Space Flight Dynamics

Dr. Matteo Ceriotti

Worked Examples

Exercise 1. Elliptical orbits

An Earth-orbiting spacecraft is in orbit with a perigee altitude of hp = 400 km and an
eccentricity of 0.6. Find:
a) The apogee radius;
b) The semi-major axis;
c) The perigee velocity;
d) The apogee velocity;
e) The orbital period;
f) The true anomaly when r = r = 13,560 km ;
g) The velocity when r = r ;
h) The flight path angle when r = r ;
i) The maximum flight path angle and the true anomaly at which it occurs.

Solution
 = 3.986e5 km 3 /s 2
RE = 6378 km
e = 0.6
hp = 400 km
a)
rp = RE + hp
1+ e
ra = rp = 27112 km
1− e
b)
ra + rp
a= = 16945 km
2
c)
2 
vp = − = 9.7 km / s
rp a
d)
2 
va = − = 2.425 km / s
ra a
e)
a3
T = 2 = 2.1952e4 s = 6.0978 h

f)
r = 13560 km
 a (1 − e 2 ) − r 
 = arccos   = 109.4951
 re 
 
But also this symmetric solution is acceptable:
2 = 360 −  = 250.5049
g)
2 
v= − = 5.9386 km / s
r a
h)
 e sin  
 = arctan   = 35.2684
 1 + e cos  
Or also:
 e sin  2 
 2 = arctan   = − = −35.2684
 1 + e cos  2 
i)
 e sin  
 = arctan   gives the flight path angle in terms of the true anomaly. To find
 1 + e cos  
where
 is maximum we must take the derivative with respect to  of this expression and equate
the result to zero:
d e ( e + cos  )
= 2 2 =0
d e sin  + (1 + e cos  )2
This equation is satisfied for cos  = −e . Recall this is the true anomaly that locates the end
point of the minor axis of the ellipse. Therefore the maximum flight path angle occurs at the
true anomaly  * = 126.8699 . Substituting this value back and solving for  yields:
 * = 36.8699

Exercise 2. Circular orbits

Calculate the altitude h and velocity v of a geostationary spacecraft.

Solution
A geostationary spacecraft has an orbital period of 23 hours, 56 minutes [think why]:
2
r3  T 
T = 2 →r =  3
 = 42,163 km
  2 
h = r − RE = 35,785 km

v= = 3.0747 km / s
r

Exercise 3. Parabolic orbits

The pericentre of an Earth parabolic orbit is 7000 km. As the spacecraft moves, it passes
through points P1 and P2, which are respectively at r1 = 8000 km and r2 = 16000 km from the
centre of the Earth. Find the distance d between P1 and P2.
Solution

rp = 7000 km
By evaluating the polar orbit equation in dynamical terms at the pericentre (  = 0 ), we find
the angular momentum:
h2 
r= → h = 2 rp = 74,702 km 2 / s
1 + cos 
We now evaluate the true anomalies at P1 and P2, using the orbit equation:
h2  h 2  − r1
r1 = → 1 = arccos = 41.4096
1 + cos 1 r1
h2  h 2  − r2
r2 = →  2 = arccos = 97.1808
1 + cos  2 r2
To find the length d we must use the trigonometric law of cosines:
d = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (1 − 2 ) = 13,266 km

Exercise 4. Hyperbolic orbits

At a given point on a geocentric orbit the orbital radius is 14600 km, the speed is 8.6 km/s and the
flight path angle is 50°. Show that the orbit is hyperbolic and calculate:
a) Semi-major axis;
b) The characteristic energy C3;
c) Angular momentum;
d) True anomaly at that point;
e) Eccentricity;
f) Pericentre radius;
g) Deflection angle;
h) Aiming distance.

Solution
To show that the orbit is hyperbolic we can compute the energy:
v2 
 = − = 9.6786 km2 / s 2
2 r
And since it is positive, we can say the orbit is hyperbolic.
Another method would be to compute the minimum escape velocity at the radius r:
2
vesc = = 7.3894 km / s
r
This velocity is smaller than that of the spacecraft, so it is on an escape orbit (hyperbola).
a)
 
 =− →a=− = −20,592 km
2a 2
b)

vinf = −
a
C3 = v 2
inf = 19.3573 km2 / s 2
c)
v = v cos 
h = rv = 80,708 km2 / s
d)
 vr h
vr = e sin  → e sin  =
h 
h 2
h2 −  r
r= → e cos  =
1 + e cos  r
Dividing side by side:
v hr
tan  = 2 r →  = 84.8893
h − r
e)
 vh
vr = e sin  → e = r = 1.3393
h  sin 
f)
rp = a (1 − e ) = 6985.9 km
g)
1   1
= sin   →  = 2 arcsin   = 96.6077
e 2 e
h)
2
 = 4 ( e 2 − 1) = 18,344 km
vinf
Exercise 5. Kepler’s time equation
A spacecraft is injected into a 410 x 530 km Earth orbit at pericentre. Calculate the altitude
and speed of the vehicle after 30 minutes.

