*Noodles’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

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 Glossary
Abide: Accept or act in accordance with (a Assess: Evaluate or estimate the nature,
rule, decision, or recommendation) ability, or quality of
Abode: A home or permanent place to live Assurance: A promise; confidence
Abundance: The situation in which there is Auspiciousness: Suggesting a positive and
more than enough of something successful future
Accumulate: To collect a large number of Authority: An organisation or person with
things over a long period of time power or control, especially in governance
Acrobats: A person who performs difficult Automated: Carried out by machines or
movements of the body, especially in a circus computers without needing human control
Advancement The development or Automotive: Relating to road vehicles
improvement of something Avenge: To harm or to punish the person
Advent The fact of an event happening, an responsible for doing something bad to
invention being made, or a person arriving you, your family, or friends, to achieve a fair
Aggression: Feelings of anger or antipathy situation
AGMARK: Stands for Agricultural Marketing, Bargain: Discussions between people in order
and it is a certification mark used in India to to reach an agreement on something such as
ensure the quality of agricultural products prices, wages, working conditions, etc.
Alliance: A group of countries, political Barren: Unable to produce plants or fruit
parties, or people who have agreed to work Barrier: Something that blocks the way or
together because of shared interests or aims makes movement or progress difficult.
Alpine: Relating to high mountains Battalion: A large body of soldiers or troops
Amass : To get a large amount of something, ready for battle
especially money or information, by collecting BEE: Bureau of Energy Efficiency
it over a long period Benevolent: Kind and helpful
Amendment: A change or changes made to BIS: Bureau of India Standards
the words of a text Botanical: Involving or relating to plants or
Arbitrary: Not seeming to be based on any the study of plants
reason or plan, and sometimes seeming Bulk: The mass or size of something large
unfair
Bustling: If a place is bustling, it is full of busy
Arduous: Difficult, needing a lot of effort and activity
energy
Carve: To make something by cutting into a
Artisans: Someone who does skilled work hard material, especially wood or stone, or to
with their hands cutinto a hard material to make something
Ascetics: Avoiding physical pleasures and Casket: A decorative box, especially one used
living a simple life, often for spiritual reasons to keep jewellery; also used in some traditions
Asphalt A black, sticky substance, often for burying someone who has passed away
mixed with small stones or sand, which forms Certification: The process of earning an
a strong surface when it dries official document, or the act of providing an
Aspiration: Something that you hope to official document, as proof that something
achieve has happened or been done

276
Chilly: Uncomfortably or unpleasantly cold Crucial: Extremely important or necessary
Churn: To move, or to make water, mud, etc. Crumpled: Crushed or wrinkled into a messy
move around violently or uneven shape.
Clans: A group of people who are together Debased: Worse than before, especially
through family ties morally; less valuable or deserving of less
Classical Age: A period in history marked by respect than before
great cultural, artistic, scientific, and political Debris: Broken or torn pieces left from the
achievements that set lasting standards destruction of something larger
Commemorate: Recall and show respect for Decades: A period of ten years, especially a
(someone or something) period such as 2011 to 2020
Commodity: A substance or product that can Defend: Resist an attack made on (someone
be traded, bought, or sold or something); protect from harmor danger
Compensate: To pay someone money in Defer: To postpone or delay something to a
exchange for something that has been lostor later time
damaged, or for some problem
Degenerate: Having lost the physical, mental,
Comprehensive: Including or dealing with all or moral qualities considered normal and
or nearly all elements or aspects of something desirable; showing evidence of decline
Confer: Have discussions or exchange
Descendant: A person who is related to you
opinions; another usage is to grant someone and who lives after you, such as your child or
something (like conferring the Padma award)
grandchild
Confluence: The place where two rivers flow
Deter: To stop someone from doing
together and become one larger river
something by making them afraid of the
Congregate: To come together in a crowd or consequences.
group
Devastate: To destroy a place or thing
Conquest The act of conquering a country, completely or cause great damage
area, or situation
Devout: Believing strongly in a religion and
Consumers: A person who purchases goods
obeying all its rules or principles
and services for personal use
Diplomatic: Managing situations among
Contemporary: Belonging to or occurring in
people without upsetting anyone;
the present
usually involving the management of the
Context The situation within which relationships between countries
something exists or happens, or which can
Disaster: (An event that results in) great
help explain it
harm, damage, or death, or serious difficulty
Convenient: Suitable for your purposes and
Disc: Aflat, round object or shape, like a coin
needs, and causing the least difficulty
oraCD
Corrosion: The gradual destruction of
Dishonour: A feeling of embarrassment and
a material, usually a metal, caused by a
loss of people's respect, or a situation in which
chemical reaction with its environment, like
you experience this
air or water, leading to deterioration
Disintegrate: To break into many small pieces
Council: A group of people who come
together to consult, deliberate, or make Dispute: A disagreement or argument
decisions. Distinct: Clearly noticeable; that which
Creep: To move slowly, quietly, and carefully, certainly exists
usually to avoid being noticed

277
Drawbridge: A bridge over a moat that can be Excavate: To dig up or uncover something
raised or brought down in order to protect a from the ground, often during archaeological
castle from attackor to allow big boats to go studies
under it Excerpt: A short section taken from a speech,
Drugs: Any natural or artificially made book, film, etc.
chemical that is used as a medicine Exploit: To use someone or something
Dynasty: A dynasty is a family of rulers unfairly for your own advantage
who lead a country or region for many Exquisite: Very beautiful and delicate
generations. Power is usually passed from Facilitate: To make a process easier or
parents to their children. smoother
Ecology: A subject that studies living things Feast A special meal with delicious food or a
and their relationship with the environment large meal for many people
Efficiency: The quality of achieving the largest Feat Something difficult needing a lot of skill,
amount of useful work using the least amount strength, courage, etc. to achieve it
of energy, fuel, effort, etc.
Fierce: Physically violent and frightening
Emanates: To originate from
Flattery: Excessive and insincere praise, given
Embankment: An artificial slope made of especially to further one's own interests
earth and/or stones
Flourish: To grow or develop successfully
Embossed: A raised or carved design on a
Foreign accounts: Written records of the
surface, often found on coins or banknotes
experience of foreigners in a country
Emerge: To appear by coming out of
Forge: Make or shape (a metal object) by
something or out from behind something
heating it in a fire or furnace and hammering
Enable: To make someone able to do it; can also mean creating something strong
something, or to make something possible or long-lasting
Encounter: To come across or experience Fortify: To make a place stronger and ready
something, often unexpectedly for an attack
Encroach: To use more of something (that Foster: To encourage the development or
does not belong to you) than you should, for growth of something
example land
Fragmented: Consisting of several separate
Enormous: Extremely large parts
Entail: Involve (something) as a necessary or Franchise: An authorisation granted by a
inevitable part or consequence government or company to an individual or
Epigraph: A saying or a part of a poem, play, group, allowing them to carry out specified
or book put at the beginning of a piece of commercial activities
writing or a film, to give the reader some idea Frigid: Extremely cold (usually related to
of what the piece is about weather conditions)
Ether: The clear sky; the upper regions of air Frontier: The line where one country joins
beyond the clouds another; the border
Evacuate: To move people from a dangerous Frost: The thin, white layer of ice that forms
place to somewhere safe when the air temperature is below the
Eventuality: Something unpleasant or freezing point of water, especially outside at
unexpected that might happen or exist in the night
future FSSAL Food Safety & Standards Authority of
Evolve: To gradually develop or change over India
time into something more advanced

278
Funnel: An object that has a wide, round Incompetent: Lacking the necessary skill to
opening at the top, sloping sides, and a do something well
narrow tube at the bottom; used for pouring Incur: To experience something, usually
liquids or powders into containers with something unpleasant, as a result of actions
narrow necks you have taken
Gateway: An entrance through a wall, fence, Inflation: A general rise in prices
etc., where there is a gate Ingenious: Very clever and original, especially
Gauge: To calculate an amount, especially by at solving problems or creating things.
using a measuring device Inland: In the middle of a country, away from
Gewgaws: A small decorative object or toy, the sea
usually one with no real value Inscribe: Write or carve (words or symbols)
Glacial: Made or left by a glacier (a mass of on something, especially as a formal or
ice in cold mountainous regions) permanent record
Granary: A large building for storing grain Insist Demand something forcefully, not
Gregorian Calendar: The system now used in accepting refusal
most parts of the world to divide the 365 days Instance: A particular situation, event, or
of the year into weeks and months, and to fact, especially an example of something that
number the years happens generally
Groves: A small group of trees, especially of Intangible: Something that cannot be
one particular type physically touched, such as digital money or
Handicraft: A skilled activity in which feelings
something is made in a traditional way with Intervention: Intentional action to change
the hands rather than being produced by a situation, with the aim of improving itor
machines in a factory, or an object created by preventing it from getting worse
such an activity Interweave: Weave or become woven
Heliodorus: The name of an Indo-Greek together
ambassador who erected a pillar near Vidisha, Intricate: Having a lot of small parts that are
indicating cultural exchange arranged in a complicated or delicate way
Helium: A type of gas that is lighter than air, Invoke: Call upon (a deity or spirit) in prayer,
and does not react with other substances as a witness, or for inspiration
easily; it will not burn and is used in balloons
IST Indian Standards Institution
and airships
Kin: A group of persons of common ancestry
Hereditary: Passing from a parent to a child
Legend: A key or guide on a map that
through the genes
explains the symbols, colors, or markings
Heritage: Property that is or may be
used; another meaning - a story about a
inherited; an inheritance
famous person or place
Holistic: Dealing with or treating the whole of
License: An official document that gives you
something or someone and not just a part
permission to own, do, or use something,
Hub: The central or main part of something usually after you have paid money and/or
where there is most activity taken a test
Illustrate: To draw pictures for a book, Livid: Extremely angry
magazine, etc.
Logo: A design or symbol used to advertise
Incidental: Happening as part of something products
more important

279
Longevity: The ability of something to last a Monitors: The job of watching or noticing
long time without breaking or being damaged particular things
Long-lasting: Continuing for a long period of Motif: A decorative image or design,
time especially one that is repeated or has
Lush: A lush area has a lot of green, healthy symbolic meaning
plants, grass, and trees Mutual: Feeling the same emotion, or doing
Magnificent: Very good, beautiful, or the same thing to or for each other
deserving to be admired Negotiation: The process of discussing
Majestic: Having or showing impressive something with someone in order to reach
beauty or scale an agreement with them, or the discussions
Mdnasrdva: Compensation for reduction in themselves
the quantity due to overflow or sticking to the Noble: Moral in an honest, brave, and kind
measuring can as per the Arthashatra way
Marching: Walk with a military bearing and a Norms: A usual or expected way of behaving
regular, measured tread in a society, group, or situation
Maritime: Related to the sea, ships, or sailing Oath: A solemn promise, often invoking a
Massacre: An act of killing a lot of people divine witness, regarding one's future action
or behaviour
Matrimonial alliances: A matrimonial
alliance is a strategic marriage between Oblique: Having a sloping direction, angle, or
members of royal families to strengthen position
political ties, secure peace, expand influence, Obverse: The front side of a coin or medal,
or form military and economic partnerships usually bearing the main design
between different rulers or states. Occurrence: The fact of something existing,
Metallic: Made of or resembling metal or how much of it exists
Meteorologists: Someone who studies Onset The moment at which something
meteorology (the scientific study of the begins, and especially something
processes that cause particular weather uncomfortable or unpleasant
conditions) Opponent: Someone who competes with
Mighty: Very large, powerful, or important or opposes another in a contest, game, or
Milder: Not violent, severe, or extreme argument

Millennia: A period of 1,000 years, or the time Oppress: To govern people in an unfair and
when a period of 1,000 years ends cruel way and prevent them from having
opportunities and freedom
Miniature: A thing that is much smaller than
usual, especially a small replica or model Outposts: Distant settlements or military
stations away from the main area.
Moat: A long, wide drain-like structure that
is dug all around a place, such as a fort, and Outsource: Obtain (goods or a service) by
usually filled with water, to make it more contract from an outside supplier
difficult to attack Overlord: A person in a position of power,
Mobilise: To organise people or things for a especially in the context of the past
specific purpose Oversee: To watch or organise a job or an
Monasteries: Buildings, mostly Buddhist, activity to make sure that it is being done
where monks live, meditate, and follow correctly
religious practices. Packaged: Something sold in a pre-prepared
container, usually made of paper or cardboard

280
Parade: A public procession, especially one Predict: To say that an event or action will
celebrating a special day or event happen in the future, especially as a result of
Paradox: Sound contradictory knowledge or experience
Participant A person who takes partin Preserve: Maintain (something) in its original
something or existing state
Partridges: A kind of bird with a round body Privileged: Having or showing a special
and a short tail advantage
Pasture: A field or land covered with grass, Proceedings: An event or a series of activities
where cows, etc. can feed involving a set procedure
Patriotism: Devotion to and vigorous support Procure: Obtain something with care and
for one's country effort
Patron: A person who gives financial or other Produce: To make something or bring
support to a person, organisation, or cause something into existence
Patronising: Patronising means supporting Profound: Very great; that you feel very
or sponsoring someone or something, often strongly
with a sense of authority or superiority. When Provision: The act of providing something
kings used to patronise someone, it meant Proximity: The state of being near in space or
they provided support, protection, or funding time
for activities like religion, art, literature, or Quails: A small, brown bird
trade.
Ramparts: A large wall built around a town,
Perceive: To come to an opinion about castle, etc. to protect it
something, or have a belief about something
Recapitulate: To repeat or give a summary of
Perilous: Full of danger or risk what has already been said, decided, etc.
Perpendicular: At an angle of 90° to a Recycle: Convert used items for reuse, often
horizontal line or surface to reduce waste
Pharmaceutical: Relating to the production Reduction: The act of making something,
of medicines or of something becoming, smaller in size,
Phenomenon: Something that exists and can amount, degree, importance, etc.
be seen, felt, tasted, etc., especially something Regulatory: Of or relating to a person or
unusual or interesting organisation whose job is to control an activity
Picturesque: Visually attractive, especially in a or process, or to the regulations themselves
charming or scenic way. Rejuvenescence: A renewal of youthfulness
Postulate: To suggest a theory, idea, etc., as Relics: An object, tradition, or system from
a basic principle from which a further idea is the past that continues to exist; usually to
formed or developed refer to the remains of a renowned thinker or
Power: The ability or authority to make spiritual leader like the Buddha
decisions, control resources, or influence Repression: The use of force or violence to
others control a group of people
Preamble: An introduction to a speech or Republic: A country that has an elected
piece of writing government and an elected leader; a form
Precipitation: Water that falls from the clouds of government in which a state is ruled by
towards the ground, especially as rain or snow representatives of the citizen body
Repurpose: To use something in a new or
differentway than its original purpose

281
Reputation: The opinion that people in Schist: A type of rock that breaks easily into
general have about someone or something, thin layers, formed of mica or other minerals
or how much respect or admiration someone Scour: To search thoroughly and carefully.
or something receives, based on past Self-Restraint Control of your own actions
behaviour or character
Shaft A pole or a rod that forms the handle of
Rescue: To help someone or something out of a tool or weapon
adangerous, harmful, or unpleasant situation
Sheer: Used to emphasise how great,
Resent To feel angry because you have been important, or powerful a quality or feeling is;
forced to accept someone or something that nothing except
you do not like
Siege: The surrounding of a place by
Resources: Useful sources of money and an armed force in order to defeat those
materials that help to make life better defending it
Retreat: To go away from a place or person in Silk Route: The Silk Road was an ancient
order to escape from fighting or danger network of trade routes that connected Asia,
Revere: To very much respect and admire Europe, and Africa. It got its name because
someone or something ‘silk —a valuable and luxurious fabric from
Reverse: The back side (or tail side) of a coin China—was one of the main goods traded
or medal, opposite to the obverse along these routes. The route played a major
Righteousness: The quality of being morally role in connecting different parts of the world.
right or justifiable Slave: A person who is legally owned by
Rightful: A rightful position or claim that is someone else and has to work for that person
morally or legally correct Smith: A person who works with metals; eg.
Ritual: A way of doing something in which the ironsmith, goldsmith
same actions are done in the same way every Societal: Relating to or involving society
time Solemn: Serious and without any humour
Rock-Cut Architecture: Rock-cut architecture Spare: Extra or more than what is needed at
is when temples or other structures are made the moment
by carving or cutting into solid rock. Instead Spells: Periods or short durations of time
of building with bricks or stones, artists shape
Splendour: Great beauty that attracts
the rock itself to create things like caves,
admiration and attention
walls, or sculptures. It is like creating a temple
Storey: Part of a building comprising all the
or artwork directly from a mountain or a large
rooms that are on the same level.
rock!
Strain: Worry or pressure caused by having
Rugged: Rough and uneven, often used to
too much to deal with
describe land that is full of rocks and hills.
Sturdy: Physically strong and solid or thick,
Sacred: That which evokes a sense of a divine
and therefore unlikely to break or be hurt
presence
Substitute: A person or thing acting in place
Sanctity: The state or quality of being holy,
of another
sacred, or saintly
Swap: To give something and receive
Satraps: Someone who governed a province
something else in return
(= political area) in ancient Persia
Tailoring: Making (clothes) to fit individual
Schedules: An appendix to a formal
customers
document or statute, typically in the form of a
list, table, or inventory Tangible: Something that can be touched or
physically felt

282

10
Tarmac: A black material used for building Uninterrupted: Without any pauses or
roads, etc., here refers to the paved surfaces interruptions
at an airport where aircraft operate Venture: A project that is new and possibly
Testament: Proof dangerous, because you cannot be sure that it
Tournament: (In a sport or game) a series will succeed
of contests between multiple competitors, Vibrancy: The quality of being energetic,
competing for an overall prize exciting, and full of enthusiasm
Tragic: Very sad, often involving death and Vibrant: Full of energy and life
suffering Vital: Necessary for the success or continued
Transact To do and complete a business existence of something; extremely important
activity Ward: A person, especially a child, who is
Transform: To completely change the legally put under the protection of a court of
appearance or character of something or law or a guardian
someone, especially so that that thing or Ware: Goods offered for sale
person is improved Weather: The conditions in the air above the
Transition: A change from one form or type Earth, such as wind, rain, or temperature,
to another, or the process by which this especially at a particular time over a specific
happens area
Transmit: To send or pass something from Weaving: The act of making cloth by
one person or place to another repeatedly crossing a single thread through
Travelogue: A film, book, or illustrated lecture two sets of long threads on a loom (= special
about the places visited by or experiences of a frame)
traveller Welfare: The health, happiness, and fortunes
Tributary: A river or stream that flows into a of a person or group
larger river or a lake Whisk: A fan made of plants, horse, yak or
Tribute: Wealth, of any kind, given as a sign of other hair, attached to a handle to ward away
submission, loyalty or respect flies (is also used in rituals);to take something
Troposphere: The lowest region of the or someone somewhere else suddenly and
atmosphere, extending from the Earth's quickly
surface to a height of about 6-10 km Word of mouth: Given or done by people
Turmoil: A state of confusion, uncertainty, or talking about something or telling people
disorder about something
Unfurl: Spread out from a rolled or folded
state, especially to be open to the wind

1"
 Images and maps from external sources
NCERT thanks the following organisations and individuals for
permission to use their images:

1. Organisations and individuals

Fig. 1.2 Source: NASA [Link]
1SS053-E-317703 jpeg
[Link] [Link]/images/imagerecords/147000/147980/
[Link]
Fig. 1.3 Source: [Link]
source_of_Ganga.jpg
[Link]
Fig. 1.5 Source: [Link]
Rock_Layers_at_Kali_Gandaki_in_Nepal_2014.jpg
Fig. 1.6 Source: [Link]
style_home,_Manali,_2004.jpg
Fig. 1.7.1 Source: [Link]
File:Great_Himalayan_National_Park,_Kullu,_Himachal jpg
Fig. 1.7.3 Source: [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 1.7.5 Source: [Link]
Fig. 1.16 Source: [Link]
Fig. 1.19 Source: Courtesy: Attribute the author: By Charles ). Sharp - Own work, from Sharp
Photography, [Link], CC BY-SA 4.0,
[Link] php?curid=65657798
Fig. 1.20 Source: [Link]
courtship_display_at_Pench_national_park_%28April%2C_2024%29_10.jpg
Fig. 1.24 Rainwater harvesting structure ina hamlet.
[Link] File:Rainwater_harvesting_tank,_India.jpg
Fig. 1.25 Source: [Link]
oli_2016357_Irg.jpg
[Link]
Fig. 1.29 Source: By N. A. Naseer / [Link] / naseerart@[Link], CC BY-SA 2.5 in,
<[Link]
Fig. 1.30 Source: <[Link]
Fig. 1.31 Source: [Link]
rg
Fig. 1.32 Source: [Link]
Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg
Fig. 1.35 Source: [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 1.36 & Fig. 1.37 Source: [Link]
[Link]

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Fig. 1.38 Source: [Link]
Dock_Navy-2_%28FDN-2%29_into_the_Indian_Navy_%284%[Link]
Fig. 1.39 Source: [Link]
_Island,_
Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands,_India%E2%80%[Link]
Fig. 1.41 Source: Seven Sisters Waterfalls, Meghalaya, India
[Link]
Mawsmai_Cherrapunjee_513JPG
The Shad Suk Mynsiem festival is celebrated by the Khasi people as a form of gratitude towards
Nature- [Link]
Fig. 2.5. Logo of India Meteorological Department-[Link]
Meteorological_Department#/media/File:India_Meteorological_Department_(logo).png
Fig. 2.11 [Link]
Fig. 2.12 [Link]
ig. 2.9 Bottom leftimage: [Link]
File:Alsomitra_macrocarpa_seed_(syn._Zanonia_macrocarpa).jpg
Fig. 3.8 Aravallis [Link]
Fig. 3.8 Urban heat islands, [Link]
Phase_3,_Gurugram.jpg
Fig. 3.11 Lohri-[Link]
%E0%AB%BI% EQ
%A9%9C%E0%AI%80_Lohrijpg
Pongal-[Link] jpg
Onam-[Link]
Wangla- [Link]
Fig. 3.12 National Disaster Response Force logo- [Link]
Response_Force#/media/File:National_Disaster_Response_Force_Logo.png
Fig. 3.13 Cyclone Fani - [Link]
Fig. 3.15 Forest Fire, courtesy-Brijesh
Joshi
Flood in Assam- [Link]
Fig. 4.1 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 4.3 Courtesy Haritha Kadapa
Fig. 4.4 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 4.5 Courtesy Archaeological Survey of India
Fig. 4.6 Image of hoard of coins, Source: [Link]
media/File:Hoard_of_mostly_Mauryan_coins jpg ; Image of bent bar coins, Source: https://
[Link]/wiki/File:AR_%E2%80%9CBent_Bar%E2%80%9D_Satamanas._All_coins_
Taxila._Circa_500-300_BC.jpg ;
Image of Gandhara bent bar coin, Source: [Link]
media/File:Gandhara_bent_barjpg
Fig. 4.7 Courtesy Archaeological Survey of India
Fig. 4.9 Courtesy Prof. K. Rajan
Fig. 5.6 Source: [Link]
Relics_(33813012975).jpg Attribution- Dharma
Fig. 5.7 [Link]
Fig. 5.8 Courtesy Shweta Rao
Fig. 5.11 [Link]

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Fig. 5.14 [Link] Ministry of
Culture
Fig. 5.16 [Link]
stupa_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_gateway.jpg
Fig. 5.18 Rock edict at Girnar, [Link]
Topra Ashokan pillar edict, Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 5.19 [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 5.20 [Link]
Fig. 5.21 Courtesy Bihar Museum
Fig. 5.22 [Link] 25wkD-Qcw?childassetid=nwHQVIDQ4AL-
Tg
Fig. 5.23 Courtesy Bihar Museum
Fig. 5.24 [Link]
Period,_National_Museum,_New_Delhi.jpg
Fig. 5.25 Courtesy National Museum
Fig. 5.26 [Link]
Fig. 5.27 [Link]
Fig. 5.28 [Link]
Fig. 5.29.1 [Link]
Mauryan_coins.jpg
Fig. 5.29.2 [Link]
Punch-marked_Coin.jpg
Fig. 6.1.1 Collage
1. [Link]
Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg
2. [Link]
1897-b08776
3. [Link]
4. [Link] Ministry of Culture
Fig. 6.1.2 [Link]
Fig. 6.4 [Link]
ashwamedha-yajna-national-museum-delhi’/AAVRBNGG2R9ZxA?hl=en
Fig. 6.5.1 [Link]
Fig. 6.5.2 [Link] jpg
Fig. 6.5.3 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 6.5.4 [Link] jpg
Fig. 6.6.1 [Link]
Fig. 6.6.2 [Link]
Period_-_Male_Figure_-_1992.116_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif
Fig. 6.6.3 [Link]
Fig. 6.6.4 [Link]
figure_holding_a_fan,_Kausambi,_200_BCE.jpg
Fig. 6.6.5 [Link]
ipg
Fig. 6.6.6 [Link]
terracotta,_200-250_BCE.jpg

