
Ø normal depletion curve ( or master baseflow recession curve)

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 Straight line
Q method

Time

Fig 2 Baseflow separation techniques

4) Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff: Excess rainfall or effective rainfall, is that
rainfall which is neither retained on land surface nor infiltrated into the soil. After
flowing across the watershed surface, excess rainfall becomes direct runoff at the
watershed outlet under the assumption of Hortonian overland flow. The graph of
excess rainfall vs time referred to as excess rainfall hyetograph (ERH), is a key
component of the study of rainfall-runoff relationships. The difference between the
observed total rainfall hyetograph and the excess rainfall hyetograph is termed
abstractions, or losses. Losses are primarily water absorbed by infiltration with some
allowance for interception and surface storages.

v Methods for estimating ERH: The methods depend on availability of

streamflow data. For example if streamflow hydrograph data are available and
baseflow has been separated from streamflow to produce the direct runoff
hydrograph, ERH can be estimated as by infiltration indices methods (Ф-
Index and W-index):
i. Ф-Index - The Ф-Index is that constant rate of abstraction (cm/h) that will yield an
excess rainfall hyetograph (ERH) with a total depth equal to the depth of direct
runoff (Rd)over the watershed. The value Ф is determined by picking a time
interval length ∆t, judging the number of intervals M of rainfall that actually
contribute to direct runoff, subtracting Ф∆t from the observed rainfall in each
interval, and adjusting the values of values Ф and M as necessary so that depths
of direct runoff and excess rainfall are equal.

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 M

Rd = ∑ ( Rm − Φ∆t ) Where Rm is the observed rainfall in mm

m =1
In time interval m, M is the total number
of interval of rainfall that actually
contributed to direct runoff.

ii. W-Index - This is the average infiltration rate given by:

P−R
W= Where Tr is the duration of rainfall excess in hours
Tr
R – Surface runoff or direct runoff
P- Total precipitation corresponding to Tr
Note: Ф-Index > W-Index in the usual case of moderate rain at non-
uniform intensities.

Numerical example: A typical storm has the following distribution of rainfall:

Time (hr) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Incremental 1.25 2.66 9.56 10.05 8.52 1.84 1.69 3.72 0.55
rainfall in
each hr mm
The above storm produces a total direct surface runoff of 10.19mm. Assume runoff was
observed between time 3 and 5hrs. Compute Ф-Index and W-Index for this catchment

SOLUTION

Rd = ∑ ( Rm − Φ∆t )
m =1
in this case Rd=10.19mm, ∆t= 1h, from given assumption M

=3, so Rm=9.56, therefore solving for Ф the value is 5.98mm/h

P − SRO
W= where tr= duration of rainfall in hours, in this case=9hrs
tr
SRO- surface runoff or direct runoff in this case = 10.19mm
P- Total precipitation corresponding to tr, in this case sum of all rainfall = 39.84mm

Therefore W=3.29mm

v Where the streamflow hydrograph is not available, abstractions are

determined by calculating infiltration and accounting separately for other
forms of abstractions such as interception, and detention or depression
storages. If all abstractions are assumed to arise from infiltration then the
following methods may be used to determine the infiltration loss and result
subtracted from total observed rainfall to estimate ERH.

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i. Infiltration curve developed from field methods using infiltrometers and the result
used to calibrate infiltration equations like Horton’s equation, Phillip’s, Green-
Ampt etc.

Fundamental definitions: Infiltration rate (f) is the rate at which

water enters into the soil surface. It is expressed as volume per unit
area per unit time. Cumulative infiltration (F) is the volume of
infiltration from the beginning of time t or the rainfall event. It is
measured in length e.g. cm

dF
F(t) = ∫ t
f ( x )dx or = f (t )
o dt

Infiltration capacity (fp) is the maximum rate at which soil can absorb
water through its surface and has the dimensions of length per unit of
time. A distinction between f and fp is

0≤f ≤fp
Horton observed that infiltration begins at some rate fo and
exponentially decreases until it reaches a constant rate fc

f(t) = (fo-fc)e-kt
where k is a decaying constant having dimension T-1

fo

fc

Time (t)