Solution
rp = hp + RE = 6788 km
ra = ha + RE = 6908 km
ra − rp
e= = 0.0088
ra + rp
ra + rp
a= = 6848.2 km
2

M= t = 2.0054 rad
a3
E ( ) = M = 2.0054 rad
0

Let assume a tolerance for the Newton-Raphson method of 10-10:

M − E ( ) + e sin E ( )
0 0
E ( ) = = 0.0079 rad
0

1 − e cos E ( )
0

E ( ) = E ( ) + E ( ) = 2.0132... rad
1 0 0

M − E ( ) + e sin E ( )
1 1
(1)
E = = −2.479e − 7 rad
1 − e cos E ( )
1

E ( ) = E ( ) + E ( ) = 2.0132... rad
2 1 1

M − E ( ) + e sin E ( )
2 2
( 2)
E = = −6e − 17 rad
1 − e cos E ( )
2

E ( ) = E ( ) + E ( ) = 2.0133... rad
3 2 2

Since the last error is of the order 10-10, we stop, and take E = E (3) .
E 1− e   1+ e E
tan = tan →  = 2arctan  tan  = 115.8060
2 1+ e 2  1− e 2

r=
(
a 1 − e2 )
= 6873.7 km
1 + e cos 

h = r − RE = 495.6918 km
2 
vp = − = 7.6008 km / s
rp a
Exercise 6. Escape manoeuvre
Calculate the propellant mass required to boost a 3000 kg vehicle to escape from a 300 km
altitude circular orbit. Assume the propulsion system has Isp = 400 s.

Solution

vesc = ( 2 −1) r
= 3.2 km / s

 v
− esc 
= m1 1 − e  = 1672.8 kg
g0 I sp
m prop
 
 

Exercise 7. Hohmann transfer

Calculate the propellant mass required to inject a 3000 kg communications satellite from a
300 km altitude circular orbit into a geostationary orbit. Assume Isp = 400 s. Note: 3000 kg is
the final value of the spacecraft mass, after the transfer, that needs to be injected into GEO.

Solution
r1 + r2
at = = 24,421 km
2
2 2 
v1 = − − = 2.4258 km / s
r1 ( r1 + r2 ) r1
 2 2
v2 = − − = 1.4668 km / s
r2 r2 ( r1 + r2 )
v = v1 + v2 = v1 + v2 = 3.8926 km / s
Note that the formula for the propellant mass needs to be inverted, as in this case the final
mass is given:
 gIv 
m prop = m2  e 0 sp − 1 = 5089.9 kg
 
 

Exercise 8. Phasing manoeuvre

Spacecraft A and B are moving along the same orbit (0) with an apocentre radius of
13600 km and a pericentre radius of 6800 km. Spacecraft A executes a phasing manoeuvre,
along orbit 1, to rendezvous with spacecraft B back at the pericentre after one orbital period.
Determine the total Dv for the phasing manoeuvre.
Solution
ra − rp
e= = 0.333
ra + rp
ra + rp
a= = 10, 200 km
2
2 
vp = − = 8.8406 km / s
rp a
a3
T = 2 = 10, 252 s

The phasing orbit (1) must have a period T1 equal to the time it takes spacecraft B to
reach the pericentre of orbit 0 so T1 = T − t AB . We can find the eccentric anomaly
of spacecraft B corresponding to a true anomaly B of 90 deg:
E 1− e   1− e  
tan B = tan B → EB = 2arctan  tan B  = 1.231 rad
2 1+ e 2  1+ e 2
 a3
t AB = EB − e sin EB → t AB = ( EB − e sin EB ) = 1495.7 s
a3 
T1 = T − t AB = 8756.3 s
2
 T 
a1 = 3    = 9182.1 km
 2 
ra1 = 2a1 − rp = 11,564 km
2 
v p1 = − = 8.5921 km / s
rp a1
The total Dv is the sum of the two equal impulses necessary to inject to the phasing orbit, and
then to come back to the nominal orbit.
v = 2 v p1 − v p = 0.497 km / s

Exercise 9. Low-thrust transfer

Compare a Hohmann trajectory with a low thrust spiral trajectory to transfer a 6000 kg
spacecraft from a 300 km altitude orbit to a geostationary orbit. For the impulsive transfer
assume Isp = 450 s. For the low thrust transfer assume Isp = 3000 s and an acceleration aT =
0.001 m/s2.

Solution
For the Hohmann transfer:
r +r
at = 1 2 = 24421 km
2
2 2 
v1 = − − = 2.4258 km / s
r1 ( r1 + r2 ) r1
  2 2
v2 = − − = 1.4668 km / s
r2 r2 ( r1 + r2 )
v = v1 + v2 = v1 + v2 = 3.8926
T a3
ToF = = = 18,990 s = 5.275 hrs
2 
vesc
−
m2 = m1e = 2484.3 kg
g0 I sp

For the low thrust:


v1 = = 7.7258 km / s
r1

v2 = = 3.0747 km / s
r2
v = v1 − v2 = v1 − v2 = 4.6512 km / s
When using the acceleration aT, units must be converted accordingly:
v
ToF = = 4.6512e6 s = 53.833 days
aT
vesc
−
m2 = m1e = 5122.9 kg
g0 I sp

We can see that in the case of a low thrust spiral there is a gain in final mass of 2.6 tonnes but
this is achieved at the expense of a very long transfer time.
Exercise 10. Sun-synchronous orbit
Calculate the orbital inclination required to place an Earth spacecraft in a 1000 x 1500 km
Sun-synchronous orbit.

Solution
J 2 = 0.00108263
rp + ra
a= = 7628 km
2
ra − rp
e= = 0.0328
ra + rp

n= = 0.00094766 rad / s
a3
The requirement for a sun-synchronous orbit is that the rate of regression of the line of the
nodes is the same as the angular rate of the Sun around the Earth, such that the spacecraft
observes the Earth under the same angle with respect to the Sun, and thus also the same
lighting conditions.
So we impose:
2 rad
= = 1.991 10−7 rad / s
365.25  86400 s
This is equivalent to 0.9856 deg/day.
We can now solve the equation of  for i:
 
 
  
i = arccos  2  = 100.6413
− 3 nJ 2 RE 
( )
 2 a 2 1 − e2 
2

 