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Fig. 6.6.7 [Link]
Bengal_1st_century_BCE.jpg
Fig. 6.6.8 [Link]
Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif
Fig. 6.6.9 [Link]
Chandraketugarh_-_Comb_-_2000.74_-_Cleveland_Museum_of [Link]
Fig. 6.6.10 [Link]
forma_di_pesce,_e_due_a_forma_di_triratna,_185-72_ac_ca.jpg
Fig. 6.7 [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 6.8 [Link]
of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi jpg
Fig. 6.9 [Link]
File:Naneghat_caves.jpg
Fig. 6.10 [Link] Gautamiputra_Satakarni#/media/File:Coinage_of_
Gautamiputra_Satakarni_with_Brahmi_legend.jpg
Fig. 6.11 [Link]
Fig. 6.12 [Link] Ministry of Culture
Fig. 6.13.1 [Link]
and_Udaygiri_featured_image.jpg
Fig. 6.13.2 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 6.13.3 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 6.15 [Link]
Fig. 6.17 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 6.18 [Link] Ministry of
Culture
Fig. 6.19 [Link]
ipg
Fig. 6.20 [Link]
From_Tavatimsa.jpg
Fig. 6.21 [Link] Data/2024/[Link] Gazette of India
Fig. 6.22 [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 6.23 [Link]
Fig. 6.24 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 6.26 [Link]
Fig. 7.3 Courtesy Bhawna Paliwal [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 7.4 - [Link]
Circa_320-335_or_335-380_AD.jpg
Fig. 7.5 [Link]
inscription_of_Samudragupta.jpg
Fig. 7.6 [Link]
Lyrist_type.jpg
Fig. 7.7 [Link]
Ashvameda_type.jpg
Fig. 7.9 [Link]
php?search=Kevala+Narasimha+temple&title=Special:MediaSearch&type=image

287

15
Fig. 7.11 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 7.12 [Link]
war_(cropped).jpg
Fig. 7.15.1 [Link] Ministry of
culture
Fig. 7.15.2 [Link] Gupta_art#/media/File:Vishnu_of_Mathura,_5th_century.jpg
Fig. 7.15.3 Courtesy National Museum
Fig. 7.16 [Link] Dashavatara_Temple,_Deogarh
Fig. 7.17 Courtesy Michel Danino
Fig. 7.18.2 [Link]
Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4494.JPG
Fig. 7.18.3 [Link]
Museum,_New_Delhi.jpg
Fig. 8.5 Source: [Link]
temples_complex,_Vishnu_avatar_Varaha_saving_Bhudevi_(goddess_earth)_and_crushing_evil_
[Link]
Fig. 8.11 Source: [Link]
india_02.JPG
Fig. 8.12 Courtesy Dr. Erach Bharucha
Fig. 8.13 Courtesy Dr. Erach Bharucha
Fig. 8.14 Courtesy Dr. Erach Bharucha
Fig. 8.15 Courtesy C. P. R. Environment Education Centre
Fig. 8.16 Courtesy C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
Fig. 9.4 [Link]
Jpeg
Fig. 9.6 Uttaramerur Inscriptions, [Link]
Uthiramerur4,JPG
Fig. 9.8 Miniature painting depicting Bhishma lying on a bed of arrows, [Link]
[Link]/wiki/File:The_Death_of_Bhishma_(cropped)jpg
Fig. 9.9 King Charles III in a ceremonial coach, [Link]
Charles_IILin_the_Diamond_Jubilee_State_Coach_(State_Visit_of_Qatar_to_the_United_Kingdom).jpg
Fig. 9.10 & 9.11 Caricatures of Adolf Hitler and Idi Amin, [Link]
item/2002709650/ Courtsey-Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, drawing by
Edmund S. Valtman
Fig. 9.12 Roma Girl, [Link]
Fig. 9.13 Oligarchic Situation, [Link]
of_the_Senate_by_Joseph_Kepplerjpg
Fig. 10.3 B.R. Ambedkar with a few members of the Drafting Committee, [Link]
wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of India#/media/File:Dr._Babasaheb_Ambedkar_Chairman,_Drafting_
Committee_of_the_Indian_Constitution_with_other_members_on_Aug._29,_1947jpg
Fig. 10.4.1 Constituent Assembly, [Link]
Assembly_of_India_meeting_in_1950.jpg
Fig. 10.4.2 Constituent Assembly, [Link]
Jawaharlal_Nehru_addressing_the_constituent_assembly_in_1946.jpg
Fig. 10.4.3 Constituent Assembly, [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 10.5 Declaration of Rights, [Link]
and_of_the_Citizen#/media/File:Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg

288

16
 - Fig. 10.6 to 10.13 Taken from the copy of the original Constitution
- Fig. 10.15 Preamble of the Indian Constitution, [Link]
commons/0/0d/[Link]
- Fig. 11.3 Junbeel Mela, Courtesy: Manab Jyoti
- Fig. 11.4 Junbeel Mela, Courtesy: Manab Jyoti
- Fig. 11.5 Junbeel Mela, Courtesy: Manab Jyoti
- Fig. 11.11 Chalukya Coin, [Link]
php?search=chalukya+coin&title=Special:MediaSearch&type=image
L] Fig. 11.11 Cholas Coin, Courtsey-RBI- [Link]
[Link]
L] [Link]
L] Fig. 11.12 Roman Gold Coin, Courtsey-RBI [Link]
coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of _Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.
ipg
- Fig. 11.13 Credits: A.M. Diwakar
= Fig. 11.14 Coinage today- Courtsey-RBI
- [Link]
- [Link]
" [Link]
" [Link]
L] Fig. 11.15 Uniface notes and Ten rupee note, Source: RBI
- [Link]
= Fig. 11.16 Paper currency, Courtsey- RBI
- [Link]
- [Link]
L] Fig. 12.2 Source: [Link]
- Fig. 12.3 Source: [Link]
- Fig. 12.26 Courtesy- Ashakiran Elangbam
- Fig. 12.29 Courtesy Shweta Rao

2. Royalty free stock from [Link]

Fig. 1.1 Jog Falls in Karnataka Fig. 1.34
Fig.1.7.2,1.7.4,1.7.6, 1.7.7 Fig. 1.40
Fig. 1.8,1.9 Fig. 1.41 Living roots bridge near Nongriat
Fig. 1.11,1.12,1.13, .14 village, Cherrapunjee, Meghalaya
Fig. 1.15 Fig. 1.42
Fig. 1.17,1.18 Fig 2.1 Allimages
Fig. 1.21,1.22 Fig. 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 2.3.4 Observing clues
Fig. 1.23 Fig. 2.8 Khardungla Top
Fig. 1.24 Women fetching water from a Fig 2.9 Allimages (top 3 images and 1 right
source far away from home image)
Fig. 1.26 Fig. 2.10. Wind Vane & Anemometer
Fig. 1.27 Fig. 3.1 Allimages
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 3.2 Allimages

289

17
Fig. 3.3 - Fig 9.7 Adoration of the pillar of Sanchi
Fig. 3.5 Allimages in the collage Stupa
Fig. 3.10 - Fig 10.1 Title Page
Fig 3.11 Images showing Bihu, Chhath - Fig 10.2 The Constitution of India
Pooja, Baisakhi, Hemis, Losoongh, Gudi - Fig 11.2.1 Stone Money
padwa and Makar Sakranti - Fig 11.2.2 Aztec copper Tajadero
Fig. 3.14 Eye of the Storm - Fig 11.2.3 Tevau
Fig. 3.15 (Landslide) = Fig.12.8
Fig. 3.15 (Cyclone) = Fig.12.9
Fig. 3.16 (Climate Change) - Fig. 12.10 Allimages
Fig. 3.16 = Fig1212
Fig. 5.1 Ancient Barabar Cave Hills = Fig. 1213
Fig. 5.10 Alexander's sculpture on the = Fig.12.15
timeline
= Fig.12.16
Fig. 6.16 = Fig. 1217
Fig. 6.27.6 = Fig.12.18
Fig. 7.1 (Ajanta caves)
= Fig.12.19
Fig. 7.17 = Fig.12.20
Fig. 7.18.1 = Fig.12.21
Fig. 8.1 Allimages in the introductory
= Fig. 12.22 Allimages in the collage
collage
Fig. 8.2 Allimages in the collage
= Fig.12.25
Fig. 8.3 = Fig.12.28
Fig. 8.4 = Fig. 12.30
Fig. 8.6
3. Al generated images
Fig. 8.7
Fig. 8.8 = Fig.121
Fig. 8.9 = Fig.12.14
Fig. 8.10
Fig. 8.16
Fig. 8.18 Allimages in the collage Notes: (1) "ASI" stands for Archaeological Survey
Fig 9.1 Inside the Parliament of India; (2) all Internet links have been as
Fig 9.5 Voting in India accessed in February 2025.

290

18
Exploring Society:
India and Beyond
Social Science Textbook for
Grade 7 | Part 1

T
NcaERT

i dfdres srgen= iR uferor aRug

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING

19
0781 - EXPLORING SoCIETY: INDIA AND BEYOND
ISBN 978-93-5729-287-0
SociAL ScENCE TEXTBOOK FOR CLass 7 ParT 1

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

April 2025 Chaitra 1947 Q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.
PD 1500T BS Q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by
way oftrade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed
of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or
© National Council of Educational cover other than that in which it is published
Research and Training, 2025 Q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on
this page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or
by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DIVISION, NCERT
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Cover Design, Illustrations, and Layout

Published at the Publication Division
by the Secretary, National Council The Banyan Tree
of Educational Research and
Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Cartographer
Delhi 110 016 and printed at Universal Arkaprovo Das
Offsets, B-3, Sector-67, Noida (U.P.) Pawan Kumar
201301

20
 Foreword
The National Education Policy 2020 envisages a system of education
in the country that is rooted in Indian ethos and its civilisational
accomplishments in all fields of knowledge and human endeavour. At
the same time, it aims to prepare the students to engage constructively
with the opportunities and challenges of the 21st century. The basis for
this aspirational vision has been welllaid out by the National Curriculum
Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) 2023 across curricular areas
at all stages. By nurturing students’ inherent abilities across all the five
planes of human existence, (pafichakoshas), the Foundational and the
Preparatory Stages set the stage for the further learning at Middle Stage.
Spanning Grade 6 to Grade 8, the Middle Stage serves as a critical three
year bridge between the Preparatory and Secondary Stages.
The NCF-SE 2023, at the Middle Stage, aims to equip students with
the skills that are needed to grow, as they advance in their lives. It
endeavours to enhance their analytical, descriptive, and narrative
capabilities, and to prepare them for the challenges and opportunities
that await them. A diverse curriculum, covering nine subjects ranging
from three languages—including at least two languages native to India
—to Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Art Education, Physical
Education and Well-being, and Vocational Education promotes their
holistic development.
Such a transformative learning culture requires certain essential
conditions. One of them is to have appropriate textbooks in different
curricular areas, as these textbooks will play a central role in mediating
between content and pedagogy—a role that will strike a judicious
balance between direct instruction and opportunities for exploration
and inquiry. Among the other conditions, classroom arrangement and
teacher preparation are crucial to establish conceptual connections both
within and across curricular areas.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training, on its part,
is committed to providing students with such high-quality textbooks.
Various Curricular Area Groups, which have been constituted for this
purpose, comprising notable subject-experts, pedagogues, and practising

21
teachers as their members, have made all possible efforts to develop such
textbooks. The Social Science textbook for Grade 7—Exploring Society:
India and Beyond Part 1—has been prepared for the second year of the
middle stage. It carries forward the themes and approach of Grade 6; the
focusis on core concepts and major developments. It endeavours to keep
the students engaged in learning through illustrations, maps and pictures
laid out in an attractive design. There are abundant reflective exercises
and activities embedded in the text to support exploration, discovery and
meaning-making. The thematic approach with a multidisciplinary lens
continues, helping students to understand ideas and concepts holistically.
The text integrates the values we desire our students to develop, is rooted
in the Indian cultural context and introduces global perspectives in an
age-appropriate manner. For all practical purposes, it has, to my mind,
succeeded in its curricular goals: first, to foster natural curiosity among
students through a proper selection of content, and second, through a
pedagogical approach in line with the recommendations of NCF-SE 2023.
However, in addition to this textbook, students at this stage should
also be encouraged to explore various other learning resources. School
libraries play a crucial role in making such resources available. Besides,
the role of parents and teachers will also be invaluable in guiding and
encouraging students to do so.
With this, I express my gratitude to all those who have been involved
in the development of this textbook and hope that it will meet the
expectations ofall stakeholders. Atthe same time, I also invite suggestions
and feedback from all its users for further improvement in the coming
years.
Dinesh Prasad Saklani
Director
National Council of Educational
March 2025 Research and Training
New Delhi

iv

22
 Letter to the Student
Dear Student,
You have now entered the second year of the Middle Stage. In
Social Science, this year we will further explore about our country,
India, across all the five themes we began with last year. You will
also get glimpses of our interactions with the rest of the world in
the past as well as the present. As you are older now, there will be
a little more independent reading, writing and doing. This year
too we have tried to keep the text to a minimum—the book has
lots of colourful maps, pictures and illustrations.
Since good education should promote understanding and
reflection, we have created opportunities for you to explore,
discover, think, create, ask questions and propose answers.
Look for the ways in which each theme brings together multiple
inputs from several disciplines—whether history, geography,
political science or economics. This brings us closerto real life and
helps us understand the events of today better.
Finally, we will start exploring some of the people, places and ideas
that strengthened India’s foundations, as well as delve into some
of the aspects of society today. You will observe that the threads
of the past continue to be part of today’s tapestry and give us the
design for strengthening it for tomorrow.
A number of people put their hearts and heads in the preparation
of this textbook. It has given us all great joy, and we offer it to
you with the hope you will experience some of this joy when you
discover new horizons or figure out an original answerto some of
the challenging questions we sometimes like to throw at you!
We need to add an important detail. In this textbook, every part
of it—text, side box, image or map—can be subject to evaluation
and assessment. There are however four exceptions:

23
" The quotation or quotations on the first pages of chapters.
Some are straightforward, others offer deep thought. Do not
worry if you do not understand them at the first reading; they
are meant to stimulate you or inspire you.
" Wherever we have mentioned in the text, “You need not
remember this”.
® The diacritical signs on some Sanskrit words—do look at
‘Your Journey through this Textbook’ in the next few pages to
understand what we mean.
® The Glossary (at the end of the textbook).

No evaluation should bear on these four aspects.

vi

24
 Your Journey through this Textbook
This is your second year in the Middle Stage. You are now fairly
familiar with the approach to the study of Social Science. This year
we will take our journey of exploring Bharat further. We continue
to ask questions and explore answers — How did people live in the
past? What does our country, India or Bharat, look like? What do
her mountains, rivers, and plains look like? Why does the weather
behave the way it does? ... and so on. In some chapters, Bhavisha
and Dhruv, friends of ours (we hope you will also become friends),
will accompany us with their time machine.
This textbook has interesting features. As you flip through it, you will
see colourful illustrations, including pictures, maps and drawings of
many kinds. Let us give you a quick tour of the book and its features.
Your teacher will also guide you through it.

Each chapter begins with an inspiring quotation from a

renowned person or text. Read it and let it stay with you. Some of
these quotations are profound thoughts. Don’t worry if you do not
understand right away; you can return to them later, and they can
also be discussed in the class. Here’s an example —

-3
w
=
The Rise of Empires o
<
I
o

There cannot be a country without people and there is

no kingdom without a country.
Kautilya in Arthashastra

The main text is written in simple language. You will learn about
people and places in India and beyond.

Technical words are explained in the margin right next to the

text. They are also listed in the glossary (or mini-dictionary) at
 Needs: What is a Market?
In economics, a
need is something A place where people buy and sell goods is called a market.
that a person It is also known as bazaar, haat (in Hindi), and marukatté
requires to survive, (in Kannada). What is it called in your region? This can
such as food,
water, clothing, be at a physical place or, as is becoming popular today,
and shelter online. Goods and services become available to individuals,
Wants: households, and businesses through markets. For a long
In economics, a time, people have relied on markets to fulfil their needs
want is something
that a person and wants for goods and services. In addition, markets
desires but is connect people, traditions, and ideas.
not essential for
survival. Let’s see an example of a market from 16th century India.

the end of the textbook. In addition, we have included a few words

you may not be familiar with. Do consult the glossary often.

e Big ‘The Big Questions’,

Quéitions @ just two or three,
give you an idea of
what you are going
to explore in the
chapter.

As we move through the chapter you will find some sections

called ‘Let’s Explore’, ‘Think About It’, ‘Let’s Remember’ which
propose activities, in-text exercises, recall of concepts learnt
earlier or will invite further reflection.

LET'S EXPLORE

Warfare apart, what other methods do you think the rulers

might have used to expand their empires? Pen your ideas and
share them with your class.

) THINK ABOUT IT
What might happen if the king considered himself to have
divine powers? How would he rule over the people?

26
 In your Grade 6 Science textbook, Curiosity, you read about
different types of thermometers used for measuring the
temperature — the clinical thermometer and the laboratory
thermometer. You also learnt about temperature scales.
One of them is the Celsius scale; another is the Fahrenheit
scale. If, for instance, we have a cool temperature of 15
degrees Celsius (noted as 15°C), it is the same as 59 degrees
Fahrenheit (noted as 59°F).

ancient
DON'T MISS OUT iontei
‘The famed Sanskrit grammarian 500 apmeay | | eseny
‘Don’t Miss Out’ brings Panini lived around the Sth and passon
e century BCE, during the time R
out intriguing or fun of the Nandas, He is known for $f
. " composing the Ashtadhyayi, an ‘ 55
facts that will trigger ancient text that lists the rules of 33
P ¥
your curiosity. Sanskrlt grammar in 390Nt 1y o an rgpost st
sitas. ommenaruingannt” | ei

Before we move on...

5 All religions in India have their sacred places dotted over
the landscape. In Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, such
places are usually associated with some ofthe great igures |
in these belief systerns.
5 Hinduism has dense networks of pilgrimage sites, covering |
the entire geography of India. The practice of pilgrimage
is interwoven with the lives of people, as it serves the
individual development and spiritual growth, but also the
socio-economic purposes of trade expansion and pan-Indian
cultural integration.
> In many Hindu, tribal and folk traditions, the very land is
perceived as sacred.
= Our sacred places are being polluted owing to widespread
neglect and a lack of concern. It is our duty to protect our
national heritage, as our Constitution also reminds us.

At the end of every chapter, ‘Before we move on’ sums up some of

the core ideas that the chapter tried to convey. A choice of exercises,
questions or projects follow.

Finally, on the first page of every chapter, you will find a QR code leading
you to interesting videos, puzzles, games, stories, and so on, which
are related to the content of the chapter and will lead you to further
explorations. Do scan it, or take an adult’s help to scan it, and browse
through the material.

27
Your teacher will be with you on this journey of exploring this
textbook. We hope you will read parts of it with your parents or
guardians too. Maybe you can try out some of the activities with
them!

We wish you an enjoyable journey through Social Science and its

rich insights into human life and society.

W e 3

A note on the pronunciation of Sanskrit words

Since this textbook is in English, we use the Roman alphabet. But we
will also encounter some words in Sanskrit and a few other Indian
languages. The Roman alphabet cannot make their pronunciation
clear without some additional marks or signs, such as dashes, dots
or accents, called ‘diacritical signs’ or ‘diacritics’. You can ignore
all these signs if you wish, and you don’t need to remember them.
However, as we are using only a few simple signs, you will find
it easy to get used to them. You will also find that they help you
pronounce Sanskrit words fairly correctly.
Here is how they work:
® A short dash (called ‘macron’) over a vowel makes it long.
For instance, dana is pronounced ‘daana’; lila is pronounced
‘leelaa’; sttra is sootra.
® sh and sh are pronounced more or less as ‘sh’ in ‘shall’ (there
is a slight difference, since they correspond to ¥ and ¥ in the
Devanagari script, but you can ignore it in practice). So shastra
is pronounced ‘shaastra’; kshira is ksheera’.
® Consonants with a dot below them (d, and nn mainly) are ‘hard’,
i.e. pronounced by hitting the tongue on the palate; without a
dot, they are soft, with the tongue on the teeth. (As a rough
comparison, in the preceding English word ‘teeth’, the first ‘t’ is
hard, while the final ‘th’ is soft.) Examples of hard consonants:
Aryabhata, gana, pathana (studying), pitha, gosthi (association,
assembly), dhanadhya (rich), anu (atom).

28
® Finally, ris the Devanagari letter % We choose to write it asri,
although in some parts of India it is also pronounced as ru. So
we write ‘Rig Veda’, for instance.
For those who wish to know the precise correspondence between
the Devanagari alphabet and the Roman script in our system, the
tables of short and long vowels are as follows:

Devanagari Roman script

.l a
i
Y u
* ri
° e
bl o

s a
§ T
& u
* Fi
g ai
o au

And the table of consonants:

Guttural = % @ kha T ga ¥ gha ® na ¥ ha

Palatal ¥ chha ¥ ja ¥ jha |¥ fia ¥ ya
Cerebral < ta 3 | tha S da % dha |" npa ¥ ra
Dental @ ta ¥ tha % da ¥ dha T na 9 la
Labgal 9 pa ® pha ¥ ba | ¥ bha 7 ma ¥ va
Sibilants ¥ $ha ¥ sha | ¥ sa

Xi
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 - 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
o before law and equal protection of laws;
e imrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
e of opportunity in public employment;
© by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
e of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
e of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
o of protection of life and personal liberty;
o offree and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
e of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right against Exploitation

o for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
o for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.

Right to Freedom of Religion

o freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
o freedom to manage religious affairs;
e freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
o freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.

Cultural and Educational Rights

e for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
o for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
® by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

30
 National Syllabus and Teaching Learning
Materials Committee (NSTC)
1. M.C. Pant, Chancellor, National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration (NIEPA), (Chairperson)
2. Manjul Bhargava, Professor, Princeton University,
(Co-Chairperson)
3. Sudha Murty, Acclaimed Writer and Educationist
4. Late Bibek Debroy, Former Chairperson, Economic Advisory
Council to the Prime Minister (EAC - PM)
5. Shekhar Mande, Former Director General, CSIR; Distinguished
Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
6. Sujatha Ramdorai, Professor, University of British Columbia,
Canada
7. Shankar Mahadevan, Music Maestro, Mumbai
8. U. Vimal Kumar, Director, Prakash Padukone Badminton
Academy, Bengaluru
9. Michel Danino, Guest Professor, IIT-Gandhinagar
10. Surina Rajan, IAS (Retd.), Haryana; Former Director General,
HIPA
11. Chamu Krishna Shastri, Chairperson, Bhartiya Bhasha Samiti,
Ministry of Education
12. Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, Economic Advisory Council to the
Prime Minister (EAC - PM)
13. M.D. Srinivas, Chairperson, Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai
14. Gajanan Londhe, Head, Programme Office, NSTC
15. Rabin Chhetri, Director, SCERT, Sikkim
16. Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, Department of Education in
Social Science, NCERT, New Delhi
17. Dinesh Kumar, Professor and Head, Planning and Monitoring
Division, NCERT, New Delhi
18. Kirti Kapur, Professor, Department of Education in Languages,
NCERT, New Delhi
19. Ranjana Arora, Professor and Head, Department of Curriculum
Studies and Development, NCERT, New Delhi,
(Member-Secretary)

31
 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties

It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;

() to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;

© to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

@ to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
doso;

(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
® to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
€9} to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;

(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;

@ to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

(0] to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;

k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to

his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

32
 Textbook Development Team
Michel Danino, Visiting Professor, IIT Gandhinagar (CAG Social
Science Chairperson)
Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, EAC-PM (CAG Economics Chairperson)

Contributors
Aasheerwad Dwivedi, Faculty of Management Studies, Shri Ram College
of Commerce, University of Delhi
Alka Singh, Assistant professor in Geography, Department of Education
in Social Sciences and Humanities, RIE, Bhopal, NCERT
Ankur Kakkar, Associate Professor, Centre for Indic Studies, Indus
University, Ahmedabad
Aziz Mahdi, Scholar of Persian, Former Fellow, Indian Institute of
Advanced Study, Shimla
Bhairu Lal Yadav, Associate Professor of Population Studies, DESS,
NCERT
Bhawna Paliwal, Educator and Senior Consultant, Program Office, NSTC
Divya Indra Chatterjee, Chartered Accountant, Senior Consultant,
Program Office, NSTC
Javaid Igbal Bhat, Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Department of
English, University of Kashmir
Johnson Odakkal, Commodore, Indian Navy (Retd), Former Director,
Maritime History Society & Faculty at Aditya Birla World Academy
Kirti Kaul, Head, Research and Resources, Shiv Nadar School, Noida-9
Mrinmoyee Ray, Assistant Professor of History, DESS, NCERT
Nabajyoti Deka, Faculty of Management Studies, Shri Ram College of
Commerce
Nikhil Bellarykar, Historian, Author and Translator
Pawan Kumar, Assistant Professor & In-charge, Department of
Geography, Faculty of Earth, Environment and Space Sciences,
Chaudhary Bansilal University, Prem Nagar, Bhiwani

33
Payel Mukherjee, Faculty, Department of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology Delhi
(IITD) and Adjunct Faculty, Department of English, College of Arts and
Science, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Prachi Lahiri, History Teacher, National Public School, Bengaluru
Probal Roy Chowdhary, Director, Centre for New Indian Studies;
Professor, Department of English, Sister Nivedita University, Kolkata
Purva Bhatt, Senior Consultant, Program Office, NSTC
Radha Narayanan, Researcher and Author, History Textbooks,
Chinmaya Mission, Chennai
Riddhi Garg, Editor, Senior Consultant, Program Office, NSTC
Sandeepa Madan, Educator, Shiv Nadar School, Gurugram
Srishti Chauhan, Young Professional (EAC-PM), NITI Aayog
Suman Gautam, Principal, Shiva International Residential School,
Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh
Suparna Diwakar, Educator and Development Sector Professional,
Chief Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC
Surendra C Thakurdesai, Professor and Head, Department of
Geography, Department of Rural Development, Gogate Joglekar College,
Ratnagiri