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 EXERCISE: From the fundamental definitions of infiltration rate (f) and cumulative
infiltration (F), show that F for the above Horton’s infiltration equation is given by:
F = fct + 1 (fo-fc) [1-e-kt]
k
1) The infiltration rate as a function of time for area X is as follows:
Time (h) 0 0.07 0.16 0.27 0.43 0.67 1.10 2.53
Infiltration rate mm/h 6.5 5.2 4.2 3.2 2.2 1.2 0.7 0.2
Determine the best values for the parameters fo, fc and k for Horton’s equation

2) If Horton’s parameters are fo=50mm/h, fc=10mm/h and k=2h-1. Determine the

cumulative infiltration after 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2h. Plot the infiltration rate and
cumulative infiltration as a function of time.

ii. Runoff coefficients: Abstractions may also be accounted for by means of runoff
coefficients. Runoff coefficient is the ratio of peak rate of direct runoff to the
average intensity of rainfall in a storm. Because of highly variable rainfall
intensity, this value is difficult to determine from observed data. A runoff
coefficient can also be defined to be the ratio of runoff to rainfall over a given
period.

Rd
C= M

∑ Rm
m =1
M
Where ∑ Rm
m =1
is the total rainfall and Rd the corresponding depth of runoff and C is

coefficient of runoff
iii. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method : The SCS model was developed
by the Soil Conservation Service (1964, 1973) for estimating excess rainfall or
direct runoff(Q) from storm rainfall (P) on small ungauged watersheds. It employs
rainfall and watershed data that are ordinarily available. The model can be applied
to large watersheds with multiple land uses. The fundamental hypothesis of this
model are: (1) there is a maximum a mount of water (S) that a watershed can hold
through depression and soil storage. (2) the ratio of actual storage (Fa ) to the
potential storage (S) is equal to the ratio of direct runoff to rainfall minus initial
abstraction (Ia). Mathematically,

Fa Q
= ------------------------1
S P − Ia
From continuity principle

P=Q+Ia+Fa ---------------------------2

Combining equations 1 and 2

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 P − Ia − Q
=
Q
which can be written as Q =
(P − I a ) 2

S P − Ia P − Ia + S

Ia can be expressed as a function of S. The SCS stated S are linearly related as

I a = aS , and is taken as a=0.2, therefore, Ia=0.2S. Physically, this means that for a
given storm, 20% of the potential maximum retention is the initial abstraction before
runoff begins. The remaining 80% is principally infiltration after runoff begins.
Therefore,

Q=
(P − 0.2 S )2 OR

Q = P − S 1.2 −
S 
P + 0.8S  P + 0.8S 
This equation is the SCS curve number model. Evidently this is a one-prameter model
containing S as the parameter. The parameter S depends upon characteristics of soil
cover complex and antecedent soil moisture conditions in the watershed. For each soil
cover complex, there will be a lower and an upper limit of S. The SCS expresses S as a
function of runoff curve number CN.

1000 1000
CN = or S = − 10
S + 10 CN
From the above equations when CN equals 100, S becomes zero. This leads to Q=P.
When S tend to infinity, CN approaches infinity. This yields Q=P for all P when S=0,
CN=100. SCS has tabulated values of CN for various hydrologic soil cover. Other
studies have related CN to site moisture.

5) Measurement of streamflow: Streamflow is measured as discharge measurement

(m3/s) can be measured using the following methods:
i. Direct determination of stream discharge: (1) Area-Velocity method (2)
Dilution techniques (3) Electromagnetic method and (4) Ultrasonic
method.
ii. Indirect methods: (1)artificial controls e.g. weirs, flumes, slope-area
formulae as Manning’s and Chezy’s (2) float gauging (3) Indirect stage –
rating equation measurement
Element Method of Instruments Remarks
Measurement
Water stage Manual Staff gages Wooden, steel
(point) Crest gauges To capture peak flows

Automatic Pneumatic, float type etc Provide continuous water

water level stage record
recorders
(point)
Width of Manual or Tape or survey instrument
stream boat

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Depth of Boat or Wading rod or Current meter Air line and wet line
water cableway suspension cable correction for current
meter suspension cable

Flow Manual Current meter Rotor or cup type

velocity (Point)
Automatic Flow measurement meter Use electromagnetic
sensors or ultrasonic
signals
Streamflow Point Velocity – Area Methods Mean section, Mid-section
methods