Member Coordinators
Seema Shukla Ojha, Professor of History, Department of Education in
Social Science, NCERT; CAG (Social Science)
M V Srinivasan, Professor of Economics, Department of Education in
Social Science, NCERT; CAG (Economics)

Reviewers
Aditi Mishra, Director Principal, Delhi Public School, Gurgaon; and
Teachers: Kanu Chopra, Leeza Dutta, Avni Mehta, Mamta Kumar,
Suparna Sharma
Anurag Behar, Member, National Curriculum Frameworks Oversight
Committee, and CEO, Azim Premji Foundation
Aparna Pandey, Professor of Geography, DESS

xvi

34
Arnab Bhattacharya, Centre Director, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai;
Professor, Department of Condensed Matter Physics and Material
Science, TIFR, Mumbai
Birbal Luniwal, Assistant Professor of Geography, DESS
Gauri Srivastava, Professor of History, DESS
Jagbir Singh, Professor, Chairperson, NOC, and Chancellor, Central
University of Punjab
Jaya Singh, Professor of Economics, DESS
Kumari Rohini, Assistant Professor of History, DESS
P.K. Mandal, Professor of History; Head, DESS
Pratima Kumari, Professor of Economics, DESS
Priyadarsini Samantaray, Assistant Professor of Sociology, DESS
Rashmi, Associate Professor of Commerce (Business Studies), DESS
Ruchika Singh, IKS Division
Sainath Kabade, Assistant Professor of History, DESS
Savita Sagar, Assistant Professor of Political Science, DESS
Shankar Sharan, Professor of Political Science, DESS
Shipra Vaidya, Professor of Commerce, DESS
Subhash Singh, Assistant Professor of Political Science, DESS
Tannu Malik, Professor of Geography, DESS
Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor of Political Science, DESS

Xxvii

35
 THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having |
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a |&y
'[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR |
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
/| toallits citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the ’[unity and ’:
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO |- A
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2.
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2.
for "Unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

36
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the guidance and support of the esteemed Chairperson and
members of the National Curriculum Frameworks Oversight Committee
for their invaluable contributions in overseeing the translation of
NCF-SE 2023 perspectives into the textbook. NCERT is also deeply grateful
to the Chairperson, Co-Chairperson, and members of the National
Syllabus and Teaching-Learning Materials Development Committee
for their continuous guidance and thorough review of the textbook.
Furthermore, NCERT extends its heartfelt thanks to the Chairpersons
and members of the Curricular Area Groups (CAGs) for Social Science
and for Economics, as well as other relevant CAGs, for their support and
guidelines on the cross-cutting themes.
The participation and contributions from members of the Social Science
and Economics CAGs have been indispensable. Additional thanks are due
to the Chairpersons and members of other CAGs involved in integrating
cross-cutting themes into this textbook.
The unstinted efforts and exemplary dedication of the Social Science
team of Program Office, NSTC—Suparna Diwakar, Bhawna Paliwal,
Divya Indra Chatterjee, Riddhi Garg, Purva Bhatt—in assisting the
making of this textbook at every stage, are gratefully acknowledged.
We are also much obliged to Shweta Rao of the Banyan Tree for her
outstanding contribution to the textbook’s appealing design and visual
quality, and her steadfast work throughout the entire process. We are
also indebted to Seema Shukla Ojha, Professor of History in NCERT’s
Department of Education in Social Sciences and member-convener
of the CAG Social Science for Grade 7, for her constant assistance and
advice; and to MV Srinivasan, NCERT’s Department of Education in
Social Science and member-convener of the CAG Economics and Head of
NCERT’s Publication Division, for his patient guidance and inputs. We are
glad to record our appreciation of Srishti Chauhan, Young Professional
(EAC-PM), NITI Aayog, for her close collaboration throughout.
The Council is thankful to Anju Gandhi, M Pramod Kumar, Fanindra
Sharma, Nidhi M Shastri, Shravan S K, Siddhartha A Bhargava, Swasti
Sharma and Tarun Choubisa and other members of the Programme
Office, NSTC, for their valuable inputs.

37
The illustrators— Albert Shrivastava, Ashutosh Kambli, Attri Chetan, and
Prashant Singh —deserve commendation for their innovative designs,
and sketches, which have significantly enriched the visual quality of the
textbook. The contribution made by the cartographers Arkaprovo Das,
Ekta Gupta and Pawan Kumar (for tolerating our ever-changing demands
to make the maps come alive for students) is much appreciated. The
generosity of VN Prabhakar in sharing photographs of historical sites
from his personal collection is acknowledged with gratitude.
The contributions of Soumma Chandra, Editor (contractual); Deepti Garg
and Pragya Dubey, Proofreaders (contractual), Publication Division are
also appreciated. The NCERT gratefully acknowledges the contributions
of Pawan Kumar Barriar, In charge, DTP Cell; Bittu Kumar Mahato and
Vipan Kumar Sharma, DTP Operators (contractual), Publication Division,
NCERT for all their efforts in laying out this book.

38
 Contents
Foreword
Letter to the Student
Your Journey through this Textbook
THEME A — INDIA AND THE WORLD: LAND AND THE PEOPLE
Chapter 1 Geographical Diversity of India
Chapter 2 Understanding the Weather
Chapter 3 Climates of India
THEME B — TAPESTRY OF THE PAST
Chapter 4 New Beginnings: Cities and States
Chapter 5 The Rise of Empires
Chapter 6 The Age of Reorganisation 117
Chapter 7 The Gupta Era: An Age of
Tireless Creativity 145
THEME C — OUR CULTURAL HERITAGE AND
KNOWLEDGE TRADITIONS
Chapter 8 How the Land Becomes Sacred 167
THEME D — GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY
Chapter 9 From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types
of Governments 185
Chapter 10 The Constitution of India
— An Introduction 209
THEME E —EcONOMIC LIFE AROUND Us
Chapter 11 From Barter to Money 229
Chapter 12 Understanding Markets 247
Political Map of India 274
Physical Map of India 275
Glossary 276
Images and maps from external sources 284

39
40
Geographical Diversity

CHAPTER
of India
To us, by its very geography, the country [India] appears to
be quite distinct from other countries, and that itself gives
it a certain national character.
— Sri Aurobindo

Fig. 1.1. Jog Falls in Karnataka. Notice the plateau and the waterfalls. The power of the waterfall
is converted into electricity (hydroelectricity; ‘hydro’ means water) through special turbines.

1. What are some key

The Big .
geographical features
Questions @ of India?
2. How does India’s geographical
diversity affect our lives?
 In 1984, Rakesh Sharma, the first Indian astronaut to go into
space, spoke with the then Prime Minister of India, Indira
Gandhi. When she asked him, “How does India look from
space?”, he replied, “Sare jahan se achchha” —better than the
whole world. (This is the title of a well-known poem of the early
20th century.)

LET'S EXPLORE
Look at the map of India at the end of this book. What are
you able to observe? Recall your lesson on different types
of landforms—mountains, plains and plateaus. Which
landforms can youidentify on the map? What do the different
colours on the map mean? (Hint: The legend on the map shows
the heights of each area.)

As you go through this chapter, remember to refer periodically

to the physical map.
India is the seventh-largest country in the world, and a part of
Asia. Along with its neighbours —Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal,
Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar—it forms the region known
as the Indian Subcontinent (subcontinent, since it is part of
the continent of Asia). Often, for the purpose of discussion, we
referto five regions —the great mountain zone, the plains of the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Ganga and the Indus, the desert region, the southern peninsula,
and the islands. In this chapter, we will ‘fly’ over these zones,
providing you with a bird’s-eye view of these features and
offering glimpses of what things look like in close-up at some of
these places. It would be difficult to go into all the details at this
stage since, as you will soon see, India is large and diverse.
The Himalayan Mountain range stands as a natural barrier in
the north, while the Thar Desert and the Arabian Sea mark its
western limits. To the south, the Indian Ocean and to the east,
the Bay of Bengal form a natural boundary. These geographical
features create a separation between India and the rest of the
continent and have played a crucial role in shaping India’s
climate, culture, and history.

42
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Do you recall your lesson on latitudes and longitudes?
Look at the map. Can you read, approximately, the latitude
and longitude where India lies?
- Identify the above features on India’s physical map.

Let us now journey together from the Himalayas to the islands

in the Indian Ocean, and onward to the east of India. The diverse
colours on the map already give us a sense of the geographical
diversity. Familiarise yourself with the legend on the map. The
different colours indicate the altitudes.

The Himalayas
Look at the length of the Himalayan Range on the map. It is like
a massive wall. From the legend, can you guess the altitude at
different points of the Himalayas?

World: Land and the People

versity of India
1-Geographical
India and the

Fig. 1.2. These are satellite images of the Himalayan range. Note that the
length of the range is about 2500 km.

43
 LET'S REMEMBER
The Himalayas seem to touch the sky. In fact, many of its peaks
are over 8000 metres in height and are together called the
‘Eight Thousanders’. This mountain range stretches across six
countries in Asia: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan, and
Afghanistan. Canyouname the highest mountain
in the world?

In the summer, the snow on the mountains melts and feeds

major rivers, such as the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra. These
rivers and their tributaries provide water for drinking, farming,
and industrial use, connecting with the lives of hundreds of
millions of people. Hence, the Himalayas are sometimes called
the ‘Water Tower of Asia’. The Himalayas are also important to
many cultures and belief systems. The mountains themselves
are considered sacred, and temples and monasteries have been
built within them, attracting monks and spiritual seekers from
around the world who come to pray and meditate.

N'T MISS
TheBhagirathiRiver, amajor tributary of the Ganga, originates
from Gaumukh (‘Cow’s Mouth’), in Uttarakhand. It is the edge
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 1.3. Gaumukh

of the Gangotri Glacier. This glacier is one of the largest in the

Indian Himalayas. It is considered sacred and attracts many
pilgrims. Gaumukh is also a popular trekking destination. Next
time you see the Ganga, remember—its journey began there!

a4
 How the Himalayas were formed ...
an interesting story EURASIANPLATE

Along, long time ago, India was part of a much

bigger landmass called ‘Gondwana’, where its
neighbour was Africa! At some point, it broke
away and slowly started moving north. About
50 million years ago, it reached the landmass
of Eurasia and collided with it. As India pushed
against Eurasia, the land between them
crumpled and rose up —just like how a carpet
wrinkles when you push it. That’s how the
=2 INDIAN
mighty Himalayan mountains were formed! OCEAN
Amazingly, India is still pushing into Asia
today, very slowly—about five centimetres
each year, which is much slower than the rate
at which your hair grows. This means the
Himalayas are still growing taller, just a tiny bit
each year—about five millimetres, but over a
Fig. 1.4. India’s journey
millennium, that adds up to five metres!
to Eurasia

India and the World: Land and the People

1 -Geographical Diversity of India

Fig. 1.5. Folded layers of Himalayan rock

5 N'T MISS OUT

The word ‘Himalaya’ is a combination of two Sanskrit
words— hima, meaning ‘snow’, and alaya, meaning ‘abode’ or
‘dwelling’ — thus, ‘abode of snow’.

45
 The Himalayas are broadly categorised into three main ranges:
® The Himadri (the Greater Himalayas) are the highest and
most rugged part of the range, home to towering peaks like
Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga. This region remains
snow-covered throughout the year. Life here is tough, and
there are not many human settlements.
®= The Himachal (the Lower Himalayas) lie south of the
Greater Himalayas and have a more moderate climate,
allowing rich biodiversity and human habitation. Popular
hill stations, such as Nainital (Uttarakhand), Darjeeling
(West Bengal), Shimla (Himachal Pradesh), and Mussoorie
(Uttarakhand), are located in this region.
= The Shivalik Hills (the Outer Himalayas) form the
outermost and lowest range, consisting of rolling hills and
dense forests. These foothills are rich in wildlife, serving as
a transition zone between the Himalayas and the Gangetic
Plains (also called the Northern Plains).

LET'S EXPLORE
Can you locate the names of the states in the different parts
of the Himalayas? Take the help of both the physical and
political maps for this exercise.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

DON'T MISS OUT

The traditional house
construction method in the
western Himalayan region is
known as ‘kath-kuni’ or ‘dhajji-
dewari’ style of houses. A
combination of locally available
stone and wood is used, which
not only keeps the house warm
i L, but also resists damage in the
Fig. 1.6. Kath-kuni House, event of mild earthquakes.
Himachal Pradesh
 ON'T MISS O
The Great Himalayan National Parkin Himachal Pradesh has a
wide diversity of flora and fauna. The park has been declared

India and the World: Land and the People

1 -Geographical Diversity of India

< D AN B R
Fig. 1.7. [Link] Himalayan National Park Conservation Area. 2. Himalayan monal
(male). 3. A monastery in Ladakh. 4. The Beas river in Himachal Pradesh. 5. Snow
Leopard 6. A display of produce in a local market in the Himalayas. 7. Rhododendron —a
type of sherbet is made out of this flower:

a7
 a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The biodiversity of the park
is being preserved by the government as well as the village
communities that live inside the park.

The cold desert of India

The word ‘desert’ immediately evokes an image of a hot place.
However, there are also cold deserts, and we have one in India.
Ladakh is a cold desert where winter temperatures drop below
-30°C. There is very little rainfall, and the landscape is rugged,
with rocky terrain, deep
valleys, and lakes such as
Pangong Tso (tso means lake).
The terrain here resembles
that of the moon; hence, it is
called ‘moonland’. Geologists
explain the formation of this
terrain, as we saw earlier, by
the fact that the mountains
were ‘folded” when the
Indian landmass collided
with Eurasia. This folded
portion was part of an ocean,
Fig. 1.8 Mbaxignd, Ladakfl and so the rocks in this area
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

T e g -

Fig. 1.9. Yaks are very important for the lives of people in the Himalayas. They
are reared for their milk, meat, wool and dung, and are also used for transport.

48
 SE——— = e N i
Fig. 1.10. Pangong Tso, Ladakh. This lake has salty water; unlike most other lakes. The
saltiness is a result of the minerals that dissolve from the surrounding mountain areas.

are made largely of sand and clay. Wind and rain have eroded
the mountains into the shapes you see in the photograph.
Despite the harsh conditions, Ladakh is home to unique
wildlife like snow leopards, ibex, and Tibetan antelopes. The
Ladakhi people lead a simple life. The region is known for its
ancient monasteries and colourful festivals such as Losar and
the Hemis Festival.

The Gangetic Plains

India and the World: Land and the People
As we move southwards from the Himalayas, we reach the
vast and fertile Gangetic Plains. These plains have been an
1-Geographical Diversity of India

important part of the history and civilisation of India. These

plains are nourished by mighty rivers originating from the
Himalayas, providing a vital lifeline: water. The Ganga, Indus,
and Brahmaputra river systems, along with their extensive
network of tributaries, enrich the soil with minerals, making the
region highly fertile and ideal for agriculture. The rivers bring
with them minerals that enrich the soil, enabling abundant
agriculture. The rivers are also a source for generating electricity.
Alarge proportion of India’s population lives in these plains.

49
 Fig. 1.13. Multi-cropping in Uttar Pradesh Fig. 1.14. Rural women working in a
paddy field in West Bengal

The flat land of the Northern Plains has allowed for the
development of an elaborate transportation network. Road and
railway networks facilitate the movement of people and goods
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

over long distances. As you will see in the Tapestry of the Past
chapters, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and other rivers have
been used for millennia for travel and trade.

Fig. 1.15. Modes of transport in the Gangetic plains

50
 Most rivers are named after goddesses—Ganga, Yamuna,
Kaveri, etc. The name of Brahmaputra, however, means ‘the
son of Brahma’. This river gets bigger during summer instead
of drying up! Can you guess why?

LET'S EXPLORE
Notice the concentration of lighting in the plains. What could
be the reason for this concentration?

§ -*i:."(_
Fig. 1.16. Satellite image of the Gangetic plains

India and the World: Land and the People

1 -Geographical Diversity of India

Fig. 1.17. The Northern plains grey langur Fig. 1.18. The majestic tiger that was on
sits on a wooden beam in Bandhavgarh the verge of extinction. Project Tiger has
National Park, Madhya Pradesh supported the return of the tiger to its
habitats.

51
 Fig. 1.19. The Indian gharial; an adult Fig. 1.20. A peacock and peahen —the
is between 2.5 and 4.5 m long. This Indian peacock is our national bird
reptile is on the verge of extinction.
There are laws that prohibit harming
it or hunting it.

The Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert

If we move westward on the map, you will notice a yellowish
area. This area is the Thar Desert. What do you see? A vast stretch
of golden dunes, rugged terrain, and a wide-open sky?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 1.21. A traveller among the sand dunes of the Thar Desert.

What is the shape of a sand dune? While mountains are

made of rock and their shape is fixed, why do you think sand
dunes also have a similar shape, even though they are made
of sand?

52
 Fig. 1.22. Jaisalmer, the ‘Golden City’, located in the middle of the Thar desert in
India. The Jaisalmer fort is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Sand dunes are formed when the wind shifts and shapes the
sand into hill-like formations. Sometimes these rise as high as
150 metres.
The Thar is a vast arid region. Most of it lies within India,
spanning the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
The desert acts as a natural barrier due to the harsh conditions
that deter human and animal movement—including very high
daytime temperatures and cold nights, as well as a lack of access
to water.
People living in the Thar have adapted their way of life to the
place and what it offers; food habits, clothing and lifestyle are
suited to these harsh conditions.

India and the World: Land and the People

1-Geographical Diversity of India

Fig. 1.23.
Camel
vendor at
the Pushkar
Mela (at
the edge of
the Thar
Desert)

53
 Fig. 1.24. (Left) Women fetching water from a source far away from home.
(Right) Rainwater harvesting structure in a hamlet.

Water is scarce in the desert. Women often need to travel

long distances every day to fetch water for their families. So,
the traditional method for cleaning utensils is to scour them
with sand until they are clean. A little water can be used for a
light rinse. The water used for rinsing is reused for purposes
like watering a plant. So, the next time you leave the tap
running, remember the people of the Thar Desert. Rajasthan
is also famous for its ingenious water conservation methods,
including taanka or kunds. These are special water collection
systems that store rainwater, often for drinking purposes.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

The Aravalli Hills

LET'S EXPLORE
Let’s go back to the map. Trace your path slowly from the
Thar Desert towards the east. Do you see the Aravalli Hills?

The Aravallis are among the oldest mountains in the world,

some 2.5 billion years old! The range has many peaks and ridges.
Although its highest peak, Mount Abu, towers at over 1700 m,
most of its hills are between 300 and 900 metres high. Isn’t it
fascinating that a drive of about 4 and a half hours can take us

54
 &
Fig. 1.25. (Left) A part of the Aravallis; just beyond this range, the Thar Desert begins.
(Right)A part of the Aravallis seen from space.

from Mount Abu in the Aravallis to Jodhpur in the Thar Desert,

a drive into a completely different geography?

LET'S EXPLORE
Look at the political map in the textbook and identify the states \‘
that the range spans. Did you see Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana }‘;‘
and Gujarat?

The Aravallis play a vital role in shaping the geography and

climate of northwestern India. One of its most important
functions is acting as a natural barrier, preventing the Thar
Desert from expanding further eastward. You will read more
about this later.
The Aravallis, rich in minerals
like marble, granite, zinc, and India and the World: Land and the People
copper, have supported mining and
construction activities for centuries.
1 -Geographical Diversity of India

In fact, evidence from its ancient

mines at Zawar has shown that over
eight centuries ago, Indians were
the first in the world to master the
delicate process of extraction of zinc.
Historic forts, such as Chittorgarh, Fig. 1.26. Kumbhalgarh Fort surrounded
Kumbhalgarh, and Ranthambore, are by the Aravallis; this location in the hills
proved to be an excellent deterrent to
located here. the enemy.

55
 The Peninsular Plateau

. LET'S REMEMBER
O
A plateau is a landform that rises up from the surrounding
land and has a more or less flat surface; some of its sides are
often steep slopes.

India has several plateaus; the most important one is the

triangular peninsular area in the middle and south of the
country.
Peninsula: It is also a very old land formation! Since this region is a peninsula,
A peninsula
is a piece of
surrounded by water on all three sides by the Arabian Sea, the Bay
land thatis of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, it is called a peninsular plateau.
surrounded
by water on The plateau is bordered by two mountain ranges, the Western
three sides. Ghats and Eastern Ghats. The Western Ghats are taller and run
along the western coast like a wall, with many beautiful waterfalls
flowing down their steep sides during the monsoon season.

=" DON'T MISS OUT

The Western Ghats have been declared a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. They are home to many rivers and have a rich
biodiversity. The northern portion of the Western Ghats are
also known as the Sahyadri Hills.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

The Eastern Ghats are lower and broken into smaller hills
along the eastern coast. Between these mountain ranges lies the
Deccan Plateau, a vast area of flat highlands.
Rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri flow across the
plateau from west to east. These rivers are important for farming
and provide water to millions of people.

LET'S EXPLORE
Look at the physical map of India given at the end of the
book. Notice the direction of the flow of the rivers.

56
 Fig. 1.27. Dense forests of Chhattisgarh, home to many tribal communities

This plateau is rich in minerals, forests, and fertile land,

making it vital for India’s economy. It tilts a little to the east, so
a few of the rivers in this region flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
East-flowing rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi
originate here, providing water for farming, industries, and
hydroelectric power. There are west-flowing rivers (Narmada,
Tapti) too, which drain into the Arabian Sea.
Dense forests on the plateau are home to tribal communities,
including the Santhal, Gond, Baiga, Bhil, and Korku. These tribes
have distinct languages, traditions, and ways of life closely
connected to Nature.

Tribal communities are largely spread over the states of India and the World: Land and the People
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Madhya Pradesh,
1 -Geographical Diversity of India

Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Gujarat. Examine

the physical and political maps at the end of this book to locate
the states and connect them to their location on the physical
map.

Plateaus are home to many beautiful waterfalls in India,

as rivers flow over their uneven and rocky surfaces. These
waterfalls not only attract tourists but also help in hydroelectric
power generation and provide water for irrigation.

57
 Fig. 1.29. Lion-tailed macaque Fig. 1.30. King cobra of the
in the Western Ghats Western Ghats
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 1.31. This is an

insectivorous plant,
meaning it feeds on
insects, found in the Fig. 1.32. Coal mines in the plateau; an important
Western Ghats. It catches resource, especially in the production of electricity.
small insects in sticky Coal is a fossil fuel, the use of which contributes
traps and digests them! to global warming.
o

58
 Fig. 1.33. Mumbai, on the west coast, is India’s financial centre

India’s Amazing Coastlines

India’s coastline is dotted with beautiful beaches, rocky cliffs,
and lush green forests. Some beaches have golden sand while
others have black rocks. Some islands have coral reefs while
others are covered in thick jungles. India’s coasts are full of
surprises! The Indian coastline is over 7500 km long.

- Look at the physical map of India in your school atlas

or wall map and find the names of five rivers that flow
into the Bay of Bengal. Find out India’s coastal states and
discuss the difference between the western and eastern
coastal plains.
- Do you know what it is called when these rivers split into
India and the World: Land and the People
multiple streams near the coast? Discuss with your teacher
in class to find out!
1 -Geographical Diversity of India

The West Coast of India

The West Coast of India stretches from Gujarat to Kerala, passing
through Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Most rivers here
originate in the Western Ghats, flow swiftly, and form estuaries.
The coastline is shaped by alluvial deposits from short rivers
and features coves, creeks, and estuaries, with the Narmada and
Tapti estuaries being the largest.

59
 Fig. 1.34. An aerial view of a part of the west coast. Note how close the
hills of the Western Ghats are to the Arabian Sea.

The west coast has many important ports and cities. These have
been the centres of economic activity for millennia.

The East Coast

The East Coast lies between the Eastern
Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, stretching
from the Ganga delta to Kanyakumari.
It has wide plains and major river
deltas, including Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, and Kaveri. Important water
bodies like Chilika Lake and Pulicat
Lake (a lagoon, which is a body of water
separated from larger bodies of water
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

by a natural barrier) are found here.

Deltas are landforms formed at the
mouth of a river when it deposits
Fig. 1.35. Satellite view of the East sediments into a larger body of water,
Coast of India. such as an ocean, a lake, or another
river. Over time, these sediments build up, forming a triangular
or fan-shaped area. The Godavari, Krishna, Kaveriand Mahanadi
rivers create fertile deltas, making the land ideal for farming.

Indian Islands
The Indian Islands refer to the group of islands scattered across
the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal,
which form part of India’s territory. India has two major island

60
groups— Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. These islands have
unique wildlife, beautiful beaches, coral reefs, and volcanoes.
Several ancient tribes made these islands their home tens of
thousands of years ago.

Lakshadweep islands
Lakshadweep is an archipelago (a group of islands) located in
the Arabian Sea, close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. It is made
up of 36 islands made of coral. Not all islands are inhabited by
people. India controls a vast marine area, allowing for fishing,
resource exploration, and environmental protection.

Andaman and Nicobar islands

This archipelago comprises more than 500 large and small
volcanicislands, divided into two distinct groups — the Andaman
and the Nicobar Islands. Their location is very important.

Fig. 1.36. Coral reefin the Fig. 1.37. Coral reefin the India and the World: Land and the People
Lakshadweep Islands Andaman Islands 1-Geographical Diversity of India

Fig. 1.38. A floating dock (a small port) of the Indian Navy near
the Andaman Islands.
 They are like the outposts of India,
keeping an eye on the ocean. It is home
to a variety of flora and fauna. The
Andaman Islands are also significant
from a historical point of view —many
of our freedom fighters were jailed
there under the most severe conditions
in a prison complex called ‘Cellular
Jail’. It has been preserved to remind
us of the tremendous sacrifices that
our forefathers made so we could be
Fig. 1.39. An aerial view of the active free. We will discuss this some more in
volcano on Barren Island, the only one higher classes.
in India

= DON'T MISS OUT

&
Barren Island (Fig. 1.39 above) in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands is the only active volcano in India. It sometimes erupts,
sending smoke and lava into the sky!

The Delta in West Bengal and the

Sundarbans
Aswetravelback fromtheislands
towards the eastern side of the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Himalayas via the Bay of Bengal,

we come to the Sundarbans.
This is located in the delta of the
Ganga, Brahmaputra (you saw
them earlier in the chapter) and
their tributaries. This delta has a
unique combination of the river,
Fig. 1.40. Mangroves of the delta in the sea and land. About half of it is
Sundarbans of West Bengal located in India, and the rest is in
Bangladesh. This is also a UNESCO Heritage site. The Sundarbans
are home to many species, including the Royal Bengal Tiger.
Note: Do remember to look at the map and identify where the
delta is.

62
 .3%5{ -‘ S =
Fig. 1.41. Left to right, top to bottom: Seven Sisters Waterfalls,
Meghalaya, India; The Shad Suk Mynsiem festival is celebrated by the
Khasi people as a form of gratitude towards nature; Living roots bridge India and the World: Land and the People
near Nongriat village, Cherrapunjee, Meghalaya 1-Geographical Diversity of India

The hills of the Northeast

Stay on the map as we move towards the hills of the Northeast,
our final destination for now. Can you see Garo, Khasi, and
Jantia marked on the map? These hills, part of the Meghalaya
Plateau, are known for their lush greenery, heavy rainfall, and
breathtaking waterfalls. This region experiences one of the
highest rainfalls in the world, making it rich in forests, unique
wildlife, and fertile land.

63
 Mawlynnong Village, situated in
the East Khasi Hills of Meghalaya,
is renowned as the ‘cleanest village
in Asia’. This picturesque village
is famous for its well-maintained
cleanliness, bamboo dustbins, and
eco-friendly living practices. The
village is also known for its living
root bridges, which are created by
weaving tree roots over the course
of many years.
Fig. 1.42. Living root bridges showcase
the craftsmanship of the tribes of the
Northeast.

Before we move on ...

-~ India gives its name to the subcontinent it is a part of.
-~ It has many diverse geographical features, ranging from
the snowy Himalayas to the heat of the Thar Desert. The
plains are watered by a large number of rivers. There is also
a peninsular plateau with the Arabian Sea on the west and
the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

—~ These diverse geographic features have created a variety

of conditions with respect to soil, flora, fauna, life and
economic opportunities, and honed a rich culture.
—~ These geographical features have played an important role
in shaping our civilisation.

Questions and activities

1. What, in your opinion, are two important geographical

features of India? Why do you think they are important?

64
. What do you think India might have looked like if the
Himalayas did not exist? Write a short note or sketch a
drawing to express your imagination.
. India has been called a ‘mini-continent’. Based on what
you’'ve read, why do you think this is so?
. Follow one of India’s big rivers from where it starts to
where it meets the ocean. What are the different ways in
which people might utilise this river along its journey?
Discuss in groups in your class.
. Why is the southern part of India referred to as a peninsular
plateau?
. Which UNESCO Heritage Site mentioned in this chapter
did you find more interesting? Write a short paragraph to
describe what about it is interesting.
. Look at the two maps of India, physical as well as political,
given at the end of this book. Identify the place you are
at now. Which physical feature of India would you use to
describe its location?
. Food preservation techniques differ from place to place
across India. They are adapted to local conditions. Do a class
project. Gather different methods of preserving food. Hint:
Drying vegetables when they are in season for use during
the off-season.
. Despite having such different regions (mountains, deserts,
plains, coasts), India remains one country. How do you think
our geography has helped unite people? India and the World: Land and the People
1 -Geographical Diversity of India

65
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

*Noodles'’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

66
 [+4
Understanding
['5]
s
o
<
the Weather I
(O]

A change in the weather is sufficient to create

the world and oneself anew.
Marcel Proust, French novelist

How can we measure and

monitor the weather around us?
How do weather predictions
help us prepare for events like
o7sicHoz
heavy rain, storms, drought and
heat waves?
 Weather and its Elements
You wake up one winter morning and shiver. You reach for
thick clothes to keep yourself warm. In the summer, you choose
clothes that keep you cool and comfortable. You are responding
to your body’s signals; your body is sensing the weather.

What is weather?
Weather is a state of
—— the Earth’s atmosphere
Stratosphere ' at a particular time and
Tropopause ran e e | place. But what is an
atmosphere? In simple
T— terms, it is the layer of
[[iceospigs gases that surround
some planets—in the
case of our Earth, we
call these gases ‘air’. The
Earth’s atmosphere may
Fig.2.2 be compared to a cake
with several layers. The layer closest to the surface of the Earth is
called the ‘troposphere’, and that is where all land-based plants
and animals (including humans!) live and breathe. It is also
where almost all weather phenomena, which we will explore in
this chapter, take place. The troposphere extends to a height of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

6 to 18 kilometres from the ground; it is less thick at the poles

(where the cold air contracts) and thicker in the tropical zone
(where the warmer air expands). You will study more about the
other layers in your Science classes.
We use many words to describe the weather —hot, cold, rainy,
cloudy, humid, snowy, windy, and so on. They describe the
different ways in which we experience the elements of weather.

LET'S EXPLORE
What are some of the words in your local language that you
use to describe the weather? Hot, cold, warm, chilly, crisp,
pleasant, and so on, are commonly used terms in English.

68
 The elements of weather are: Sleet:
Frozen or partly
® Temperature: How hot or cold the atmosphere is.
frozen rain.
= Precipitation: Any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet
or hail, that falls from the sky. Hail:
Small, hard
= Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the air above us, felt balls of ice that
on the Earth’s surface. fall from the
sky like rain.
® Wind: The movement of air, including its speed
and direction. Water vapour:
Water vapour
® Humidity: The amount of water vapour in the air. is water in
gaseous
' THINK ABOU instead of
liquid form.
Let us imagine that Krishnan from Chennai is speaking with
Amir in Kashmir. Krishnan tells Amir that it has become
chilly in Chennai after it rained the previous night. Amir asks
him how cold it is. How will Krishnan explain to Amir how
cold it is? After all, what is cold for Krishnan may be quite
pleasant for Amir!

As you can see, it would be difficult for Krishnan to convey his

sense of chillness to Amir unless there is a commonly agreed way
to measure the temperature. It is the same with other elements
of the weather. In this chapter, we will learn how we measure
the weather using common standards.

LET'S EXPLORE
What do you think could be some other reasons to measure
the weather more precisely? (Hint: Think how knowing the o5
25
weather a few hours or a few days in advance would help you @
plan some activities.) s,
o8
i
-3
From early times, humans have closely observed Nature and Forecast: . §3
7
learnt to read her signals to forecast the weather. Observing birds To predict 8%
or find 2
flying low, ants carrying eggs, squirrels gathering nuts, frogs } 5
outin s g
croaking loudly, or even the opening and closing of pine cones, advance =
provided valuable information about coming rain or storms. This (inour 52
case, the 2 >
knowledge has been passed down from generation to generation. weather). S
Even today, in many parts of India, people use traditional ways
to predict the weather, especially the arrival of the monsoon.

69
 Observing Nature’s clues

Fig. 2.3.1. Ants shifting their eggs to

higher ground is a natural behaviour
that indicates an expected change in
the weather; especially heavy rain.

Fig. 2.3.2. A frog

croaking in a forest of
the Western Ghats, in
expectation of rain.

Meteorology:
Meteorology
is the Fig. 2.3.3. The opening and closing of pine
systematic cones are natural mechanisms driven by
study of environmental humidity. Pine cones close
weather and in humid conditions to protect their seeds,
its evolution. and open in dry conditions to release them,
This study ensuring they spread in favourable weather:
is the basis
for weather
forecasting.

LET'S EXPLORE
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Talk to elders in your neighbourhood and ask them how they

predict the weather. What signs do they observe? Document
any sayings in your regional language that refer to weather
prediction.

In the last few centuries, scientists have worked out methods to

measure and monitor the elements of the weather with great
| precision. Based on those inputs, meteorologists try to predict
how the weather will behave in a particular region after a few
hours or a few days, or even a few weeks. How do they do it? Do
they just look up at the sky and guess? No, they’ve got some cool
gadgets, a few of which we will now look at.

70
Weather Instruments
a) Temperature

LET'S REMEMBER
Ul

In your Grade 6 Science textbook, Curiosity, you read about

different types of thermometers used for measuring the
temperature—the clinical thermometer and the laboratory
thermometer. You also learnt about temperature scales.
One of them is the Celsius scale; another is the Fahrenheit
scale. If, for instance, we have a cool temperature of 15
degrees Celsius (noted as 15°C), it is the same as 59 degrees
Fahrenheit (noted as 59°F).

Fig. 2.4.1. Snow melts Fig. 2.4.2. Cloudy weather —it’s

quickly when it’s warm. getting cold.
India and the World: Land and the People
2 - Understanding the Weather

Fig. 2.4.3. In winter; Fig. 2.4.4. Curd takes longer

coconut oil turns solid. to set in cold weather.

7
 Ambient: There are several types of thermometers. Some simply measure
Of the
immediate
the ambient temperature; others record the maximum and
surroundings. minimum temperatures during a day. Thermometers often use a
coloured liquid which expands when the temperature increases.
Statistics:
The technique However, more and more, digital thermometers are preferred as
of gathering they are more precise and can record more data.
and analysing
information Indeed, temperature recordings can be used to collect some
ordatain
useful statistics, including:
order to be
able to detect ® Range of temperature or the maximum temperature minus
patterns,
understand the minimum temperature during a particular period of
events or make time (usually 24 hours).
predictions.
®= Mean daily temperature or the maximum temperature
plus the minimum temperature of the day divided by two.

DON'T MISS
- The India Meteorological Department
was set up in 1875. Its motto is adityat
Jjayate vrishti, which means, “From the
sun arises rain.” The phrase comes from
the ancient text Manusmriti, and the
complete sentence reads, “From the sun
arises rain, from rain comes food, and
from food, living beings originate.”
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

- Canyouthinkofareasonwhy rain arises

from the sun?

LET'S EXPLORE
- Here’s a chart of the temperatures of a city in Madhya
\ Pradesh. What is the maximum temperature recorded in
the week shown here? What is the minimum? Calculate
the range.

72
 28.02.2025 29 16

01.03.2025 30 15

02.03.2025 31 17

03.03.2025 32 18

04.03.2025 30 17

05.03.2025 28 14

06.03.2025 29 15

- Remember the conversation between Krishnan and Amir?

If Krishnan said it was 20°C in Chennai and he was feeling
a little cold, he and Amir would have a measure they
could understand. What do you think Amir’s reaction to
Krishnan’s statement might be?

b) Precipitation
If the news says that a particular
place received 30 mm of rainfall in
a day, what does it mean? How is collecting
rainfall measured? funnel
India and the World: Land and the People
The amount of rainfall is measured
with the help of an instrument called
measuring
2 - Understanding the Weather

arain gauge (Fig. 2.6). When it rains,

scale
the water falls into a funnel and is
collected in a cylinder. A scale is
attached to the cylinder to measure measuring __|
the depth of rainwater collected. tube
For example, when the height of the
water collected is 5 mm, we say that
Fig. 2.6. Rain gauge
the area received 5 mm of rainfall.

73
 LE EXPLORE
Make a rain gauge as shown in the diagram above. Place the
rain gauge in an open area, away from objects that might
obstruct rain. Ensure that the rain gauge is on a flat surface
and will not tilt or topple with the wind. Using the measuring
scale, record the amount of rainwater collected at the same
time every day, for a month. (If there is snow, allow it to
melt before taking the measurement.) Calculate the average
rainfall for every week in that month and comment on the
variation from week to week.

c) Atmospheric pressure
Our bodies are quite aware of temperature and rainfall. But you
may also have experienced that the weather sometimes feels
‘heavy’, as before a thunderstorm. This is related to atmospheric
pressure, which is the pressure exerted by the weight of the air
above and around us.
The atmospheric pressure is higher near the sea coast and
lower as we go higher up into the mountains. When you climb a
mountain, the air gets thinner than in the plain below. As a result,
the air pressure is lower, and there is less oxygen available for
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

pressure
(cooler air)

74
 your lungs to take in. With less oxygen getting into your blood,
your body has to work harder to keep you moving! That’s why
people sometimes feel breathless, dizzy or tired at high altitudes.
This does not mean that the atmospheric pressure is always high
in the plains below or on the coast. In fact, it sometimes drops
dramatically, resulting in what meteorologists call a ‘depression’
or low-pressure system’, which can sometimes develop into a
storm or even a cyclone.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think it would be important to measure
atmospheric pressure? Who are the people most likely to use
such measurements?

The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called

a barometer. As with thermometers, there are several types
of barometers. The unit they display is generally the millibar
(abbreviated as mb). The normal atmospheric pressure at the
sea coastis around 1013 mb; a pressure below 1000 mb indicates
Acclimatise:
a depression. Adjustto a
new climate
' THINK ABOUT IT or new
condition
People who journey to places
at a high altitude are advised
to make pauses on the way to
allow the body to acclimatise.
Our army personnel serve India and the World: Land and the People

in high-altitude places like

Khardung la in Ladakh, which
2 - Understanding the Weather

is over 5600 metres above sea

level. It is hard to imagine
how they live and work in
places where the oxygen level
is so low—the atmospheric
pressure there is generally
about 650 millibars! Fig. 2.8

75
 d) Wind
Wind is the movement of air from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure. Speed and direction are two important
factors when we describe the wind.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Have you seen seeds like these flying in the wind? What
would happen to the seeds if there was no wind?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig.2.9

The wind is an important element of the weather. Its direction

and speed help in weather forecasting. Besides, air pilots
and sailors need to be aware of wind data, as the wind has a
great influence on flying or sailing. Farmers also use the wind
direction to predict where rain might come from. Also, a greater
. wind speed will cause the soil to dry faster.
So, how do we measure this direction and speed? A wind vane
(or weather vane) has a rotating arm with a pointer at one end
and a tail at the other. When the wind blows, the tail is pushed,
and the pointer turns in the direction of the wind. It responds
even to a light breeze.

76
 Fig. 2.10. Left: Wind vane on the tarmac. Right: Anemometer

This wind vane on the tarmac is called a ‘wind sock’. It gives

pilots an indication of the direction of the wind during take-off
and landing. Similar socks are used in industries that release
ash or gases.
The simplest instrument to measure the wind direction and
speed is the anemometer. It has three or four metal cups that
rotate on a vertical shaft when the wind blows—the stronger
the wind, the faster the rotation. A meter attached at the bottom
counts how many times the anemometer spins in a certain
period of time and calculates the wind speed in kilometres per
hour (km/h).

e) Humidity
Humidity is the last element of the weather on our list. It refers
to the amount of water vapour present in the air. It also depends India and the World: Land and the People

on factors like temperature, wind, pressure and location.

2 - Understanding the Weather

LET'S EXPLORE
Where do you think humidity is likely to be more, Kochi or
Jaipur? You might guess that Kochi has higher humidity than
Jaipur because it is located near the sea. But how will we know
for sure? If we had to compare the humidity level between
Kochi and Mangaluru, how would we do it? Discuss with your
classmates.

77
 We can answer these questions more precisely by learning how
to measure humidity.
Before we move forward, we need to remember our Science
lesson from Grade 6 about the states of water. This will help us
to understand how humidity is measured.

LET'S REMEMBER
- When water evaporates, it causes a cooling effect.
- If the amount of water in the air is already high (more
humidity), water evaporates slowly. That is typically the
case on a rainy day.

Humidity of the air is measured as relative humidity: air that

would contain absolutely no water vapour (which is impossible
in natural conditions) is rated at 0%, while air saturated with
water vapour will have a humidity of 100%. In practice, dry
weather has a relative humidity range between 20% and 40%,
while humid weather usually falls between 60% and 80% relative
humidity.

' THINK ABOUT IT

If the humidity in Delhi is at 52% while in Kochi it is 84%, in
which of the two places are wet clothes likely to dry faster?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

And where are you likely to sweat more, assuming the

temperature is the same in both places?

But how do we measure such numbers? This is done through an

instrument called a hygrometer. Again, there are several types
of hygrometers, depending on the principle they are based on.
The measurement of humidity is of great importance in many
industrial processes, such as food processing. Museums also
monitor humidity as they need to maintain a dry environment
to preserve their exhibit.
o

78
Weather Stations
As you can see, we need several
instruments to measure the weather at
a particular place and time. A weather
station brings all these instruments
together, making it easy to measure
and track the weather. Readings of all
the measurements are taken at regular
intervals, which helps in mapping and
forecasting the weather.

An automated weather station Fig. 2.11

An Automated Weather Station (AWS) is a self-operating
system that uses various sensors to measure and record weather
data, such as temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, |
precipitation, and atmospheric pressure. Such stations are
widely used in fields like agriculture, aviation, navigation,
environmental monitoring, and so on, providing accurate
and timely weather information without the need for human
intervention.

In 2023, the National Disaster

Management Authority set
up an AWS at a glacial lake of
Sikkim at an altitude of more India and the World: Land and the People

than 4800 metres above sea

level. The AWS provides early
2 - Understanding the Weather

information about upcoming

weather conditions.

Fig. 2.12. AWS at a glacial lake of Sikkim

Predicting the Weather

Meteorologists collect data using these instruments over
long periods of time. They study the data and use scientific

79
 methods to try and predict the weather. Such predictions are
very important nowadays, as climate change makes extreme
weather, such as droughts, floods, cyclones, etc., more frequent.

H~
o
T
5 —
-g - Fog ;fl Heat Wave

E ‘ Heavy Rain fl Cold Wave

°2
5 B very Heavy Rain . 11‘ Cold Day SUBDIVISION COLOUR
]
’_"; ‘ Extremely Heavy Rain Ground Frost . No Warning
9
8 & Heavy Snow |%** Strong Surface Winds . Watch (Be Updated)
@
'E’ ’ Hailstorm ’ Thunder & Lightning . Alert (Be Prepared)
5
&5 . Dust Storm . Hot and Humid . Warning (Take Action)

Fig. 2.13. India: weather warning for India on 19 May 2024

80
Accurate predictions help us to be ready for such events. They
also enable local governments to mobilise resources and prepare
for any disasters. For example, if stormy weather is expected at
sea, fishermen are warned about venturing out in their boats, or
an entire coastal area might have to be evacuated if a cyclone is
expected.

LET'S EXPLORE
Discuss, in pairs, different situations in which weather
predictions are helpful. Make a list, and after you have
completed it, share it and discuss it with the pair sitting next
to you. How many different categories of situations have you
been able to identify?

Look carefully at the map of India above. This map was issued
by the India Meteorological Department on 19 May 2024. Study
the icons and connect them to the conditions shown on the map.

LET'S EXPLORE
- What do you observe happening on that day? What are
the various weather conditions that the IMD is alerting
people to?
- Which states have warning signs?
- Which parts of India are likely to be free from severe
weather?
> Which states are likely to face heat wave conditions?
India and the World: Land and the People
- What are the causes for warning in Tripura and
Lakshadweep?
2 - Understanding the Weather

Before we move on ...

- Temperature, humidity, precipitation, windand atmospheric
pressure together define the weather at a particular place.
-~ The condition of these elements is measured using special
instruments. Data collected from these help us to monitor
and predict the weather.

81
 - In different times or situations, one of the elements is
dominant— for example, rainfall in July, the temperature in
May and December, atmospheric pressure when a cyclone is
moving, and wind when a loo (strong, hot and dusty winds
that blow in north India in summers) is blowing, or forest
fires are spreading.
- Weather is closely linked to climate. We will discuss this in
the next chapter.

Questions and activities

1. Match the instrument with the weather element it measures.

Instrument used Element of the Weather

1) Hygrometer (a) Precipitation

) Anemometer (09)] Atmospheric pressure

3) Barometer (c) Wind direction and speed

4) Thermometer (d) Humidity

(5) Rain gauge (e) Temperature

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

2. Jyotsna is deciding what clothes to pack for her school trip

to Mumbai in June. She looks at the weather forecast, which
predicts 29°C and 84% humidity. What would be your advice
to her?
3. Imagine that a small group of students is setting up a rain
gauge.
Here are some options for the site.
1. The school vegetable garden.
The terrace of the school building.
Open ground with elevated platform.
RS

Compound wall of school.

Verandah of the school laboratory.

82
 Discuss in your group and finalise the site. Write down the
reasons for your decision.
4. Below is a chart taken from IMD, Jammu and Kashmir.
Looking at the data available, write a short script to report
the weather conditions in different parts of Jammu and
Kashmir on the date shown. (Hint: Cover the temperature
range, maximum and minimum temperatures, humidity,
precipitation, etc.)
DAILY WEATHER PARAMETERS
Jammu & Kashmir (EVENING)
DATE: 01-02-2024

SRINAGAR . % 0. NIKER TR 0.0

QAZIGUND . b EY-2.1] 1.7 RN
PAHALGAM ! . B BIPAR 60 8.0
KUPWARA . k 5 .3[ 1.6 {0 0.0
KUKERNAG . . A ZIRNY 12.0 8.0
GULMARG g . 4 KN 8.2 6.35
MUZAFARABAD

Note: ACT means actual; NOR means normal; DEP is departure

from normal; R/F is rainfall; S/N is snowfall; TR means trace
India and the World: Land and the People
amount. 2 - Understanding the Weather

83
 Neodles
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

*Noodles' is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

84
 CHAPTER
Climates of India
kale varshatu parjanyaha prithivi sasyashalint
deshoyam kshobharahitah brahmanasantu nirbhayah

May the rains be timely, may the Earth be lush with vegetation
May this country be free from turmoil, may good people be fearless!
— Subhashita

B q ’ . What makes India’s climate so

The B1g diverse?
Questlons ® 2. What are the monsoons?
How are they formed?
3. What is the effect of climate on
economy, culture and society?
4. How can understanding the
climate help us to prepare
for natural disasters?
5. What is climate change? What are
its consequences?
 Weather, Seasons and the Climate
‘Climate’ is a word people use in everyday conversations. But,
quite often, what they really mean is ‘weather’, and not ‘climate’.
What’s the difference? ‘Weather’ is what we experience every
hour or day: it might be raining, or there could be bright
sunshine, alot of wind, etc. The weather keeps changing. Climate,
on the other hand, is the pattern of weather an area or a region
experiences over a long period of time—several decades at
least. This pattern varies from region to region.
Before we come to the various types of climates, let us briefly stop
to introduce seasons. Seasons occur as the Earth revolves around
the Sun. Each season lasts for a few months and recurs every
year. As we know, there are several seasons in the year —spring,
summer, monsoon, autumn and winter
— that occur in a cycle.
Are seasons related to the weather or to the climate? The answer
is: to both.
The weather changes with the season, that is, it can be dry and
hot in the summer months, or humid and rainy during the
monsoon. Further, the pattern of seasons in a region is closely
connected with the climate. There are four main seasons across
most regions of the world — spring, summer, autumn and winter.
However, India receives rainfall during a specific period of the
year—the ‘rainy season’ or monsoon—along with the other
four.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 3.2
Traditionally, in many parts of India, the year is divided into six
seasons or ritus—vasanta (spring), grishma (summer), varsha
(rainy season), sharad (autumn), hemanta (pre-winter), shishir
(winter). Specific rituals and festivals are associated with these
six ritus, such as Vasanta Pafichami or Sharad Parnima.

86
If we observe the world around us, we will notice that human,
plant and animal life are in rhythm with the ritus or seasons.
The crops we grow, the food we eat, the clothes we wear, and so
on, change with the season. Depending on the region, some trees
and shrubs bloom with the onset of vasanta or spring, in some
places they shed their leaves or change their colour as sharad or
autumn approaches and some animals develop thick fur in the
cold winter months.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Which are your favourite seasons? Write a short essay
explaining your reasons.
> Discuss in groups of three or four and find out whether
there are specific events connected to the seasons in your
region. Collect information about them—songs, feasts
with specific types of food, practices in different seasons,
etc. Document these and share your discoveries with your
class.
- Do you know which trees in your area change colours
before the onset of winter? Are there trees that shed their
leaves around this time? Why do you think this happens?
Find out and document the local names of these trees.

Usually, the climate remains stable over long periods of time.

However, scientists have been recording changes in the climates
of the world in the recent decades. Studies show that many of
India and the World: Land and the People
these changes have been caused by human actions.
Let us recapitulate:
® Weather is what we experience from day to day—windy,
rainy, hot, dry, etc.
3 - Climates of India

= Seasons recur every year and the weather of a place is

different in every season.
® C(Climateisthelong-term patternin a particular region. There
are many types of climates in the world. We will now survey
the main types found in India.