Dilution Method Constant injection or

integration method

Rating curve/ equation Common in remote sites

6) Area-Velocity method for determining of stream discharge: mainly involve the

following (1) selecting appropriate site for gauging (2) measuring parameters making
up discharge equation (Q=AV) or measuring stage and developing rating curve for
the site.
i. Site selection for regular gauging station (RGS): should meet the following
requirements:
§ A way from confluence with tributary streams, so as to avoid backwater
effect from the tributaries at the station.
§ Where the stage are not affected by operation of hydroelectric stations
§ Immediately upstream of a natural riffle or falls or artificial control
structures
§ Where the channel bed is stable to maintain the stability of the rating
curve
§ Where a stream does not overflow the banks to avoid loss of records
during high stage
§ Straight and unobstructed reach- no aquatic growths
§ Easily accessible point, particularly for manual stations

ii. Measurement of discharge parameters ( Q=AV)

o Stream cross sectional are (A) involve determining width of the river and
depth and using area formulae for regular sections to determine A. Usually
river cross section is first divided into a number of panels, each panel
approximated to contain about 10% of the flow. Widths and depths are
measured using appropriate technique as summarized in table above. Panel
areas are usually treated as rectangular or trapezoidal depending on which
method is used.

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 o Velocity is measured along the verticals bounding each panel at appropriate
point along the vertical. One measurement or more can be taken using a
current meter along a vertical to help deduce mean velocity in the vertical.
o Field measured data (width of panel, depth of verticals bounding panels and
point velocities along panels) are plotted on stream cross sectional sketch
o Mathematical techniques like mid-section method or mean section method are
used to derive area and mean velocity for each panel. Product of mean
velocity and area is the discharge of the panel. Summation of these discharges
for all panels gives the river discharge.
iii. Air line and wet line correction in depth measurement using current meter
suspension cable method: Current meter cable, though carrying meter can be
simultaneously used to determine the position at which the meter should be
lowered below the water for it to occupy appropriate position convenient for
calculating mean velocity in a vertical. The cable which is normally being
lowered from cable car moving on horizontal cable way do not maintain vertically
once in water due to water wave swipe. Correction is therefore, necessary if the
vertical angle departure is between 50 to 300, beyond which the records should be
discarded and more weight added to the end of the cable.

A-point from which the cable is lowered

B’

B E Water surface

C D – River bed

Assume the following notations

AD – Total depth- say l ( known)
AB- free depth (say equal X-known)
θ -angle at index point (known)
Sounded depth – B’D = D’
BC- True depth ( say equal D -required)
Air line correction = B’E
Wet line correction = wet length(ED say equal D’- B’E) x wet line correction factor (k)

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Correction factor k for various values of θ are usually given in tables

True depth(D)= sounded depth(D’) – air line correction – wet line correction

Air line correction B’E = X(secθ-1), therefore wet length(ED) = D’- X(secθ-1)

Wet line correction = [D’- X(secθ-1)]k, therefore True depth (D)= [D’- X(secθ-1)]-(1-k)

Numerical example
A current meter is suspended from a cable car on the left bank of a river. The following
data are observed.
o Distance from the index to the water surface =13m
o Observed vertical angle on the sounding line =22o 30’
o Total observed depth =18m
o The value of k at 24o and 22o is 0.0345 and 0.0305 respectively
o The distance between the sinker and the current meter =0.2m
Determine the total length to be released from index point so that the current meter
occupy 0.8depth of water from water surface.

SOLUTION
Value of k is interpolated between given values and the answer is k=0.0315
True depth(D) = 3.8051m, Air line correction = 1.0711 m, Wet length = 3.9289m
Wet line correction for full wet length = 0.124m.
Length to be released = X+0.8 (D)+air line correction +wet line correction + distance
between meter and sinker(p).
13+3.0441+1.0711+0.1057+0.2 = 17.421