87
 Types of Climates in India
We have often seen how India is a land of diversity. This is
equally true of its climate:
In the north, the Himalayan mountains have an alpine
climate with cold, snowy winters and cool summers (the
word ‘alpine’ comes from the Alps, a mountain range of
Europe). That’s probably where you will see the thickest
clothing in India!
Lower in the Himalayas, and in many hilly areas of India,
the climate is often said to be temperate, as the winters are
moderately cold and the summers not too hot. That is where
we find many ‘hill stations’, much frequented by people
seeking relief from the heat in the plains below.
= Inthe northern plains, the climate is
subtropical, with very hot summers
and cold winters. This is where most
of India’s wheat is grown.
= In the west, the Thar Desert has an
arid climate featuring extremely
hot days, cool nights, and very little
rainfall. People there have had to
develop unique ways to collect and
Fig. 3.3 save water.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

The western coastal strip receives heavy rainfall during

monsoon months, creating a tropical wet climate, which is
favourable to the growing of rice and spices.
The central Deccan Plateau has a semi-arid climate with hot
summers, mild winters and moderate rainfall during the
rainy season.
Eastern India and the southern peninsula experience a
tropical climate with a mild winter and distinct wet and dry
periods controlled by monsoon winds (more on them soon).
Note: You will understand later the meaning of the terms
‘tropical’ and ‘subtropical’, which are related to two special
parallels of latitude called the ‘tropics’.
o

88
Factors Determining the Climate
What creates those different climates? There are many factors at
work. Some are general ones —on the scale of the planet—while
others are regional or even local. Let’s examine a few.

a) Latitude

LET'S REMEMBER 2
We studied about latitudes in Grade 6. Do you remember that
latitudes measure the distance from the Equator, increasing
as we move away from it (either northward or southward)?
While the climate around the Equator is extremely hot, as
the latitude increases it becomes temperate and then cold or
frigid. Why is this so?

Places near the Equator,

that is, at low latitudes,
are warmer, while those
near the poles (high
Solar radiation
latitudes) are colder.
This happens due to the
angle at which the sun’s
rays hit a particular
area. At the Equator
Atmosphere
the rays are nearly
perpendicular, and so all
At the equator exposure to the sun’s rays is
their energy is focused India and the World: Land and the People
concentrated, but near the poles it is dispersed
on a smaller area of the over a wide area
Earth’s surface. In the Fig. 3.4
polar regions, the rays are inclined or oblique, and the energy
is distributed over a larger surface. Moreover, they have to pass
3 - Climates of India

through more of the Earth’s atmosphere, as the diagram shows,

which further dissipates their energy. As a result, the polar
regions receive less heat than the equatorial zone. We can see
this in India too: Kanniyakumari and the Nicobar Islands being
close to the Equator are warm or hot almost throughout the year,
whereas places in the north, such as Srinagar, are much cooler.

89
 b) Altitude
We mentioned hill stations above, which are popular tourist
centres because of their cooler climate. India has many
including Munnar, Theni, Udhagamandalam (Ooty), Madikeri,
Mahabaleshwar, Mount Abu, Shimla, Nainital, Darjeeling,
Tawang, Shillong, etc. We know they are located at a higher
altitude than the plains below, but how does that explain their
cooler temperature? You will later learn the full answer in your
Science classes.
To keep things simple for now, the temperature decreases as the
altitude increases because:
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 3.5

1. The atmospheric pressure, and therefore the air density,

decreases as the altitude increases (as we saw in the chapter
‘Understanding the Weather’), and as the air gets less dense,
it gets cooler.
2. Thesunheatsthesurface ofthe Earth,andsothe fartheraway
from the surface, the less hot the air will be. The Himalayas
are so high that many peaks maintain a temperature below
water’s freezing point, keeping them covered in snow.

90
 LET'S EXPLORE
Udhagamandalam (Ooty) and Coimbatore are almost at the
same latitude. The range of summer temperatures in Ooty is
10-25° while that in Coimbatore is 25-38°. Why do you think
there is such a difference in temperature between these two
places?

c¢) Proximity to the sea

Temperatures in coastal
Distance from the sea
areas do notvary much;
the summers are not Summer
too hot and the winters Incoming heat
are not too cold. That fromtheSun
44°C (warm)
is because the sea 32°¢ (cool) Coastal region
acts as a moderator cooled
by sea air
for the temperature.
This diagram sums up
the phenomenon, and
Winter
your Science textbook
explains
i thisi further from the Earth
Spuagg heat ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
while discussing the 10°C (cold)
o Coastal region
heating and cooling 18°C (cool) warmed by sea air
of land and water in
coastal regions. The
result is that those Fig. 3.6
regions tend to be more temperate. As you move inland from India and the World: Land and the People

the coast, the temperatures get more extreme—summer

temperatures will be higher and winter temperatures lower. For
instance, Mumbai and Nagpur are located at a similar latitude,
but Mumbai, being near the sea, has cooler summers (around
3 - Climates of India

32°C) and milder winters (around 18°C), while Nagpur, away

from the coast, experiences up to 44°C in summer and about
10°C in winter. As you can see, Mumbai’s range of temperature
(i.e. the difference between the maximum and the minimum) is
about 14°C while the range at Nagpur reaches 34°C.

91
 d) Winds
Wind can move masses of warmer or cooler air States like
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh often receive
winds blowing from the west. Having travelled over the deserts
of Arabia to Afghanistan, they bring dry and hot air that causes
severe heat waves in summer. In winter cold winds from across
the Himalayas creep into the Himalayan foothills, resulting in
cold waves.

Winds affect not only

temperature, but also
humidity,and in turn,
precipitation. We saw
dry winds coming
from distant deserts;
in contrast, winds
coming from the sea
bring moisture over
the land, which may
result in rainfall.
We will soon see the
case of the monsoon
winds.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

LET'S REMEMBER &

In your Grade 6 Science textbook ‘Curiosity’ you studied
Topography: the water cycle! “The water from the ocean and the Earth’s
The totality surface evaporates into the atmosphere as vapour and
ofthe
returns as rain, hail or snow....”
physical
surface
features of
an area. This e) Topography
may include
mountains, Finally, the topography of a region also plays an important
hills, valleys,
slopes,
role in determining its climate. For instance, the Himalayas
coasts, etc. and the Karakoram ranges protect, to some extent, the Indian

92
subcontinent from the winds of the cold deserts of Central Asia.
The nearly flat topography of the Thar desert, on the other
hand, has nothing to protect it from hot and dry winds. In the
next section, we will see the role of the Western Ghats in India’s
southwest monsoon.
Putting it all together..
The climate of any region is determined collectively by all the
above factors. Describing the climate involves a description of
the patterns of temperature, precipitation (rain or snowfall,
occurrence of fog or mist) and wind conditions in a region over
three decades or more.

A microclimate is a climate localised in a small area, which

differs from the climate in the surrounding region. It has a

Fig. 3.8. Aravallis and urban heat islands

unique pattern of temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc.,in a India and the World: Land and the People
small geographical area.
For instance, enclosed valleys and some forests have micro-
climates of their own. So do ‘urban heat islands’, that is, some
cities that have a large number of buildings and other concrete
structures and very little vegetation; all this traps the heat and
3 - Climates of India

they are often much warmer than the surrounding region.

Microclimates can influence the local flora and fauna, the crops
grown, and impact human health and well-being.

93
 The Monsoons
The monsoon season is central to life in India. During the
monsoon months, the rivers fill up, the soil is soaked with
water, crops grow and life thrives. Strictly speaking, the word
‘monsoon’, which comes from the Arabic word mausim, meaning
‘season’, refers to seasonal winds over a large area of the Indian
Ocean and surrounding regions, including Australia, Africa and
South Asia.
There is a yearly pattern to the monsoons. Their mechanism
is complex, but based on the simple fact that land heats up
or cools down faster than the ocean. Monsoons bring out the
fundamental relationship between temperature, pressure and
wind movement.
To put it simply, as summer begins, the Asian landmass heats
up, creating a powerful low-pressure system over it. Since air
always flows from high pressure to low pressure, winds are
drawn from the cooler, high-pressure ocean towards the hot
land. These ocean winds carry moisture that condenses over
the warmer land and falls in the form of heavy monsoon rains.
(That is why ‘monsoon’ commonly refers to the seasonal rains
rather than the winds.)
A. Summer B. Winter
9] [CIEEAY
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

southwest monsoon northeast monsoon

Africa

Fig. 3.9
The pattern reverses in winter, when the landmass cools down
more rapidly than the ocean. Now the land has a high-pressure
system while the ocean remains warmer with relatively
lower pressure. This causes the winds to blow in the opposite
direction—from the land towards the ocean—bringing dry
conditions to much of Asia.
o

94
 Coming to India, the monsoon rains typically advance from
the southern tip of India in early June, moving northward over
several weeks until they cover the entire subcontinent by mid-
July. It is not a smooth progression, though the Western Ghats
(remember our brief survey of topography) act as a natural
barrier; their western slopes receive much rainfall, while
the Deccan plateau to the east receive less, and often with
interruptions. This is commonly called the summer or southwest
monsoon (‘southwest’ reflecting the direction the winds come
from).
As winter approaches, the winds reverse and blow from the
land to the ocean, as we just saw. These are dry winds that bring
cold weather to south India, but a part of them, passing over the
Bay of Bengal, collect some moisture and bring rainfall to parts
of east and south India. This is called the winter or northeast
monsoon.

<9 DON'T MISS OUT

- Mawsynram, located in Meghalaya, receives the highest
average annual rainfall in the world, about 11,000 mm
(which is the same as 11 metres!).

India and the World: Land and the People

3 - Climates of India

Fig. 3.10.
- The monsoons have inspired many ragas in both Carnatic
and Hindustani classical music. Meghamalhar and
amruthavarshini are names of a couple of them.

95
 LET'S EXPLORE
Since the ability to predict the monsoon rainfall has been
an important aspect of life in India, our ancestors observed
Nature around them carefully. They developed local
traditional knowledge through their experience. This
traditional knowledge is an important heritage we must
preserve. For example, fishermen on the Konkan coast
predict the onset of the monsoon when fishes that normally
stay under water are seen at the surface; in parts of southern
India monsoonissaid to arrive within 50 days after the Golden
Shower tree (Cassia fistula) blossoms. Some communities also
believe that when crows build their nests high on tree-tops, it
indicates less rainfall, whereas if the nests are lower, rainfall
islikely to be heavy. Make a list of such local knowledge about
rain, fog, snow or hail in your area.

Climate and our Lives

Our lives are deeply connected with the climate and dependent
on it. The impact of climate is visible in local cultures for
instance, and India has many festivals associated with seasons
and agricultural activities.

LET'S EXPLORE
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Reach out to your grandparents or elders in your

neighbourhood. Ask them about the traditional festivals
and dances they remember from their childhood and youth,
especially those related to agriculture and rain. What rituals
did they participate in? Then organise a cultural fest with
your friends. You can showcase some of the dances, songs
and activities your elders shared with you. Whether it is a
dance, harvest ritual, or a simple story about a prayer to rain
gods, try to bring these traditions to life for your classmates.

The climate also hasa directimpact on the economy. For instance,

you may have heard the phrase ‘monsoon failure’, which refers

96
 to poor rainfall during the monsoon season; in such a case, the
agriculture suffers, people (women, generally) have to walk
long distances in search of water, and agricultural labourers are
likely to migrate to the cities; food (grains, vegetables and fruits,
to begin with) becomes costlier, fuelling inflation. Industrial
activity also often depends on a predictable weather and the
availability of water. The world over, we can easily detect such
connections between the climate and socioeconomic conditions.
Those conditions get especially strained when climate disasters
strike.

Climates and Disasters

India’s diverse weather patterns can bring about extreme
conditions such as cyclones, floods, landslides and other such
climate-related disasters. These events affect people’s lives,
disrupt agriculture, damage infrastructure and disturb local
economies.

a) Cyclones
Every year, the Indian coastline, especially the eastern coast,
witness several cyclones. In past years, some of them have been
highly destructive, resulting in the loss of human and animal
life, damaging property and infrastructure, uprooting trees
and causing soil erosion. The India Meteorological Department
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

(IMD) keeps track of coming cyclones and provides information

on their formation, evolution, place of landing, etc.

: ON'T MISS O

The National Disaster Response Force

& (NDRF) is specially trained to respond
b to natural as well as human-made
@ disasters. NDRF battalions are located
at 12 different locations in India. The
NDRF has played a key role in rescue
and evacuation during disasters like
Fig. 3.12 cyclones, landslides and floods.

98
 How are cyclones formed? We saw that in some special
situations, the atmospheric pressure near the sea becomes
lower than the surrounding areas, creating a low-pressure
system. This is an invitation to the air from surrounding areas
to come into the low-pressure area, and the air from the sea
moves in, bringing with it moisture and rain. When the low-
pressure system is intense and the wind speeds are high, this
may result in a cyclone.
As winds collect moisture, they form clouds and rotate inwards
towards the centre of the depression. This centre, which is
cloudless, is called ‘the eye of the cyclone’.

' THINK ABOU

What are clouds? White lumps in the sky, you might say.
But what are they made of? The answer is simple—water.
But not just any water; clouds are masses of water droplets,
ice crystals, or a mixture of both, that are suspended in the
atmosphere.

clouds formed India and the World: Land and the People

a
low pressure
centre
3 - Climates of India

2 i
winds bringing
moist air from sea

Fig. 3.13. Cyclone Fani

99
 Fig. 3.14. Eye of the storm

b) Floods
A flood occurs when water overflows into normally dry land.
This could be due to heavy rainfall generating huge run-off water
that the land cannot absorb, or due to excessive accumulation of
water in bodies like rivers and lakes, until the water overflows
or their banks are breached. Floods occur frequently during the
monsoons. States such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Andhra
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Pradesh and Assam are particularly vulnerable to floods.

Have you seen or read about floods? Look at the physical

map of India. Discuss in pairs why you think floods occur in
the areas mentioned above.

In the Himalayan regions, on the other hand, floods occur when

glacial lakes overflow. Glacial lakes form a barrier of rocks and
ice to hold their water, which often comes from melting glaciers.
If the glaciers melt too fast (as is increasingly the case) or if there
is too much rainfall, the build-up of pressure can cause the water

100
 Fig. 3.15
to break through the barrier —this is called a glacial burst and
it often has devastating consequences for people and property.

|& DON'T MISS OUT

In 2013, Uttarakhand experienced a sudden glacial burst
caused by continuous heavy rain over several days. Many
landslides followed. Areas around one of India’s important India and the World: Land and the People
sacred sites, the Kedarnath temple, were completely
destroyed. Several villages were washed away in the floods,
along with many roads and bridges. Altogether about 6,000
people, many of them pilgrims, lost their lives.
3 - Climates of India

Many cities experience flooding when there is heavy rainfall.

This may be due to an overburdened drainage system or poorly
planned construction encroaching on the waterways and
blocking the flow of water. Besides, urban surfaces of concrete
or asphalt do not allow water to be absorbed by the earth.

101
 c) Landslides
A landslide is the sudden collapse of rock, soil, or debris, often
triggered by heavy rain, earthquakes or volcanic activity.
Landslides are common in hilly and mountainous regions such
as Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh, as well as the Western Ghats and hilly regions. These
events often occur during the monsoon.
In those regions, the chances of landslides have increased due
to human activities such as the cutting down of forests, building
infrastructure without following approved methods and the
construction of too many buildings that block the natural flow
of water.

d) Forest fires
Forest fires are uncontrolled fires that spread rapidly across
vegetation, often fuelled by dry climatic conditions, droughts
or high winds. Human carelessness is another frequent cause.
Forest fires are common in states with large forested or grassland
areas such as Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh, as well as mountain ranges such as the
Western Ghats. Apart from destroying large areas of forest, fires
harm wildlife, degrade the ecosystem, spoil the air quality and
displace local communities. The consequences are therefore
both environmental and economic.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

LET'S EXPLORE
- Observe Fig. 3.15. Describe the effects they may have on
people, plants, animals and economic life.
> In groups of four or five, identify in each of the above
disasters the part of natural causes and the part of human
causes. Compare your conclusions.
- Discuss in the same groups series of preventive measures
that could help avoid the above disasters.

102
 Fossil fuels:
Climate Change Sources
of
Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the energy that
were formed
climate. This may be on the scale of the planet or on a regional from the
scale, and it involves shifts in temperature, precipitation and remains of
. . . plants and
weather events. In past millennia (we can go back millions of animals that
years, in fact), natural processes drove climate change. Since the died millions
19th century, however, climate change has been largely driven g;ge:r:;
by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, were buried
deforestation, environmentally harmful industrial practices, and g;‘zFr’S“:fd:D'”
production and patterns of excessive or wasteful consumption. and rockor
under the
sea, where
heatand
pressure
| slowly
turned them
| into coal,
petroleum
oiland
natural gas.

India and the World: Land and the People

3 - Climates of India

103
 Why does the burning of fossil fuels affect the climate? In the
Earth’s natural carbon cycle, carbon dioxide (CO,) and other
gases are released gradually into the atmosphere and trap heat
from the Sun. This natural ‘greenhouse effect’ warms Earth
enough to support life. However, human activities like industry,
transportation, and agriculture have released enormous
Resilience:
amounts of these ‘greenhouse gases’ in just a few centuries. This
The capacity
to withstand sudden increase traps extra heat, causing rapid global warming
or recover and disrupting the climate patterns that plants, animals, and
quickly from
difficulties. human societies have adapted to over thousands of years.
In India, rising temperatures are perceptible in many regions.
Mitigation:
The adoption Early in 2025, for instance, the country’s average temperature
of steps to was 1 to 3°C above normal, as a result of which the winter
help slow
down global was much shorter and milder than usual. This affects not only
warming agricultural production but also many small-scale industries.
and reduce
the causes
This is only one example showing how a warmer planet will
of climate present us with increasing challenges.
change.
Understanding the relationship between the causes of climate
Sustainable: change and disasters can help us to prepare better for these
Something
which can be challenges. It also supports the need for more environment-
maintained overa friendly practices and building resilience and adaptation in
long period communities. Governments worldwide, including India’s,
of time.
attempt to promote measures of climate mitigation, such as
cutting down on greenhouse gas emissions, planting trees,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

boosting renewable energy and improving energy efficiency,

promoting sustainable lifestyles, etc. But these often clash with a
desire for economic growth and increased consumption.

Before we move on ...

-~ India’s diverse climate is shaped by its geography, including
mountains, deserts, and plateaus.
- Weather is short-term, seasons recur on a yearly basis, and
climate reflects long-term patterns over decades.
- Factors such as latitude, altitude, proximity to the sea, wind
and topography determine the climate.
- Monsoons are vital for agriculture, influencing crop cycles
and livelihoods.

104
> Climate is connected with cultural traditions, festivals,
agriculture and economic activity.
> Understanding the climate helps prepare for natural
disasters like floods and cyclones.
> Climate change leads to extremes of weather or temperature
and can have severe consequences on the natural and
human worlds.

Questions and activities

1. Match the climatic factors with their effects:

Brings wet air to India during

(1) Latitude (a)
summer
. Creates different climates in
@) At ® the north and south

(3) Proximity to the ocean (c) Keeps higher places cooler

(4) Monsoon winds (d) Moderates the temperature

2. Answer the following questions:

a) What is the difference between weather and climate?
b) Why do places near the ocean have milder temperatures
than places far away from it?
c¢) What role do monsoon winds play in affecting India’s India and the World: Land and the People

climate?
d) Why is Chennai warm or hot throughout the year, while
Leh is cold?
3. Look at a map of India given at the end of this book. Identify
3 - Climates of India

the climate for these cities—Leh, Chennai, Delhi, Panaji and

Jaipur.

Is the place near the sea, in the mountains, orin the desert?
How do these factors affect the climate there?

105
 4. Draw the monsoon cycle in summers and winters on a map
of India.
= Label where the winds blow in summer and winter
= Show the direction of winds during the monsoon
5. Make a colourful poster showing festivals in India linked to
farming and weather (e.g., Baisakhi, Onam). Add pictures or
drawings of these festivals.
6. Imagine you are a farmer in India. Write a short diary entry
about how you would prepare for the rainy season.
7. Identify a natural disaster (e.g., cyclone, flood, landslide, or
forest fire) and write a short essay that includes the causes
and impacts. Suggest actions that individuals, communities
and the government can take to reduce the impact.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1
2]

106
New Beginnings:
Cities and States
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns
at thefrontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests,
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ....
- Kautilya, Arthashastra

Fig. 4.1. Ruins ofa major structure at Rajagriha (modern-day Rajgir

in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.

o781CH04

107
 Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is,
over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus/Harappan/
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India’s
‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. Some of its cities were
abandoned; in others, some people continued living
there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They
had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban
order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private
and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different
communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths,
potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a
writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an
administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure
witharulingclassatthe head. And for awhole millennium,
urban life remained absent from India, though there may
have been a few towns here and there in north India.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 4.2. The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper.

108
Indeed, there were important regional cultures, which we
need not study here.
Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of
urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus
(or Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually
spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we
know this? Mainly from two sources: (1) archaeological
excavations that have confirmed the existence of those
ancienturban centres, and (2) ancientliterature describing
them—late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of
references to these new urban centres.
This new phase is often called India’s ‘Second
Urbanisation’—which, incidentally, has continued right
up to today! Let us see how this phase emerged.

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional
cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India.
As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a
common language and common customs, each clan came
to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a
raja or ruler. (Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word which means
‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada), that is, have
settled down.)
The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and 4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States
connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some
of those early states had merged together; the resulting
bigger units were known as mahajanapadas. Although
the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent
Tapestry of the Past

list gives the names of 16 mahajanapadas, extending from

Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and to
Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River (see
map). There may have been a few more, along with some
smaller janapadas continuing independently.
(2]

109
 ' THINK ABOUT IT
Notice how many of the mahdjanapadas are concentrated in
the Ganga plains. There are several possible reasons for this,
including the growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains,
the availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills (see
below about iron), and the formation of new trade networks.

LET'S EXPLORE
- The most powerful of these new states were Magadha,
Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you
identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match
with Indian cities of today?
- Compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned
in the Mahabharata (see Fig. 5.4 in the chapter ‘India, That
Is Bharat’ in Grade 6) and list the names common to both
Moat:
maps. What do you think this implies?
Adeep,
wide ditch
surrounding
The map (Fig. 4.3) shows the mahajanapadas’ capitals. Most
afortora were fairly large well-fortified cities, with a moat running
fortified city
and filled with
outside the fortifications as further defence. Often, the
water. gateways through the rampart walls would be deliberately
keptnarrow, so guards may control the movement of people
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

and goods entering or leaving the city. It is fascinating to

note that most of those ancient capitals continue to be living
cities today—‘modern’ cities that are often 2,500 years old!

Early Democratic Traditions

Each janapada had an assembly or council, called sabha
or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be
discussed. (Remember, from the chapter on ‘India’s Cultural
Roots’, that the words sabha and samiti first appear in the
Vedas, India’s most ancient texts.) We may assume that
most of the members were elders in the clan. The raja
was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily;

110
 KURU!
Indraprastha

: : VRIJI
SN KOSAY g. ¢
MALLA 4 vaighalr
Ralagrihal @hampa‘ -
A ANGA 4

e,
Fig. 4.3. Map of the sixteen mahajanapadas. Note that their borders are approximate.

a good ruler was supposed to take the advice from those

assemblies, apart from the ministers and administrators. 4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States
Indeed, according to some texts, an incompetent ruler
could be removed by the assembly. Of course, while such
mentions are significant, it does not mean that this was an
established law; let us remember that the data we have for
Tapestry of the Past

such remote periods is incomplete.

In their political systems, the mahdajanapadas expanded
the basic principles of the janapadas. Some were, in effect,
monarchies, in the sense that the raja was the ultimate
authority, supported by ministers and an assembly of

111
 elders. His position was hereditary, in the sense that a raja
would usually be the son of the previous one. The king
would collect taxes or revenue, maintain law and order,
get impressive fortifications built around their capital, and
maintain an army to defend the territory or wage war with
neighbouring ones, as the case may be. Magadha (located
in part of today’s Bihar), Kosala (in part of today’s Uttar
Pradesh) and Avanti (in part of today’s Madhya Pradesh)
were among the most powerful such states.
However, at least two mahajanapadas, Vajji (or Vrijji) and
the neighbouring Malla, had a different system: the sabha
or samiti had more power and took important decisions
through discussion, and, if necessary, through vote.
Surprisingly, this included the selection of the raja! This
means that those mahajanapadas, which were called ganas
or sanghas, were not monarchies—their functioning might
be called democratic, since members of the assembly were
the ones to select the ruler and take major decisions. In fact,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 4.4. Ruins ofa complex at Kaushambi, capital of the Vatsa mahajanapada

112
scholars have often called them ‘early republics’, as they
are indeed one of the earliest such systems in the world.

More Innovations
The age of the janapadas and mahajanapadas was an age of
profound change, which would impact Indian civilisation
until present times. In the chapter ‘India’s Cultural Roots’
in Grade 6, we saw the emergence of several new schools
of thought—Ilate Vedic, Buddhist, Jain in particular, and
their respective literatures. Those schools disseminated
their teachings and literature through scholars, monks
and nuns travelling across India or people undertaking
pilgrimages. Indian art also underwent a renewal; it will
blossom in the age of empires.
Urbanisation does not happen without technologies. Let us
remember that the Harappan civilisation mastered copper
and bronze metallurgy. Now, in this Second Urbanisation,
a major shift in technology involved iron metallurgy. In
several regions of India, the techniques of extracting and
shaping iron were actually perfected from the early 2nd
millennium BCE, but it took a few centuries for iron to
become a part of daily life. By the late 2nd millennium BCE,
iron tools had become widespread, facilitating agriculture
on a bigger scale. Iron also made better weapons than
bronze, lighter and sharper—swords, spears, arrows,
shields, etc. As ithappens, there is some evidence of warfare 4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States
between neighbouring mahajanapadas—how frequent or
how intense it was, of course, is impossible to tell. Such
military campaigns, but occasionally alliances too, gave
rise to new kingdoms and empires, which we will turn to
Tapestry of the Past

later in our journey.

Another innovation was the first use of coins in India,
made necessary by growing trade. Very soon, coins were
exchanged across different regions and even with other
parts of the world. The first Indian coins were made of

113
 silver, a soft metal into which symbols could be
‘punched’; they are called ‘punch-marked coins’.
Later, coins of copper, gold and other metals were
also made. Generally, a mahajanapada issued its
f own coins, but coins from neighbouring regions
were used as well as exchanged in trade.

LET'S EXPLORE
Fill up the following table with a Yes (or tick mark) or No (or
cross mark) in each square, which provides an interesting
comparison between these two phases of Indian civilisation.

First Second
Urbanisation Urbanisation
Ganga plains

Monasteries

Literature

Trade

Warfare

Copper/bronze
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Iron

The Varna-Jati System

We saw earlier how human societies grew more complex
with the rise of civilisation. Whenever this happens, a
society organises itself in several groups based on class,
occupation or some other criteria. For instance, there
could be different groups concerned with governance,
administration, religion, education, trade, town-planning,
farming, crafts, arts and all kinds of other professions.

114
Fig. 4.5. A panel of the Sanchi stupa depicting a smithy (or metal workshop), where different
workers bring firewood, water, stoke the fire, beat the iron, etc.

4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 4.6. A few punch-marked coins from various ancient cities of north India.

115
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Why should a complex society divide itself into such
groups? Think about several possible factors why this
happens.
- List other such professions you expect in a complex
society of the 1st millennium BCE.

Inanideal society, all those groups would complement each

other and work in harmony. But most of the time, these
divisions also lead to inequalities: some groups acquire
more wealth, power or influence than others. In other
words, while equality is an ideal that human societies have
often aspired to, very few, if any, have ever achieved it.
In India, the society was organised in a two-fold system.
One category was the jati, a group or community of people
with a specific professional occupation closely tied to their
livelihood. The skills that defined a particular jati—for
instance, skill in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce or
any craft — was generally transmitted from generation to
generation. Often, a jati would get further subdivided into
sub-jatis, each of which developed customs and traditions
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

of its own, for instance concerning marriage, rituals or food

habits.
Along with the jati, there is another category, that of varna,
a concept that emerged from Vedic texts. There were four
varnas:Brahminswere engagedinpreserving andspreading
knowledge, and in the performance of rituals; Kshatriyas
were expected to defend the society and the land, and to
engage in warfare if necessary; Vaishyas were supposed to
increase the society’s wealth through occupations of trade,
business or agriculture; finally, Shudras were the artisans,
craftspeople, workers or servants.

116
"~ DON'T MISS OU
You may have heard the English word ‘caste’. It comes from a
Portuguese word, casta, as Portuguese travellers to India in the
16th century CE tried to make sense of Indian society. While a
few scholars consider ‘caste’ to refer to varnas, most take it to
apply to jatis; yet others consider ‘caste’ to refer to the whole
varna-jati system.

There is historical evidence, both in texts and inscriptions,

that in the early period individuals and communities
changed their professional occupations if circumstances
demanded. For instance, a long drought or some natural
calamity could force a community of farmers to migrate
to a city and take up other occupations, or some Brahmins
would turn to trade or even military activities. This complex
system structured Indian society, organised its activities,
including economic ones, and therefore gave it some
stability. In time, however, the system became rigid and led
to inequalities and discrimination towards the lower jatis
or some communities excluded from the varna-jati system.
This process will be studied in a higher grade.
The varna-jati system has had a deep impact on Indian
society, and generations of scholars have studied its
countless aspects. There is a broad agreement that the
system was significantly different (more flexible, in 4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States
particular) in earlier periods and became more rigid with
the passage of time, in particular during the British rule
in India. Let us also keep in mind that while varna-jati has
been an important mechanism at work in Indian society, it
Tapestry of the Past

is not the only one; there have been many others, some of
which we will explore later, especially in the theme ‘Our
Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions’.

117
 ' THINK ABOUT IT
Inequalities within society can exist in many forms. Have you
encountered any incident where you or anyone you know
might have been made to feel different from others? Do you
think equality is desirable in a society? If so, why? Have you
come across people or initiatives that lessened inequalities?

Developments Elsewhere in India

In this 1st millennium BCE, important communication
routes opened up for purposes of trade, pilgrimage, military
campaigns, etc. Two routes became widely used and are
often mentioned in the literature: the Uttarapatha and the
Dakshinapatha. The first connected the northwest regions
to the Ganga plains, all the way to eastern India; the second
started from Kaushambi (near Prayagraj), then a capital of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 4.7. Shishupalgarh (today a suburb of Bhubaneswar, first excavated in 1948): one of the
gateways into the city, through the fortifications; the moat, full of water, is visible outside the
gateway. Notice the narrowing in the gateway, for control of movement of people and goods.

118
one of the mahajanapadas, and crossed the Vindhya Range
of hills to proceed all the way south. We will return to these
routes when we explore the formation of empires in India.
Many lateral roads also connected with other parts of India,
especially the important ports on the western and eastern
coasts, which were vibrant centres of trade. In the eastern
region, major cities emerged, such as Shishupalgarh (today
Sisupalgarh, part of Bhubaneswar), which was the capital
of the Kalinga region and followed a strict square ground
plan, with imposing fortifications and broad streets.
In the Subcontinent’s southern regions, cities began
emerging from about 400 BCE, although recent excavations
claim to find some signs of commercial activities |
going further back. Around this time, three kingdoms
emerged—the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas.

Harappan Civilisation

BCE

Janapadas
4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States

Mahajanapadas
15T
Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 4.8. Timeline covering the period from 1900 BCE to 300 BCE.

119
 u
Fig. 4.9. Shell and gemstones industries at the site of
Kodumanal (near Erode, Tamil Nadu)

Apart from archaeological evidence, the most ancient

Tamil literature mentions those kingdoms and several of
their kings.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Because the southern regions are rich in resources such as

precious and semiprecious stones, gold, and spices, they
profitably traded not only with the rest of India but also
with kingdoms and empires overseas.
By 300 or 200 BCE, almost the entire Subcontinent, including
regions in the Northeast, was one vibrant interconnected
land; goods and culture travelled from region to region,
and often beyond India to parts of Central and Southeast
Asia.
About the same time, the mahajanapadas ceased to exist,
leaving the place to fresh developments that were going to
o

reshape India.

120
Before we move on ...
> From the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, janapadas rose
in parts of north and central India; they were smaller
states with a raja at the head taking counsel from an
assembly of elders.
The 16 mahajanapadas were the first organised states
of the 1st millennium BCE; they witnessed the Second
Urbanisation of India, which spread in all directions from
the Ganga region, all the way to south India. By 300 BCE or
so, the mahajanapadas ceased to exist.
In the same period, a vast network of roads connected
north and south, east and west, and eventually all regions
of the Subcontinent. People, goods, ideas and teachings
travelled along all those roads.

Questions and activities

il, Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and
discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and
conclusions on what Kautilya recommends for a kingdom.
Is it very different today?
According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early
Vedic society?
Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What
types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you
use to learn more about the mahajanapadas? Explain how
each source might contribute to your understanding. 4 - New Beginnings: Cities and States

Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important

for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE?
You may use points from the chapter but also from your
knowledge or imagination.
Tapestry of the Past

121
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

*Noodles'’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

122
The Rise of Empires

There cannot be a country without people and there is

no kingdom without a country.
Kautilya in Arthashastra

. Rock-cut cave in Barabar Hills, Bihar

=%o7e1cHos

123
 Landing on the outskirts of the great city, alittle dizzy, they saw a
girl talking to a person on horseback dressed in strange clothes.
As he left, she turned to them, and they asked her for her name.
“My name is Ira, daughter of Kanhadas, the ironsmith. Welcome
to Pataliputra!”
“Glad to meet you, Ira. Our names are Bhavisha and Dhruv.”
“Sshh! Keep your voices down! Do you see those soldiers marching
past? They’re heading to battle against a neighbouring kingdom
that has been troubling us. Our king avoids war when he can, but
he also protects his people when needed. My father helped forge
many of the swords they carry, and my uncle is one of the soldiers
in the group. I just came to see him off... I don’t know when he’ll
return.”
(The group watches as an
impressive procession ofsoldiers
crosses a sturdy drawbridge
leading out of the city, some on
horseback and the army chiefs
on elephant back. Then, the
three children cross the same
drawbridge to enter the city.)
“What kind of bridge is this?”
asked Bhavisha. “And is it a
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

river below?”
“This bridge keeps us safe,”
explained Ira. “It’s lifted
whenever there is a danger of attack on the city. And no, it’s not
ariver; it’s a moat; once the drawbridge is lifted, it makes it more
difficult to approach the fortifications. Can you see those hills and
forests in the distance? They provide us with timber, herbs, and
many other valuable resources. Elephants for the army are also
captured from the forest and trained for the army.”
“What is the opening in that hill?” asked Dhruv.
“It’s a cave. Our king is getting it carved out for a community of
monks. I hope we can visit it when it’s finished!”
o

126
(As they move through Pataliputra, they take in its Tributary:
splendour —towering wooden ramparts with watch towers, A tributary,
inour case,
majestic palaces and buildings, lively streets. Ira gestures towards isaruler
a bustling market filled with traders from distant lands.) orastate
that has
“You must visit our main market before you leave! Our king submitted to
welcomes travellers from all over, so you’ll get silk from China, an emperor
and pays
spices and gems from the south, fine clothes from different tribute—
regions—there’s nothing you won’t find in Pataliputra!” thatis,
money, gold
“What are those people over there doing?” asked Dhruv. (or other
precious
“Oh, these are street acrobats; they build human pyramids, sing metals),
and dance, or act in short plays to entertain people. Sometimes, grain,
livestock,
they perform in front of the king!” elephants
orother
“Your king sounds very powerful,” remarked Bhavisha. “Does he
valuable
rule the region around Pataliputra?” goods
produced
“Much more than that!” answered Ira. “He rules over a vast land, in their
far, far beyond this city. His authority extends over many villages, kingdom and
is given to
towns and kingdoms. My uncle told me that it takes close to two
the emperor
months on horseback to reach the borders of the territory!” as asign of
submission,
“That sounds bigger than just a kingdom... What do you call it?” loyalty or
respect.A
“It is called an Empire,” Ira stated with evident pride.
synonym for
“tributary’ is
What is an Empire? ‘vassal, and
another way
The word ‘empire’ comes from the Latin ‘imperium’, which to express
this is to
means ‘supreme power’. Simply put, an empire is a collection say that the
of smaller kingdoms or territories over which a powerful ruler tributary
orvassal
or group of rulers exert power, often after waging war against kingdoms
the smaller kingdoms. The smaller territories still had their own accepted the
rulers, but they were all tributaries to the emperor, who ruled emperor’s
overlordship.
the whole territory from a capital, usually a major centre of
5 - The Rise of Empires

economic and administrative power.

Tapestry of the Past

In ancient Sanskrit texts, words commonly used for ‘emperor’

made this clear; they included samraj, meaning ‘the lord of all’
or ‘supreme ruler’; adhiraja or ‘overlord’; and rajadhiraja or
‘king of kings’.
(<)

127
 Indian history is full of empires. They rose, expanded, lasted
for a while, declined, and disappeared. In fact, the last empire
that ruled the Subcontinent existed less than a century ago! But
now is not the time to tell that story; we start at the other end
of time, so we may understand how empires functioned in the
distant past and how they deeply impacted India’s evolution at
all levels —political, economic, social, and cultural.

Features of an empire

Maintains an army
to keep the tributary
states under control,
expand the empire
or protect it from
Maintains outside aggression
Designs and maintains
communication an administration, with
networks (roads, river officials to manage
and sea navigation) and the territories, collect
other infrastructure taxes, maintain law
for administration, Emperor and order, etc.
trade and people’s exerts central
welfare authority over
the empire's
utary
territories and
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

kings
Makes laws, issues
Encourages art, currencies, weights
literature, religions, and measures,
schools of thought, regulates trade
centres of learning

Controls and
regulates access
to resources
(mines, forestand
agricultural produce,
manpower)
[
-]

128
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Empires extended over vast areas and had diverse people
with differing languages, customs and cultures. How
do you think the emperors made sure that they lived in
harmony? Discuss in groups and share your thoughts with
the class.
- Looking at the many challenges involved in managing
an empire, why should a king be so keen to expand his
kingdom into an empire and become an emperor? Here
are a few possible answers; see if you can think of a few
more:
= An ambition to ‘rule the entire world’, a metaphor
for controlling large territories and ensuring that Posterity: The
they would be remembered for posterity; generations to
come.
= A wish to bring large areas under control and gain
access to their resources to build economic and
military strength;
= A desire for great wealth for himself and for the
empire.

In return for tribute and loyalty, emperors generally allowed

regional kings or chiefs to continue to govern their areas.

Fig. 5.4.1. Trained

armies were
deployed to conquer
neighbouring
P
kingdoms, maintain g
control over them and §§
defend the empire’s =
borders. 25
3E
-
S
(2]

129
 Fig. 5.4.2. Fortified settlements
would be built in strategic
places, such as the empire’s
borders.

Fig. 5.4.3. To expand into an

empire, a kingdom might
first wage war against
neighbouring territories so as
to conquer them.

s
Fig. 5.4.4. Rulers endeavoured
to control rivers and trade
networks as that would give
them control over precious
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

resources, apart from tax

revenue from the trade.

Fig. 5.4.5. With many smaller

kingdoms warring for control,
the one with access to stronger
military power and surplus
resources would eventually
become the overlord.

130
 LET'S EXPLORE
Warfare apart, what other methods do you think the rulers
might have used to expand their empires? Pen your ideas and
share them with your class.

Trade, trade routes and guilds

Conducting military campaigns, especially in distant lands, is
not as simple as it might seem. Maintaining an army is a costly
affair: soldiers need to be fed, clothed, equipped with weapons,
and paid; elephants and horses need to be cared for; roads or
ships have to be built, and so on. All this requires considerable
economic power, control over the workforce, and access
to resources.
We can now understand that economic activity— especially
production and trade—is one of the keys to maintaining an
empire and ensuring people’s welfare and quality of life, which
a good ruler should be concerned with. Therefore, establishing
and controlling trade routes all over the empire’s territory
and beyond is of great importance. That way, the goods traded
will grow in quantity and variety, and more trade means more
income for the producers and increased tax collections for
the ruler.
Returning to the case of ancient India, what would have been the
traded goods? There is plenty of evidence on this, at least, both
from the literature and archaeological excavations—textiles,
spices, agricultural produce, luxury items such as gems and
handicraft products, and various animals were among the main
items of trade. All this brisk trade was not limited to India; many
Indian goods travelled towards distant countries by land or sea.
5 - The Rise of Empires

More often than not, traders were not just isolated individuals
Tapestry of the Past

carrying out their own business. They soon understood

the benefits of joining forces and creating guilds (Shrenis).
Guilds were powerful associations of traders, craftsmen,
moneylenders or agriculturists. As far as evidence shows,
a guild had a head (who was usually elected) and executive

131
 officers who were supposed to have all kinds of ethical qualities.
Two things made traders’ guilds a remarkable institution. First,
they brought together people who ended up being collaborators

70°E 80°E

&
°
@

ra
20°N
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

10°N

LEGEND
® Important Cities

— Uttarapatha
= Dakshinapatha
=== Other Routes

70°E 80°E 90°E

Fig. 5.5. Some important trade routes from about 500 BCE onward and major
cities marked on them. Notice the Uttarapatha and the Dakshinapatha routes.

132
rather than competitors, as they realised that sharing resources
and information on markets, supply and demand, workforce,
etc., was to everyone’s benefit. Second, as an ancient text put
it, “Cultivators, traders, herdsmen, moneylenders, and artisans
have authority to lay down rules for their respective classes”;
in other words, guilds had the autonomy to create their own
internal rules, and the king was not to interfere with them (and
why should he, if trade flourished?).
Guilds spread overlarge parts of India and endured for centuries.
Even after they ceased to exist formally, their spirit continued
to influence India’s trade and business activities, sometimes
even to this day. The institution of guilds provides an excellent
example of the self-organising abilities of Indian society. The
ancient village unit, with its various committees and councils,
provides another. Indeed, an enlightened ruler would let people
organise themselves and refrain from interfering if the local
institutions worked satisfactorily.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Observe the map of the trade routes. Identify geographical
features that helped the traders travel across the
Subcontinent.
- What modes of transport on those roads do you think were
available at the time?

The Rise of Magadha

The period between the 6th and the 4th century BCE was
one of profound change in north India. We briefly visited the
sixteen mahajanapadas earlier —those large kingdoms of north
and central India with their assembly system. One of them,
5 - The Rise of Empires
Tapestry of the Past

Magadha (modern-day south Bihar and some adjoining areas),

rose in importance and set the stage for the fusion of many
kingdoms into India’s first empire. Powerful early kings, such as
Ajatashatru, played a crucial role in establishing Magadha as a
dominant centre of power.

133
 " DON'T MISS OUT
Two of the most famed religious figures of the
world —Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the
Buddha, and Vardhamanan, better known as Mahavira—lived
in the time of King Ajatashatru. Revisit their teachings in the
Grade 6 textbook’s ‘India’s Cultural Roots’ chapter.

Magadha was located in the resource-rich Ganga plains, with

fertile land, abundant forests for timber, and elephants. Also,
remember how the use of iron transformed other technologies,
such as agriculture and warfare. Iron ore and other minerals
from the nearby hilly regions proved crucial for the expansion
of the kingdom. The use of iron ploughs to till the land increased
agricultural produce, and lighter and sharper iron weapons
strengthened the capabilities of the army.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 5.6. An elaborate panel from the Sanchi Stiipa depicting soldiers riding elephants, horses, or
on foot, waging battle and laying siege to Kusinara (today Kushinagar), a city of north India, to
recover relics of the Buddha (seen carried away on an elephant in the left part of the panel).

LET'S EXPLORE
- Take a close look at the panel given above. How many
types of weapons can you identify? What different uses
of iron can you make out?
> In the left part of the panel, a parasol (chhattra) is kept
over the casket containing the Buddha’s relics. Why do
you think this was done?

134
The production of surplus
food grains allowed more
people to focus on the arts
and crafts, which were in
demand inside and outside the
empire’s borders. The Ganga
and Son rivers provided a
geographical advantage for
trade, as they could be used for Fig. 5.7. A punch-marked silver coin of
transportation. The flourishing Mahapadma Nanda
trade boosted the empire’s
income and contributed to Magadha’s rise.
Around the 5th century BCE, Mahapadma Nanda rose to
prominence in Magadha and founded the Nanda dynasty. He
successfully unified many smaller kingdoms and extended
his empire across parts of eastern and northern India. As the
economy thrived, he began issuing coins, demonstrating his
economic power. We also learn from Greek accounts that the
satras:
Nanda dynasty maintained a large army. Sutras are
concise,
From various accounts of the Nanda dynasty, it appears that its carefully
last emperor, Dhana Nanda, though very rich, became highly crafted
phrases
unpopular as he oppressed and exploited his people. This paved
that capture
the way for the Nanda empire to be conquered and absorbed knowledge
into what would become one of the largest empires India ever and
important
knew — the Maurya empire. ideas (from
ancient
" DON'T MISS OUT Indian text)
inaway
that's easy
The famed Sanskrit grammarian QIO PANINI to remember
Panini lived around the 5th and pass on.
century BCE, during the time
5 - The Rise of Empires

of the Nandas. He is known for

Tapestry of the Past

composing the Ashtadhyayi, an

ancient text that lists the rules of 35
Sanskrit grammar in 3,996 short
B Fig. 5.8. An India post stamp
sdtras. commemorating Panini

135
 The Arrival of the Greeks
While events unfolded in Magadha, located in the eastern part
of the subcontinent, what was happening in the northwestern
region? This area was home to smaller kingdoms along an
ancient route connecting to the Mediterranean. Among them,
according to Greek accounts, were the Pauravas, led by their
king, Porus. »

Granicus

LEGEND
ALExANDERS EMPIRE:
ALDANDER'S ROUTE
X _aarrie
we
Fig.5.9
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Alexander, ayoung and powerful Greek

king from Macedonia, campaigned
against the Persian Empire to avenge
earlier Persian invasions of Greece
(during which some Indian soldiers
from the Persian-ruled northwest of
India fought against Greeks!). Alexander
conquered the Persian Empire; the
influence of Greek culture spread. His
empire now spread over three continents,
Fig. 5.10 one of the largest in world history.
-

= 136
 " DON'T MISS OUT
The satraps were governors of provinces of Persian and
Greek empires who were left behind by the overlord (like
Alexander) to manage the far-off territories. These satraps
had significant power and freedom despite being mere
officials of the rulers. Can you guess how it was possible for
them to exercise such power?

' THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think Alexander wanted to rule over the entire
world? What would he have gained from it? 4

LET'S EXPLORE ! -
When, after the battle, Alexander asked Porus how he wished
to be treated, Porus answered, “Like a King.” Alexander then
left Porus at the head of his kingdom, as satrap. With the help }
of your teachers, find more details on the battle between Porus
and Alexander. Enact a play of this battle scene using your
imagination in addition to what you have discovered.

Backin Persia, Alexander faced rebellions and

political turmoil. After he fellill and died in
Babylon at the age of 32, hisimmense empire
was soon divided between his generals and the
satraps, who created their own kingdoms. 5 - The Rise of Empires

Eager to reach the “end of the world”, Alexander pushed on

Tapestry of the Past

further east and brought his campaign to India, defeated Porus in

Punjab and, encountering fierce resistance fromlocal tribes and
rulers, massacred the population of several cities. Greek records
mention thatin a few battles, “women fought side by side with
their men.” Alexander himself was seriously wounded in a battle.
Tired and homesick, his soldiers lost the will to fight and refused
to move deeper into India, towards the Ganga River. Alexander
and part of his army retreated to Persia, but through the coastal
route in the south and Iran’s harsh desert regions, resulting in
heavy losses to his troops out of thirst, hunger and disease.

137
 Alexander’s dialogue with the Gymnosophists
Alexander heard of a group of Indian sages whom the Greeks
called ‘Gymnosophists’ or ‘naked philosophers’ (probably
because they wore very little clothing), who were renowned for
their wisdom. Alexander challenged them with tricky questions
in the form of riddles, warning that he would put those who
gave wrong answers to death. However, the Gymnosophists
responded to his questions calmly and intelligently. Alexander
was impressed and, in the end, spared them all. Over the
centuries, different versions of this story have been told, making
it one of the most fascinating encounters in history!
According to one account, Alexander
asked, “Which is stronger, life or
death?” One of the sages replied, “Life,
because it endures while death does
not.” Alexander then asked, “How can
a man be most loved?” “If he is most
powerful and yet does not inspire
fear,” came the reply, perhaps as a
hint to the mighty ruler!
Fig. 5.11. A Greek coin - = R
probably showing Historians view such exchanges as
Alexander on horseback = a meeting of two great traditions
—
attacking Porus on his
elephant. Greek and Indian philosophies.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

The Mighty Mauryas

After that brief sojourn to the northwest, let us return to
Magadha, where we witnessed the decline of the Nanda
empire. Around 321 BCE, just a few years after Alexander
left India with his army, a new dynasty and new empire
emerged: the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta
Maurya. It quickly absorbed the Nanda empire’s territories
and went on expanding beyond.
As per many accounts, Chandragupta managed this feat with the
help of an able mentor named Kautilya, who used his knowledge
of politics, governance and economics to create an empire that
o

remains one of the greatest in Indian history.

138
The story of Kautilya
According to Buddhist texts, Kautilya—sometimes referred to as
Chanakya or Vishnugupta—was a teacher at the world-renowned
Takshashila (modern-day Taxila) university. His legendary tale
begins in the court of Dhana Nanda, who as we saw, had become
highly unpopular.
E

5 - The Rise of Empires

Tapestry of the Past

LEGEND
[ NANDAEMPIRE
® CAPITAL
a IMPORTANT CITIES]
- RIVERS

Fig. 5.12. Nanda Empire

139
 LEGEND
MAURYA EMPIRE
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

MAIN CAPITAL
REGIONAL CAPITAI
OTHER CITY
BO°E
Fig. 5.13. Maurya Empire

Observing this, Kautilya advised Dhana Nanda to change his

ways or witness the collapse of his empire. Angered, Dhana
Nanda insulted Kautilya and threw him out of his court. This led
to Kautilya’s vow to end the ‘evil Nanda’ rule.

The rise of Chandragupta Maurya

There are many stories about the origin and adventures of
e

Chandragupta Maurya, but their common theme is that he

140
 Fig. 5.14. Megasthenes in the court of Chandragupta Maurya
(A 20th-century painting by Asit Kumar Haldar)

overthrew the Nandas and took control of Magadha to establish

his rule, with Pataliputra as his capital. Do you remember that
Magadha had many advantages because of its geography, an
established economic system and a flourishing trade? These,
combined with the advice of the master strategist, Kautilya,
helped Chandragupta Maurya gradually expand his empire.
He defeated the Greek satraps left behind by Alexander in
the northwest and integrated the region into an empire that
stretched from the northern plains to the Deccan plateau.
After Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Greeks, he maintained
a diplomatic relationship with them and hosted in his court a
Greek historian and diplomat, Megasthenes, who wrote about
his travels in India in his book Indika—the first such written
account—unfortunately lost except for some excerpts quoted
by later Greek scholars.
5 - The Rise of Empires
Tapestry of the Past

Kautilya’s concept of a kingdom

Kautilya had a clear vision of how a kingdom (rdjya) should
be established, managed and consolidated. In his famous
work Arthashastra (literally, ‘the science of governance and
e

economics’), he listed directives in many areas like defence,

141
 ~ [the group of] counmllors the terrixtfl{ of the sta
ministers and other high along with the population 3
officials (amatya) |tth it (janapada)
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

é-fomfied towns and Eities the treasury.c,r the\

& thg kingdom (kosha)

142
economics, administration, justice, urban planning, agriculture
and people’s welfare. One of his mostimportant political concepts
is the saptanga (see fig 5.15) or the seven parts that constitute
a kingdom.
According to Kautilya, the saptanga together must create
a settled, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom to be
maintained both through warfare and through alliances for
peace, as the case may be. He emphasised the importance
of law and order in society, which necessitated a strong
administration. He also detailed many laws to deal with
corruption and specified punishments for any activities that
went against the wellbeing of the people.