Note that wet line correction in this case is reduced for 0.8D [total wet line correction x
(0.8D+p) /D] = 0.1057

iv. Determination of mean velocity in a vertical: Mean velocity can be calculated

from point readings at current meter positions in the vertical. Current meter
readings are usually in revolutions per time and is converted into velocity units
through current meter equation (e.g. V=a+bN , where N are rev/sec and a and b
are current meter constants given by manufacturers). The number of point
velocities necessary to determine mean velocity in a vertical depends on the
accuracy required. However, the following methods are used are used where
position of current meter at D is referred from water surface:

Ø One-point method; Vmean = V0.6D

V + V0.8 D
Ø Two-point method: Vmean = 0.2 D
2
V0.15 D + V0.5 D + V0.85 D
Ø Three-point method: Vmean =
3

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 Vsurface + 3V0.2 D + 2V0.6 D + 3V0.8 D + Vbed
Ø Five-point method: Vmean =
10
Ø Graphical method: A number of equidistant point velocities are taken on a
vertical, graph of velocity against depth drawn and
AreaenclosedbyV − Dcurve
Vmean =
Totaldepth
Numerical exercise
Using data in Table 1 plot velocity distribution curve along a vertical and use the graph to
answer the following: (i) Estimate mean velocity by 1-point, 2-point, 3-point and 5-point
methods (ii) Calculate the ratio of mean velocity by graphical integration method and
velocity at water surface of water.
Table 1
Depth below Point velocity (m/s)
surface (m)
0.0 2.1
0.2 2.2
0.4 2.25
0.6 2.22
0.8 1.98
1.0 2.0
1.2 1.7
1.4 1.22
1.6 0.56
1.7 0.0 river bed

v. Computation of stream discharges: Now from already computed widths every

panel(b), depths of every vertical(d) and mean velocity for every vertical,
discharge of each panel can be computed using mean section or mid section
methods:
Ø Mean section method: Assumptions are (1) end panels have triangular shapes
(2) mid-panels have trapezoidal shapes (3) mean velocity in a panel is the
average velocity of the means of the bounding verticals.

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 B1 B2 B3

1 D1 D2 D3
V1 2 V2 3 V3

Above sketch is half section of a river showing three panels with measured parameters
indicated on the verticals

Qtotal= Q1+Q2+Q3+. +. Qn

Mean section Q1 = A1V1 where A1= 0.5(B1D1) and V1mean = 0.5(0+V1)

Q2= A2V2 where A2= 0.5(D1+D2).B2 and V2mean=0.5(V1+V2)
Q3= A3V3 where A3= 0.5(D2+D3).B3 and V3mean=0.5(V2+V3)

For mid section method: mid ordinates are introduced in the middle of the panels to
divide the above widths into two equal parts and panels are now redefined as bounded by
new introduced vertical ordinates. The following assumptions are now applied: (1) areas
bounded by constructed mid-ordinates are rectangular areas (2) end areas outside the
extreme ordinates are neglected (3) velocity in each new panel as bounded by newly
constructed ordinates equal to the velocity in mid vertical.
Using above sketch compute Q’total by mid-section method ?

Q’total= Q’1+Q’2+Q’3+. +. Q’n , note that panel geometry has changed

B’1 = 0.5(B1+B2), B’2= 0.5(B2+B3), B’3= 0.5(B3+B4) end areas are neglected
Mid section Q’1 = A’1V’1 where A’1= B’1D1) and V’1mean = V1
Q’2= A’2V’2 where A’2= B’2D2 and V’2mean=V2
Q’3= A’3V’3 where A’3= B’3D3 and V’3mean=V3

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Numerical example
Using the following data compute the river discharge by mid and mean section method.

Distance 2 4 5 8 10 12 14 16 17 18
from
initial
point
(m)
Depth 0 0.3 0.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.2 0
(m)
Mean - 0.1 0.14 0.5 0.16 1.20 0.90 0.92 0.1 -
velocity
m/sec

Answers : Mid section = 10.464m3/s and mean section 9.328 m3/s

Numerical example
Compute the streamflow by mid-section method using data given in Table 2. Assume that
current meter equation is given by V=a+bN where N = Rev/sec
Table 2
Distance from Depth Meter depth Rev Time
Bank (m) (m) (m) (sec)
0.6 0.3 0.18 10 50
1.2 1.07 0.85 22 55
0.21 35 52
1.8 1.58 1.28 28 53
0.30 40 58
2.7 1.92 1.52 32 58
0.40 45 60
3.4 1.34 1.07 28 45
0.27 33 46
4.0 0.67 0.40 22 50
4.6 0.24 0.15 12 49
5.2 0