' THINK ABOUT IT

& Kautilya says, “A king shall increase his power by
promoting the welfare of his people, for power comes
from the countryside which is the source of all economic
activity. [The king] shall show special favours to those in
the countryside who do things which benefit the people,
such asbuilding embankments or road bridges, beautifying
villages, or helping to protect them.”
© Why do you think it was important to take special care of
the countryside? (Hint: Think back to what you have learnt
at the beginning of this chapter)

Kautilya’s central philosophy of governance is in tune with

Indian values: “In the happiness of his subjects lies the king’s
happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider
as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial
to him whatever pleases his subjects.” In other words,
5 - The Rise of Empires

however powerful a king may be, he must give first place to the
Tapestry of the Past

people’s interests.

LET'S EXPLORE
Organise a group discussion in your class and compare the
features of Kautilya’s idea of an empire with a modern nation.
e

143
 dynasty was Ashoka (268-
232 BCE), Chandragupta’s
grandson, who came to
be credited with major
administrative and religious
achievements.
At the beginning of his
reign, Ashoka was quite
ambitious. He had inherited
a vast empire but further
expanded it to cover almost
the entirety of the Indian
subcontinent, except for
the southernmost region,
Fig. 5.16. Ashoka visiting the Ramagrama stupa in
Nepal (from a panel at the Sanchi stiipa) but including present-day
Bangladesh and Pakistan
and parts of present-day Afghanistan. One encounter, however,
An oEf?i::ci:l is said to have changed the path of his life. According to one of
declaration his edicts he once marched on Kalinga (modern-day Odisha),
afi;‘?fiigz where he waged a ferocious war. Seeing the enormous amount
or, inour of death and destruction on the battlefield, Ashoka chose to
case, aking. give up violence and, to the greatest extent possible, adopt the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

path of peace and non-violence that the Buddha taught.

' THINK ABOU

Ashoka, in his edicts, tells the story of the Kalinga war. He
could have chosen not to mention it and maintain his image
Emissary: as a peaceful, benevolent king for future generations. Why
Someone | do you think he admitted to this destructive war?
senton
a special
mission, Embracing Buddhist teachings, Ashoka sent emissaries to
oftenofa Sri Lanka, Thailand, Central Asia and beyond to spread the
diplomatic
nature. message of the Buddha far and wide.
e

144
Historians have sometimes called Ashoka We have referred to the
a ‘great communicator’ since he issued in Prakrit language written in
many parts of his empire edicts engraved on
Brahmi script. What does
rocks or pillars that contained his messages this mean? Very simply, a
for the people and encouraged them to language is what we speak,
follow dharma. Most of these edicts were while script is what we write
inscribed in Prakrit, which was the popular
alanguage in. Can you think
language in many parts of India and written of examples of this in our
in the Brahmi script (Brahmi is the mother
everyday life?
of all regional scripts of India).

LEGEND
5 - The Rise of Empires

@ Major Rock Edicts

Tapestry of the Past

A\ Minor Rock Edicts

@ Pillar Edicts
@ Minor Pillar Edicts
2 Cave Inscription
Present Interational
Boundary
70°E 80°E

Fig. 5.17. A few of the many Ashokan edicts across the Subcontinent

145
 In his edicts, Ashoka called himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’;
the first word means ‘Beloved of the Gods’; the second, ‘one
who regards others with kindness’. And indeed, the language
of the edicts makes it clear that he was interested in depicting
himself as a benevolent and compassionate ruler. Let us see a
few examples of this.
Although some southern kingdoms were not part of the Mauryan
kingdom, Ashoka supported their overall wellbeing. He claimed
to provide medical care for people and animals even beyond his

Fig. 5.18. (Left) A reproduction of a part of Ashoka’s rock edict at Girnar,

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Gujarat. (Right) Detail of the Topra Ashokan pillar at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi

empire, prohibited hunting and cruelty to animals, and ordered

medical treatment for them when necessary. If so, Ashoka
was an early contributor to nature conservation and wildlife
preservation. He said he had established rest houses and wells
at regular intervals along the main roads of his empire and got
fruit and shade trees planted. He also claimed to encourage all
sects (the different schools of thought present in his time) to
accept each other’s best teachings and study them.
Although we need not take all of Ashoka’s claims literally, it is
clear that in line with Kautilya’s philosophy of governance, he
paid attention to the welfare of his subjects and made efforts to
e

reach out to them.

146
 N'T MISS OUT
You read about the word ‘dharma’ (dhamma in Prakrit) in
Grade 6. Its essence cannot be easily captured. In simple
terms, dharma means moral law or someone’s religious or
ethical duties towards family, community or country. At a
deeper level, however, dharma extends to living according
to the order of the universe or ritam. This includes doing
one’s duty truthfully, following rules of righteous conduct
and leading a life in harmony with the cosmic order.
Dharma is, therefore, duty, law, truth, order and ethics —all
of it together!

LET'S EXPLORE
Ashoka details instructions on the conduct of his officials and
mentions ways to ensure that they practised fairness in one of
his edicts. Read the translation below and share your thoughts
on whether those ways would have been successful in helping
manage his empire and how.

“By order of the Beloved of the Gods—the officers and city

magistrates [...] are to be instructed thus:
[...] You are in charge of many thousands of living beings. You
should gain the affection of men. All men are my children,
and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain
welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, the
same do I desire for all men. [...] You should strive to practice
impartiality. [...] The root of all this is to be even-tempered
and not rash in your work. [...] This inscription has been
engraved here in order that the city magistrates should at
all times see to it that men are never imprisoned or tortured fi.g‘_
without good reason. [...] And for this purpose, I shall send §§
out on tour every five years, an officer who is not severe or f; H
harsh; who, having investigated this matter.., shall see that gi
they carry out my instructions.” %E
(<)

147
 The Maurya empire continued for half a century after Ashoka’s
death. However, his successors were unable to hold the empire
together, and many of the smaller kingdoms broke off and
became independent. Around 185 BCE, India started on another
phase of her journey. Bhavisha and Dhruv will join us on this
journey in the next chapter.

Life in the Mauryan period

Cities like Pataliputra were bustling centres of governance and
commerce. They had palaces, public buildings, and well-planned
streets. With a well-organised taxation system and brisk trade,
the treasury remained strong, fuelling the empire’s growth
and prosperity. Officials of the administration of the empire,
merchants and artisans played key roles in the city life.

L. DON'T MISS OUT

The Sohagaura copper
plate inscription, dating

LU T
back to the 4th-3rd
century BCE, is one of
India’s earliest known ] %‘é%mmi
administrative records. 4 WX{?Jflmgffifié
Discovered in Sohgaura, &9 45@J¥X$~fi“ B 2
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Uttar Pradesh, it is written Fig. 5.19

in Prakrit using the Brahmi script and is believed to have
been issued during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The
inscription mentions the establishment of a granary to store
grain as a precaution against famines, highlighting the state’s
efforts to ensure food security and support its people during
times of crisis.

Megasthenes’ account also throws some light on the society

of that time. A substantial proportion of the population was
engaged in agriculture, which was an important source of
revenue for the empire. Two crops were sown in a year, as rain
fell in both summer and winter. This ensured that famines were
e

148
rare and people had ample food. Granaries were well stocked
for any eventualities. Even if war raged nearby, farmers were
protected from it, and agriculture was not disturbed.
Blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers and other artisans
lived in the cities. The cities were well-planned and had signage
on the streets. Communication happened through couriers who
carried messages from place to place. The houses were made of
wood and could be up to two storeys tall. The streets had vessels
of water stored at regular intervals in case of fire.
Later accounts describe the cotton dresses people wore—a
lower garment that reached below the knee halfway down to
the ankles and an upper garment that they threw over their
shoulders. Some wore leather shoes with designs and thick soles
to make them look taller.

LET'S EXPLORE
Wear the hat of a historian. Look carefully at the artefacts
presented on the spread on the next page. What conclusions
can you draw about people and life during the Mauryan era?

Fig. 5.20 has many messages for us,

apart from the beauty and perfection
of the sculpture, and is a fine example
of Mauryan art. This capital (a word
which, here, means ‘top portion’ or
‘head’) was the top of a pillar that
Ashoka got erected at Sarnath, near
Varanasi, where the Buddha gave
his first teaching. The four lions
symbolise the royal power; on the
ring below, four powerful animals
5 - The Rise of Empires
Tapestry of the Past

(an elephant, a bull, a horse and

one more lion) are depicted, along
with the dharmachakra or wheel
Fig. 5.20. The Mauryas were
of dharma, which symbolises the renowned for their highly
Buddha’s teachings. polished stone pillars, as can
be seen in this capital of the
e

Sarnath pillar:

149
 Life and people

Fig. 5.21. Terracotta figurine ofa Fig. 5.22. Terracotta figurine

dancing girl (notice her elaborate of a female deity.
headdress, hairstyle and jewellery).
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 5.24. Terracotta of Saptamatrikas or seven Fig. 5.25. Head of a terracotta

mother goddesses (a continuing tradition). horse (notice the elaborate
e

design of the bridle).

150
 Art and architecture

Fig. 5.26. As one of India’s oldest stone structures, the Great Stiipa at Sanchi is among
the finest examples of Indian architecture. Note that the original structure was made
of bricks and was later enlarged using stone. Ashoka is said to have constructed
many such stapas, chaityas, and viharas for worship, study, and meditation.

w
2

2%
=g
&
e 52
3
Fig. 5.27. Rock sculpture of a life-size elephant at Dhauli (in present-day Odisha, o
near Bhubaneswar), which symbolises the Buddha— intelligent, powerful, patient,
and calm. An edict of Ashoka was engraved on a rock nearby.

151
 This image may be familiar to some of you. Indeed, this
capital was chosen as India’s national emblem, to which was
added the Sanskrit motto satyameva jayate or “truth alone
triumphs” (see the national emblem on the left). Besides,
the dharmachakra is depicted at the centre of our national
flag, as you may also have noticed. The motto comes from
the Mundaka Upanishad; in full, it reads satyameva jayate
nanritam, that is, “truth alone triumphs, not falsehood”.

LET'S EXPLORE
Notice the different symbols on the coins. Can you guess
what any of the symbols in the coins below might mean?

&
Fig. 5.29.1. A hoard of Mauryan punch-marked coins,
Fig. 5.29.2. A punch-marked coin of Ashoka

MISS
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

The big, round hemispherical structure in the centre of the

stiipa is called the anda. It represents the universe and is often
built to house sacred relics. People walk around it in a circle
as a form of worship (pradakshina).

The Fragile Nature of Empires

You will hear in higher grades about past mighty empires
. elsewhere in the world, such as the Roman, the Persian, the
Ottoman, the Spanish, the Russian, the British empires, and so
on. All of them are long gone, but historians keep debating the
causes of their decline.

152
One of those causes, as we saw, is the temptation for some of
the empire’s regions to try and become independent. This could
happen if, for example, the emperor needed more resources
for long military campaigns or in times of drought; local rulers
would be burdened with increasing demands for tribute,
leading to resentment. Or if a powerful emperor was followed
by one perceived to be weak, local kings or chieftains might
simply decide to take a chance and stop paying tribute. Also, the
larger an empire, the more difficult it is to hold it together, as
Alexander experienced; far-off territories are often the first to
split away from the empire. Finally, economic crises caused by
natural calamities (such as a long drought or floods) could also
shake an empire’s structure.
Empires are, therefore, something ofa paradox. On the one hand,
they can bring about political unity, as the Mauryan empire
did to almost the entire Subcontinent, and reduce or eliminate
warfare among the smaller kingdoms— indeed, a well-managed
empire could lead to greater prosperity than smaller, warring
kingdoms. On the other hand, empires have almost always been
established through war and have maintained their existence

Mahapadma Chandragupta
Nanda Maurya

Ajatashatru
5 - The Rise of Empires
Tapestry of the Past

—_— - > < >

Mahajanapadas Nandas Mauryas

Fig. 5.30

153
 through force and repression. This makes them fragile at their
core and unstable over time.

Before we move on ...

> An empire is a large territory made up of many smaller
kingdoms orterritories. Emperors expanded their kingdoms
mostly to gain fame, amass power, including military power,
and control resources and economic life.
The first empires of India emerged in regions blessed
with abundant natural resources, rivers for irrigation and
transport, and the production of a variety of goods for trade.
Alexander’s campaign in northwest India had a limited
political impact but opened the door for Indo-Greek cultural
contacts.
The Mauryas created a vast empire with a legacy that lasted
centuries. Their legacy includes strengthening trade routes
and economic systems, extensive use of coins for trade,
well-designed urban settlements, and an elaborate system
of administration. They also promoted art and architecture.
Ashoka was keen to advertise his achievements and project
the image of a benevolent ruler who encouraged his subjects
to follow dharma.

Questions and activities

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

il, What are the features of an empire, and how is it different

from a kingdom? Explain.
What are some important factors for the transition from
kingdoms to empires?
Alexander is considered an important king in the history of
the world —why do you think that is so?
In early Indian history, the Mauryas are considered
important. State your reasons.
What were some of Kautilya’s key ideas? Which ones of
these can you observe even today in the world around us?
e

154
6. What were the unusual things about Ashoka and his empire?
What of that has continued to influence India and why? Write
your opinion in about 250 words.
7. Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadasi: My
officers of Dhamma are busy in many matters of public benefit,
they are busy among members of all sects, both ascetics and
householders. I have appointed some to concern themselves
with the Buddhist Order, with brahmans and Ajivika..., with the
Jains..., and with various sects. There are many categories of
officers with a variety of duties, but my officers of Dhamma are
busy with the affairs of these and other sects.
After reading the above edict of Ashoka, do you think he was
tolerant towards other religious beliefs and schools of thought?
Share your opinion in the classroom.
8. The Brahmi script was a writing system that was widely used
in ancient India. Try to learn more about this script, taking
help from your teacher wherever required. Create a small
project and include what you have learnt about Brahmi.
9. Suppose you had to travel from Kaushambi to Kaveripattanam
in the 3rd century BCE. How would you undertake this journey,
and how long would you expect it to take, with reasonable
halts on the way?

5 - The Rise of Empires

Tapestry of the Past
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155
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

*Noodles'’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

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156
The Age of
Reorganisation
By continuous living tradition and a vital power of
rejuvenescence, this land has readjusted itself through
unnumbered transformations.
— Jagdish Chandra Bose (1917)

o7e1cHos

157
 Bhavisha and Dhruv had recovered from their journey to
the Maurya empire and were itching for another adventure.
They decide to use Itihasa again and landed in a new
historical period. They came across a collection of art pieces,
each one quite different from the other. (See Fig. 6.1.1) They
wondered—could these artefacts belong to multiple
kingdoms rather than just one? They guessed right. In this
chapter we will travel over a fairly long period. Here we go...
Very little is known about Ashoka’s
successors to the throne. It is generally
accepted, however, that the last
Maurya emperor was assassinated
around 185 BCE by his commander-
in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga. This led
to a breakup of the empire—hardly
half a century after Ashoka, as we
mentioned in the last chapter. Many
new kingdoms emerged across the
subcontinent, which, often, were
Fig. 6.1.2. earlier tributary kingdoms under the
overlordship of the Maurya empire. The northwest region
became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the
subcontinent.
This period is also known as the ‘age of reorganisation’ by
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

some scholars as the existing regions were being reorganised

into new kingdoms that were constantly competing to become
powerful. The map of India changed significantly in that age, as
did people’s lives.

LET'S EXPLORE
Create a timeline on a sheet of paper marking the period
from the first year of the 2nd century BCE and ending in the
last year of the 3rd century CE. How many years does this
period cover? As we progress through the chapter, mark the
key individuals, kingdoms and events on the timeline.
e

158
 60°E 70°E 80°E 90°E

~ Shakas
(Indo-Scythians)

Arabian
Sea

1,000 km
]
C—

70°E 90°E H
Fig. 6.2. Prominent dynasties of India during the age of reorganisation E
“ - g

83
L‘ 5 25
While working on the timeline, did you notice the transition s E)
=
from BCE to CE? Remember what you learned in the Grade 6 g£
chapter ‘Timeline and Sources of History’ about how time &
is measured in history.
e

159
 Matrimonial LET'S EXPLORE
alliance : An
alliance arranged In the previous chapter, you studied the map of the Maurya
through a
marriage, empire (see page 100). Above is a map of the post-Maurya
generally period. How many kingdoms can you count in the area that
between two
members of
were previously under the control of the Maurya empire?
royal families.
In practice, this The ‘new’ kingdoms now competed for territorial control
would often
Peaceful methods like matrimonial alliances between neighbour-
mean a king
offering his ing kingdoms, or the use of force in warfare, were means of
daughter for gaining control. Remember that there was constant wrestling
marriage into the
royal family of for control over areas along the borders, as gaining control over
a neighbouring them was important to keep the kingdom safe from attacks.
ki ngdom, with
the intention Together with those political events, there was a burst in the
of cementing
development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching
an alliance
between the two cultural exchanges. We will get a peek into this in the following
kingdoms. sections.

Dynasties from
outside the
Subcontinent

Indo-Greeks,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Shakas,
LOEENEN

Prominent
dynasties of the
Subcontinent

Fig. 6.3
(5]

160
Surge of the Shungas
Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty, which
ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed
the ashvamedha yajiia, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a
most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the
previous Maurya Empire (compare their two maps), he kept it
safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations
with the Greeks, after some initial military campaign against
them. But, again, the empire did not last long after him—a
century later, it was gone.
The period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices,
but other schools of thought nevertheless continued to flourish.

MISS
e E—

Fig. 6.4. Scene from the Ramayana in which King Rama is seen performing
the ashvamedha yajiia (19" century painting, National Museum)
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

The ashvamedha yajfia was a Vedic ritual conducted by

many rulers to declare their position as the king. In this
Tapestry of the Past

ritual, a horse accompanied by soldiers was left to wander

freely. Any territory that the horse crossed unchallenged
was considered to become a part of the king’s empire. If
any ruler stopped the horse, it led to a battle to determine
supremacy.

161
 Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for
philosophical and literary works. Do you recall some aspects
of the Yoga Sutras in your Physical Education and Well-being
classesin Grade 6? These Yoga Stitras were compiled by Patafijali
during this period.
The Shungas patronised literature, art and architecture. The
Bharhut Stipa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) presents us
with beautiful examples of Shunga art. It was probably built
during the time of Ashoka, but the Shungas added beautifully
carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s
life. These are considered some of the earliest examples of
Buddhist art.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig.6.5.1. Railings at the Bharhut Stupa. Fig. 6.5.2. Carving of Lakshmi on a

railing. Fig. 6.5.3. A group of singers and dancers. 6.5.4. Elephants holding up
0

the wheel of dharma

162
 for

6 - The Age of Reorganisation

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 6.6.1. Pillar with a Greek warrior: Fig. 6.6.2. Male figure. Fig. 6.6.3. Woman with a
child. Fig. 6.6.4. Woman with a fan. Fig. 6.6.5. A vase. Fig. 6.6.6. Female figure with hair
ornaments, terracotta. Fig. 6.6.7. Royal family. Fig. 6.6.8. Bronze bangles covered with a
(5]

thin layer ofgold. Fig. 6.6.9. Comb of ivory. Fig. 6.6.10. Beads of a necklace.

163
 LET'S EXPLORE
Below is a panel from the Bharhut Stapa. Look at the two
figures on the right. What are they doing? Can you guess
their profession? Notice their attire. What does this tell us
about them? List other details that you notice in the panel
and discuss your findings in class.

R A2] -
Fig. 6.7. A panel from the Bharhut Stapa

LET'S EXPLORE
Look closely at the pictures in the collage in Fig 6.6 (on the
previous page). In a note, write down your observations on
the clothes, the jewellery, and other objects of daily use.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

The Satavahanas
From the limited evidence available, the Shungas seem to have
waged wars with many of their neighbouring regions. This
may have included the Satavahanas, who ruled large parts of
the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of
the Shunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as ‘Andhras’, the
Satavahanas were a powerful dynasty and their empire largely
comprised of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra, with different capital cities at different times— the
most famous were Amravati and Pratishthana (Paithan). Trade
and commerce appear to have flourished in the Satavahana
kingdom.
e

164
Coins issued by the Satavahana rulers
have been found in various regions
of India, from Gujarat to Andhra
Pradesh —India’s western and eastern
coasts. Indeed, many coins depicted
ships, suggesting that maritime trade
was animportant partof economiclife.
The type of ship depicted on the coin
above suggests advanced shipbuilding
and navigation technologies.
Fig. 6.8. A Satavahana coin bearing
Agriculture flourished in the Krishna- the image of a seafaring ship with
two masts. Notice how the masts of
Godavaririver system, which provided
the ship are prominently depicted
economic stability to the kingdom. with intersecting lines, possibly.
The Satavahanas had active trade representing sails; the wavy lines
below represent oceanic waters.
networks that reached as far as the
Roman Empire and included an exchange of goods like spices,
textiles, sandalwood, and luxury items like gold-plated pearls,
ivory, etc. Imports included glass and perfumed ointments. Tolls
and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.
Economic prosperity and a relatively peaceful political period
facilitated the development of literature, art and culture, to
which the Satavahanas made significant contributions.

6 - The Age of Reorganisation

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 6.9. The Naneghat Caves near Pune, located close to a major trade route, were
(5]

used for collection of tolls and taxes, and as resting places for traders.

165
 Life under the Satavahanas
Inthe Satavahana tradition, princes were
often named after their mothers. Thus
Gautamiputra Satakarni was named
after his mother, Gautami Balashri. She
was a powerful queen who donated
I nawyay ¥ioa;Te
Raiio Gotamiputasa Sivi-Satakanisa land to Buddhist monks and had an
important inscription carved in Nashik,
Fig. 6.10. Coin of the Satavahanas with
an inscription in Brahmi script, ‘King
showing her influence in the kingdom.
Lord Satakarni, son of Gautam®.

' THINK ABOUT IT

What, according to you, could the tradition of using the
mother’s name at the beginning of a king’s name signify?

Another set of inscriptions found in the Naneghat caves near

Pune (Fig. 6.9) focuses on a Satavahana widow queen who,
remarkably, performed several Vedic rituals, including the
ashvamedha yajfia. The inscriptions mention Vedic gods like
Indra, Chandra, and Sarya. We also get a glimpse of the queen’s
donations (dana): land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins, and
other items to priests, guests, workers, scholars, and monks.
These inscriptions are in the Brahmi script and include a
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

few numerals (that is, symbols for numbers) which, at times,

resemble today’s shapes, as shown below. This is one of the many
evidences showing that modern numerals ultimately originated
in India.

»= F+ &) P
' THINK ABO T
In the above series of numerals, which ones look somewhat
like our modern numerals? Which ones don’t?
(5]

166
 The Satavahanas were devout followers of Vasudeva (another
name for Krishna), although they also patronised other schools
of thought, which flourished during their rule. For instance,
Satavahana kings often granted tax-free agricultural land to
Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks, helping them to
pursue their studies and practices.

Fig. 6.11. The Karla caves (near Lonavala

in present-day Maharashtra) to which the
Satavahanas contributed during their reign.
These caves were made for Buddhist monks. Fig. 6.12. A yaksha (a minor deity
Notice the magnificent pillars and the stone associated with nature) from the
replica of a stipa in the centre— all of Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra, carved
it carved out of a rocky hillside! in the Satavahana period.

' THINK ABOU

This sculpture of a yaksha from Pitalkhora carries an
inscription on its hand, kanhadasena hiramakarena kata
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

meaning ‘made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith’. Is it not

interesting to see that a goldsmith could also craft a sculpture
Tapestry of the Past

made of stone? What do you think this tells us about people’s

professions at the time?

In the 3rd century CE, the Satavahana Empire fragmented into

smaller independent kingdoms. Several factors contributed to
its disintegration, the most significant one being weak central
o

167
 control and a gradual economic decline. Once again, this will
pave the way for regional powers to assert or reassert their
dominance and establish new kingdoms.