SOLUTION
i. Calculate point velocities at each location of current meter using given current
meter equation . Note that N must be in Rev/sec
ii. Determine mean velocity in each vertical using 1-point or 2-point after verifying
the position of the current meter.
iii. Sketch the river cross-section, indicating on each vertical values of depth and
mean velocities.
iv. Draw mid-ordinates in every panel bounded by verticals indicated in (iii)
v. Calculate new widths of each panel as newly defined by mid-ordinates, Note that
mean velocities are now at the center of these new panels.

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 vi. Calculate the areas of these new panels by multiplying widths calculated in step
(v) and center depths.
vii. Calculate velocity for each panel by multiplying areas calculated in step (vi) and
mean velocities as centered in step (v).
viii. Sum all discharges in step (vii)

Problem 2 can be repeated using mean section method

vi. Computation of stream discharges using stage-discharge relationship: River stage

is the elevation of the water surface of a stream relative to a datum. By plotting
discharge (Q) against corresponding river stage (H). The shape of the curve is a
function of geometry of the channel and the following relationships can be
established: (1) rating curve (2) rating table (3) rating equation Q=aHb . Rating
curve is taken as an average curve between Q-H curve during rising stage and the
same curve during falling stage. Though rating curve is a normal curve, individual
Q measurements will deviate from values read against a corresponding H due to
the following reasons:
§ Change in roughness in a river
§ Change in channel bed elevation due to scouring or silting
§ Vegetal growth
§ Variation in the backwater either from main stream or tributary
To get correct H-Q relationship it is necessary to check the cross sectional elevation in
relation to TBM and also measure H and Q and compare with Q for same H on the rating
curve. River stage is usually measured using manual staff gages or automatic level
recorders. Staff gauges can be segmental for easy installation. The following are
installation requirements:
§ Zero point of staff should be low enough to measure the lowest possible flow in
the river and the highest segment, high enough to measure maximum river flow.
§ Gauge plates should be mounted on stable anchor and may installed with a
known inclination angle in loose banks and readings later corrected for
verticality.
§ Bench marks should be established in the vicinity to enable periodic level checks.
§ Extreme stages are usually captured by automatic recorder or special manual
methods like flood marks against permanent objects, bottle gauges buried away
from banks or flood sticks coated with soluble paint.
Rating equation constants a and b are established by log-log plot of H-Q or method of
least squares.
Numerical example: Using the stage discharge values given below, establish rating
equation.
H (m) 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.32 1.4 1.56
Q(m3/s) 0.9 4 6.4 7.1 8.3 8.95

SOLUTION
Plot Q vs H on alog –log paper , a is y-intercept and b is the gradient
Or write two equations (1)logQ=log(a) +blogH and (2) multiply equation 1 by logH to
give the form logHlogQ=log(a)logH +b(log H)2 . Substitute each row of data in the two

15
equations and sum the results for equation 1 and 2. Then solve simultaneously for a and
b. Approximate answer Q =4.4H1.7.

vii. Dilution gauging : two approaches are used (1) constant rate injection method or
(2) gulp injection or integration method. See details in separate handout.
Numerical example:
Estimate the river discharge using integration method on the basis of data given
below if 10kg was initially dumped in the stream at 0700hrs. Assume the background
concentration of tracer in the river before gauging exercise was zero.

Time(hrs) 0700 0730 0800 0830 0900 0930 1000 1030 1100 1130
Concentration at the 0 0 2.5 6.5 12.5 8.5 7.5 2.5 1.0 0
Downstream stn mg/l

Time(hrs) 1200 1230 1300 1330

Concentration at the 0 0 0 0
Downstream stn mg/l

SOLUTION
VC 1 = Q ∫ (c 2 − c 0 )dt in this case Vc=0 and Vc1 =10kg, ∫ c 2 dt ≈ ∑ c∆t in this case ∆t
t2

t1
=0.5h, ∑c = 41mg/l.

10kg
Q= kg/m3. sec = 135.5 x10-3 m3/s
41 1
1000x 6 x x60 x60
10 2

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