Coming of the Chedis

Let us go back a little. Do you remember the Kalinga war
mentioned in the previous chapter? After the decline of the
Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the
kings of the Chedi dynasty.
Kharavela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower
of Jain teachings; he was sometimes called bhikshu-raja or
monk-king, although he respected all schools of thoughts. Near
Bhubaneswar, the famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves, likely
developed for Jain monks, feature intricate panels and statues,
and spacious rooms carved into the rock, showcasing the skill
of the craftsmen. The design and craftsmanship of these caves
make them notable examples of ‘rock-cut architecture’, a style of
architecture that we will turn to in higher classes.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

i ) i) oy ol ol o= ~ s
Fig. 6.13.1. Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar. Fig. 6.13.2. The Hathigumpha
(5]

inscription. Fig. 6.13.3. Carved panel showing a scene from the Ramayana

168
 One of the caves prominently displays the Hathigumpha
inscription, written in Brahmi script, which records King
Kharavela’s accomplishments year after year, including his
victorious military campaigns and his benevolent works for the
welfare of his people. Kharavela also proudly declares that he
created a ‘council of ascetics and sages’ from a hundred regions
and is ‘accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every
sect and repairer of every temple’. Once again, a ruler takes
pride in extending his protection to all schools of thought. This
is a fundamental part of what we may call the ‘Indian ethos’.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Notice the regularity of the rock-cut chambers sculpted
nearly two millennia ago. How did artisans achieve such
precision with just a chisel and a hammer? Picture yourself
as a sculptor in that era, shaping stone into art with your own
hands. What tools would you use?

Kingdoms and Life in the South

In India’s southern region, this period, between the 2nd or 3rd
century BCE and the 3rd century CE, saw the rise to prominence
of three powerful kingdoms —the Cheras, the Cholas and the
Pandyas—which often competed with each other for control
over the South, while also contributing to the region’s growth
in trade and culture. Let’s remember how Ashoka’s empire
stopped at those south Indian kingdoms (which he mentions in
his edicts), which suggests that they remained independent even
at the height of Mauryan power. And although Kharavela claims
thathe defeated an alliance of south Indian kings that threatened
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

his own territory, the location of that battle is unknown and he

does not seem to have invaded the southern region.
Tapestry of the Past

' THINK ABO

In the map given on next page, you may notice different
symbols alongside the names of the kingdoms. What do
these symbols represent? Think about how they highlight the
(3]

unique identities of the kingdoms.

169
 LEGEND
South Indian Kingdoms
~ Chola
Chera
Pandya
® Capital Cities
— Rivers

76°E 78°E 80°E

Fig. 6.14. Kingdoms in the South (note that borders are approximate
and fluctuated in time).

That period saw the advent of many poets whose works,

collectively known as ‘Sangam literature’, defined the entire
era: it came to be known as the ‘Sangam Age’. The word sangam
is derived from the Sanskrit sangha, which translates to
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

‘association’ and ‘coming together’—in this context, referring

to an assembly of the poets. The Sangam literature, the oldest
in south India, consists of several collections or anthologies of
poems and is much consulted by historians who investigate
the society and culture of the times. Primarily, Sangam poetry
expresses with great skill and delicacy personal emotions such
as love or societal values like heroism and generosity.

The Cholas
The Sangams refer to three ‘crowned kings’ — the Cholas, Cheras
and Pandyas. The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled
parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century
CE. The Chola king Karikala is said to have defeated a combined
(2]

force of the Cheras and Pandyas and established his supremacy.

170
 Silappadikaram: The Tale of the Anklet

This famous epic,

composed soon after the
|
4

Sangam collections, tells

thestory ofKannagi,who
lived happily with her

PSS
husband Kovalan in the
prosperous Chola capital
city of Puhar (identified
with Kaveripattinam
seen earlier). However,
Kovalan fell in love with
a dancer and eventually
lost all his wealth
over her. Realising his
mistake, he returned to
Kannagi, who forgave
him. They then travelled
to Madurai, the capital
of the Pandya kingdom, J
hoping to rebuild their Fig. 6.15. Statue of Kannagi, Chennai
lives.
To start anew, Kannagi gave Kovalan one of her anklets to sell; i
however, he was falsely accused of theft and executed by the
Pandya king. Devastated, Kannagi proved his innocence by
revealing her second anklet. The king, realising his mistake,
died of shock. Kannagi then cursed Madurai, invoking the god
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

of fire who destroyed the city. She then walked further west to
the Chera kingdom, where she was honoured as a goddess. Even
Tapestry of the Past

today, Kannagi is worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Silappadikaram’s exquisite poetry thus centres on the principles
oy

of justice and the ruler’s dharma to protect it. It also takes us

through cities rich in traded goods, through three kingdoms,
g

and also through several schools of thought.

171
 ' THINK ABOU
Observe the statue of the
king. How is he depicted?
What do his posture, clothing,
and expression say about his
power and status?

Fig. 6.16. Statue of King Karikala at

the Grand Anicut Memorial Park in
Tamil Nadu

Karikala undertook many projects for the benefit of the people.

Among them is the Kallanai or Grand Anicut, a complex water
diversion system located at a geographically strategic point
just downstream of the Srirangam island. It helped to divert
waters from the Kaveri to the central and southern parts of
the Kaveri delta. This enabled more land to be brought under
cultivation, earning this area the name ‘rice bowl of the South’.
Restored several times in the course of time, it is still in use and
helps millions of people in Tamil Nadu by providing water for
irrigation and thus supporting agriculture in the region.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1
0

Fig. 6.17. A view of the Kallanai or Grand Anicut

172
 The Cheras
Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras
ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with
their capital at Vanji, present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. They
played an essential role in shaping the region’s cultural and
economic history, encouraging the growth of Tamil literature
and patronising Sangam poets.
The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections
with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting many goods
from India to the outside world. The kingdom became a hub for
the export of spices, timber, ivory and pearls.

' THINK ABOUT

Have you ever wondered how historians uncover the trade
relations between two distant kingdoms many centuries
ago? Let’s take a moment to brainstorm and discuss how this
information comes to light.

The Chera kings issued a number

of coins under their reign. Do you
notice the royal emblem of Cheras
on one such coin given below?
Fig. 6.18. Coins under Chera Kings
The Pandyas
The Pandyas’ rule over parts of Tamil Nadu and the surrounding
regions, with their capital at present-day Madurai, goes back
several centuries BCE. Successive kings expanded the Pandyan
kingdom. In his work Indika, Megasthenes mentions this
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

kingdom as a prosperous one, with a strong administration and

involved in active trade with distant powers like the Greeks
and Romans, apart from much internal trade (Kharavela, for
Tapestry of the Past

instance, states that he gets hundreds of pearls brought from the

Pandya kingdom). The Pandyas were also an important naval
power of the subcontinent. The later Pandyas also contributed
greatly to the art, architecture, and overall prosperity of the
region.
(2]

173
 ‘ THINK ABOUT IT
The Pandyas were known for their pearls. Why do you think
pearls were an important article of trade during these times?

The Pandyas left many inscriptions in which their kings

asserted their great concern for their subjects’ welfare and their
encouragements to all schools of thought and belief.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

Having completed our brief journey
into south India, it is time to return
to the north, where a very different
kind of development is about to
occur. So far, we have only visited
a few native dynasties; yet the same
period also witnessed the arrival of
invaders who entered through the
northwest frontier and took control
of the northwestern, northern, and
central regions of the Subcontinent.
Let us first examine the legacy of
Alexander’s brief campaign in the
Indus plains. While retreating from
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 6.19. The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha

the areas he had conquered, he left
satraps behind. Over time, these
regional rulers established their independent domains and
came to be known as ‘Indo-Greeks’.
After the decline of the Mauryas, the areas in the northwestern
regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were
an easy target for the Indo-Greeks. However, while they arrived
as conquerors, they were much influenced by the rich local
culture. This cultural interaction led to a blend of Greek and
Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life,
shaping the cultural landscape of the region.
The Heliodorus pillar, near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), is a
e

notable example of such connections. It is named after an Indo-

174
Greek ambassador, who in his inscription praises Vasudeva as
the ‘god of gods’. The inscription also states, “Three immortal
precepts (footsteps) [..] when practised lead to heaven: self-
restraint, charity, consciousness.”
During excavations in north India, archaeologists have found
many Indo-Greeks coins, which have provided most of the
information we have about these rulers. Those coins were made
of gold, silver, copper and nickel often portraying a king on one
side and Greek deities on the other. However, some coins, instead,
depicted Indian deities like Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi.
The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the
Indo-Scythians or Shakas (see a little below).

LET'S EXPLORE
What do you think might have
been the meaning of having
deities like Vasudeva-Krishna
Fig. 6.20. An Indo-Greek silver coin
or Lakshmi on some Indo-Greek with Vasudeva-Krishna on one side
coins?

DON'T MISS OU
The Shakas (sometimes
called Indo-Scythians) also
invaded the northwest of
the Subcontinent and ruled
from the latter part of the
2nd century BCE to the 5th
century CE. Their kingdoms
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

Fig. 6.21. Notice how dates are provided in both

rose to power after the the Gregorian and Shaka Samvat eras on this
Indo-Greeks, and they were official publication of the Government of India.
Tapestry of the Past

in power until the arrival of the Kushanas (see below). It

was during this period that the Shaka Samvat calendar was
developed. It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar
(except from January-March, when it is behind by 79 years).
It was adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.
2]

175
 The Emergence of the Kushanas
The Kushanas, originally from central Asia, entered India
probablyinthe 2nd century CE. Atits peak, their empire extended
from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule
marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a
profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent.
When he was not busy with his military campaigns, Kanishka
encouraged art and culture, leading to the development of new
artistic styles.

LET'S EXPLORE
Carefully observe this massive statue (1.85 m
high) and notice the clothing, weapon, and
footwear. What does it tell us about this
figure?

This famous ‘headless’ statue is of King Kanishka,

probably the most powerful ruler of the Kushana
dynasty. The Brahmi inscription on the statue
reads, ‘maharaja rajadhiraja devaputra kanishka’,
that is, ‘The great king, king of kings, son of God,
Fig. 6.22. Headless statue Kanishka’.
of King Kanishka
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

LET'S EXPLORE
Observe the coins carefully. Who, besides the emperor,
appears on the coin?

Fig. 6.23. Coins of Kanishka

(&)

176
 On the first coin, Kanishka is shown holding a spear, titled
‘King of Kings’, while the other side features Buddha with the
inscription BOAAO (Buddha) in Greek script. On the second coin,
an emperor appears on one side, and Shiva with the bull Nandi
on the other. Let’s reflect on the following:
= Why would a powerful ruler feature Buddha and Shiva on
his coins? What does it say about his values and priorities?
= Can you find modern examples of such symbolic currency?
The Kushanas held control over significant sections of the Silk
Route (on the next page), and during their reign, trade grew,
connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.
Continuing the trend set under the Indo-Greek rulers, Kushana
art and architecture, exemplified by the Gandhara and Mathura
schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek
styles. The sculptures feature a variety of deities reflecting the
peaceful co-existence of various schools of thought. This era saw
the rise of representations of deities —like
Strya or the sun god —which looked more
similar to humans and the increase in the
development of religious art, laying the
groundwork for later temple architecture in
the subcontinent.
The Gandhara style, which emerged in the
western regions of Punjab, blended Greco-
Roman elements with Indian features. Most
sculptures and artefacts from this tradition
were crafted in intricate detail from grey-
5
black schist ~
stone. In [Link], sculptc?rs Fig.
(or6.24. Head
future of a bodhisattva
Buddha) from the
produced many fine Buddha images with Gandhara School
of Art. Note
6 - The Age of Reorganisation

realistic anatomy and flowing robes. the fusion of Indian and Greek
features.
Tapestry of the Past

‘ THINK ABOU
Do you know where Gandhara is? Does it remind you of a
character from the epic Mahabharata?
(&)

177
 30°E 40°E

Samarkand
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

20°E 30°E 40°E 50°E 60°E

Fig. 6.25. Some of the trade routes of the ancient world. The network marked
(2]

in green shows the Silk Route connecting China with the Mediterranean world
and passing through central Asia, Persia, etc.

178
 LEGEND
== Main Route of Silk Road
Other Caravan Routes
Important Centres

6 - The Age of Reorganisation

Tapestry of the Past

90°E
(2]

179
 The Mathura style developed in
the Mathura region of present-
day Uttar Pradesh and is known
for its distinct Indian style.
Unlike the Gandhara style, it
primarily used red sandstone
for its sculptures and reflects
less influence from Greco-
Roman aesthetics. This art form
is known for its depictions of
Indian deities, including Kubera,
Lakshmi, Shiva, Buddha, yakshas
Fig. 6.26. Kubera, God of ‘wealth’
and yakshinis and generally
) from the Mathura School of
produced fuller figures with Art. Did you miss the prominent
smooth modelling. moustache? The moustache is a
distinguishing feature of some
Indian sculptures.
LET'S EXPLORE

Now that you are familiar with the basic characteristics of

the Mathura and Gandhara styles of art, study the pictures of
artefacts given in Fig. 6.27 on the right page and try to identify
which school of art each artefact belongs to. Write your
observations with justifications and discuss your answers
with your classmates.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Despite the political conflicts and power struggles, the period

saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This
shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles
interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially
Hindu and Buddhist ones). It was also the age when Sanskrit
literature flourished, with, in particular, the composition of
major Indian texts such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana
(refer to the chapter “Unity in Diversity, or ‘Many in the One’” i
your Grade 6 textbook).

Recognising these connections encourages us to view this

‘Tapestry of the Past’ not as confined to any one kingdom or
ruler, but as a dynamic process that works through interaction
and assimilation over time.
e

180
 6 - The Age of Reorganisation
Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 6.27.1. A scene of the death of Buddha. Fig. 6.27.2. Bodhisattva Maitreya.
Fig. 6.27.3. Shiva linga being worshipped by Kushana devotees.
Fig. 6.27.4. A Naga between two Nagts, with an inscription referring to the
eighth year of Kanishka’s reign. Fig. 6.27.5. Kartikeya, the god of war, and
Agni, the god offire. Fig. 6.27.6. Standing Buddha.

181
 Kharavela
Kanishka

Gautamiputra
Satakarni
Karikala
Pushyamitra
Shunga l

Kushanas

Indo-Greeks
!|
Shakas

—
S Satavahanas
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Chola, Chera, Pandyas

Fig. 6.28

Before we move on ...

- The period after the disintegration of the Maurya empire
was characterised by the emergence of many big and small
kingdoms across the Subcontinent.
- The internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions,
which together led to a period of reorganisation of political
powers.
e

182
 This period witnessed a dialogue of various cultures that
absorbed each other’s influence to create new styles of art,
architecture, coinage, etc., with ultimately a dominance of
Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature.
This time was also marked by remarkable developments in
trade activities, both internal and external.

Questions and activities

1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of

reorganisation?
Write a note on the Sangam literature in 150 words.
Which rulers mentioned in this chapter included their
mother’s name in their title, and why did they do so?
Write a note of 250 words about one kingdom from this
chapter that you find interesting. Explain why you chose
it. After presenting your note in class, find out what
kingdoms have been the most selected by your classmates.
Imagine you have the chance to create your own kingdom.
What royal emblem would you choose, and why? What
title would you take as the ruler? Write a note about your
kingdom, including its values, rules and regulations, and
some unique features.
You have read about the architectural developments
of the post-Maurya era. Take an outline of the Indian
subcontinent and mark the approximate locations of some
of the ancient structures mentioned in this chapter.
6 - The Age of Reorganisation
Tapestry of the Past
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183
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

*Noodles' is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

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184
The Gupta Era: An Age
of Tireless Creativity
Neither force nor mere diplomacy can eliminate evil; nor
is righteousness upheld by flattery alone. It is wisdom
and knowledge that truly strengthen a kingdom — not
indulgence in luxuries.
— Kalidasa in Raghuvansham

ig. 7.1. Landscape of Ajanta caves, dating

from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 CE

o7sicHo7

185
 Dhruy and Bhavisha had just returned from their journey
to the Pandya kingdom. They had seen the splendid
markets, taken a short trip on a ship, and met some
Roman traders buying pearls. Now they were itching to
use Itihasa again and jump a few centuries. “What would
that be like?” they wondered. “Will the cities be the same?
What about the people and society—would they have
changed? What kind of governance would they have?
Would there be new literature, new art?” They could not
wait to find out and were soon whisked away to ...

The Kamarapa kingdom

was animportant power
that ruled in parts of
modern-day
As:
The Gup!
the mo:
f ed from the 3rd to
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

The Vakatakas ruled in

the central part of the
subcontinent with their
capital at Nandivardhana
(near present-day Nagpur).

200 400 km
L1 1

70°E 80°E 90°E

e

Fig. 7.2. Empires and kingdoms during the period from 3rd to 6th century CE.

186
Bhavisha: My head is spinning. There are so many kingdoms and
empires. How am I ever going to remember all of this?
Dhruv: Do not worry, Bhavisha! Let us understand what is
happening, and we’ll remember it.
Bhavisha: Is there anything in this period that we can see back
home?
Dhruv: Let us use our time machine and find out!
Bhavisha activates Itihasa’, and they jump to Mehrauli (in Delhi),
where the famous Iron Pillar of Delhi stands.
They overhear a tour guide nearby, who was explaining the
significance of this pillar.

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

Fig. 7.3. Iron Pillar, Mehrauli, Delhi

Tour Guide: This Iron Pillar of Delhi is over 1,600 years old and
still stands tall without rusting. It is a testament to the advanced
metallurgical skills of ancient India.
Bhavisha: 1,600 years old and not rusting! Let us go and see it.
Tapestry of the Past

Bhavisha: Look! Is this the famous ‘iron pillar’?

Dhruv: Oh wow! There is something written on it, but I cannot
read it.
Bhavisha: I wonder who made this? And why? Let’s hear what
the guide uncle has to say about this.

187
 Tour Guide: The 6-tonne pillar was erected during the reign of
Chandragupta II, a ruler of the Gupta dynasty. It was probably
erected first in front of the Udayagiri caves (Madhya Pradesh) and
brought to Delhi a few centuries later. It was dedicated to Vishnu,
and its inscriptions celebrate the king’s achievements.
Both: That is so fascinating! We would love to learn more about
this king and his empire.
Let us begin this exciting journey into the history of the Gupta
Empire!

DON'T MISS OUT

Picture leaving a bicycle out in the rain for just one year—it
would soon show signs of rust. Yet this ancient pillar, standing
under the open sky for centuries, remains unaltered. Scientists
have tried to uncover
its secret, and they believe itis because a
unique thinlayer, created by the special iron used and oxygen
from the air, forms on the surface of the iron, protecting it
from corrosion.

A New Power Emerges

By the 3rd century CE, the Kushana Empire, which spread over
the north and northwest of the Subcontinent, started to weaken.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

New kingdoms emerged, setting the stage for a fresh period of

consolidation, and the new actor on this stage was the Gupta
dynasty.
There are various theories on the origin of the Guptas. However,
it is widely believed that they emerged in a region near present-
day Uttar Pradesh as regional rulers. Over time, they rose to
prominence and established a powerful empire. The Gupta
period is considered remarkable in Indian history and is
marked by significant developments in many areas. The fields of
art, architecture, literature and science flourished, particularly
during the time of Chandragupta II, and that legacy continues
even today.
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188
 The inscription on the iron pillar in Delhi speaks of a king named
‘Chandra’, who has been identified with Chandragupta II (not
to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya from the Maurya
dynasty, whom we met earlier). Chandragupta II, also known
as ‘Vikramaditya’, was one of the renowned rulers of the Gupta
dynasty. He was a devotee of Vishnu and his mount (vahana)
Garuda often appears on many inscriptions.

£, DON'T MISS OUT

Have you noticed the ‘II' in Chandragupta II's name?
Historians added this number because there was another
‘Chandragupta’ before him—his grandfather! (This tradition
of naming the first son after his grandfather is followed by
some Indian families even today.) Chandragupta I, as he is
referred to, played a crucial role in the early expansion of the
Gupta Empire; he is remembered for his coins and strategic
alliances, which helped him consolidate his power and lay the
foundation for a strong empire.

Fig. 7.4. Gold coin featuring King Chandragupta I with his queen, 7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity
Kumaradevi; on the reverse side, a seated goddess identified as Lakshmi

The warrior king

Tapestry of the Past

The prayaga prashasti, a pillar inscription in Prayagraj, praises

the achievements of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II’s father.
According to the author of the inscription—the court poet
Harisena —the king’s ambition was to be ‘dharani-bandha’ or to
‘unify the Earth’. To this end, he fought many wars, defeating

189
 kings, taking over their kingdoms
and expanding his empire.
Many defeated Kkings were
reinstated and offered tribute
to Samudragupta, while others,
fearing his might, submitted
without protest.
Harisenaalsowroteabouthowthe
king supported art, learning and
trade, making his kingdom rich
and successful. Samudragupta
himself is portrayed as a veena
Fig. 7.5. An inscription by Harisena
player in one of the coins he
minted (Fig. 7.6).

' THINK ABOUT

Why do you think kings chose to proclaim their achievements
in the form of inscriptions?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

Fig. 7.6. A seated Samudragupta, playing the veena; on the reverse

side, goddess Lakshmt

LET'S REMEMBER
\ \ Ambitious kings sometimes performed the ashvamedha yajiia
to build mighty empires and leave a legacy for the future.
Such a significant event was commemorated by minting
special coins like the one shown in Fig 7.7.
(2]

190
 Fig. 7.7. This
coin depicts
the sacrificial
horse of the
ashvamedha
yajiia; the
reverse depicts
the queen
holding a chauri
(fly whisk).

Some literary sources give us descriptive information about

rulers, kingdoms and the people. The Vishnu Purana, for
instance, specifies the key regions of the empire: “The Gupta
dynasty will rule over Anuganga (the middle-Gangetic basin),
Prayaga (present-day Prayagraj), Saketa (Ayodhya), and Magadha
(approximately Bihar) and all the surrounding regions.” But at
its peak, the Gupta Empire covered alarger area than this —most
of present-day north and west India, along with parts of central
and east India.

LET'S EXPLORE
In the Grade 6 chapter Timeline and Sources of History’,
we listed multiple sources that help us understand the past.
Compile a list of the sources we have referred to so far in the
chapter. What did we learn from each source?

Imagine what it would have entailed to move a whole army of

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

soldiers, elephants, horses, cooks, and other support staff, as
well as the supplies to feed them all. Clearly, the tributary kings
must have been asked to provide for these.

LET'S EXPLORE
Take a political map of India and locate the present-day
Tapestry of the Past

states and Union territories where the Guptas ruled (see

Fig. 7.8). Mark these states on the map and count how many
you found. Then, compare your findings with your friends to
see if everyone got the same number or discovered something
different!

191
 N.0E
INDIAN
DESERT

Prj_ayéga Kashi Pataliputra

Magadha

amralipti

N.0Z
20°N
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

10°N

[Link]

Gupta Empire
A Important Cities
—— Rivers

70°E 80°E 90°E

Fig. 7.8. The Gupta Empire’s extent. Note that the Vakatakas were the allies of the
(<]

Guptas. The Guptas claim to have conquered parts of the east coast, down to the
Pallavas, whom they may have briefly subdued.

192
A Traveller’s Account of Indian Society in
the Gupta Age
Chinese traveller Faxian (pronounced as Fa-Shi-Anne) visited
India in the early 5th century CE. He set out on this long and
difficult pilgrimage to visit sacred Buddhist sites, learn from
renowned Indian scholars and collect manuscripts of Buddhist
texts so he could take them back to China. Faxian travelled
extensively across India, observing her culture, governance and
society, and recorded his experiences and observations for the
people of his homeland —and for us too —since his travelogue
has survived to this day!

Below is an excerpt from his travelogue, where he records

his observations of the society in the Gupta era.
The people are numerous and happy [...] they have no need to
register households or attend to officials. [...] Those who farm
royal land pay aportion of their grain. [...] The king’s guards and
attendants have salaries [...] The cities are the greatest in the
Middle Kingdom [i.e. the Gangetic plains], and the inhabitants
arerich, prosperous, and practice kindness and righteousness.
Heads of Vaishya families [i.e. merchants or traders] establish
houses for charity and medicines [...] the poor; orphans and the
sick are cared for [...] doctors provide treatment, and the needy
receive food and medicines. [...] The city has many wealthy
Vaishya elders and foreign merchants, with beautiful homes

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

[...] The lanes are kept in good order.
— A Record of Buddhistic
Kingdoms (AD 399-414) (Translated by J. Legge)

LET'S EXPLORE
Tapestry of the Past

Read the excerpt from Faxian given above and identify the
key features of the society he describes. Write down your
observations and compare your notes with your friends— you
might be surprised to see how differently others interpret the
same text!

193
 Outcastes: Excerpts from historical accounts like Faxian’s are valuable
Someone
who has
sources, but they reflect only the writer’s perspective and focus
been at one point in time and for a limited portion of the society
rejected they describe. Let us not, however, forget that elsewhere in his
from a social
or cultural travelogue, Faxian also describes the harsh treatment of the
group; in chandalas, who were regarded as outcastes and lived outside
this case,
a category
the city limits.
of people Just as you may have perceived the excerpt from Faxian’s
considered
socially travelogue differently from your friends, a group of historians
too low to may examine the same source and draw varied interpretations
be part of
the varna from it. Historians then look at more sources to corroborate their
system. understanding. This reminds us of the need to assess multiple
sources, perspectives and interpretations before drawing
conclusions.

Glimpses of the Gupta Empire

Governance and administration
Let us observe the map in Fig. 7.8. You will notice that many
kingdoms coexisted during the same period. Some of them may
have been at war with each other in their ambition to expand
their control. Recall what we saw earlier about Kautilya’s ideas
on ruling a kingdom. He advised rulers to form alliances (mitra)
as one of the components of the saptanga.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

New Kkings ... new titles

Inscriptions and coins provide valuable insights into the
titles adopted by Gupta rulers, such as ‘maharajadhiraja’,
‘samrat’, and ‘chakravartin’. These titles reflected their claim
to supreme authority and emphasised their superiority
over earlier rulers who used simpler titles like ‘rajan’ and
‘maharaja’.

The Gupta rulers used various strategies, including military

conquests, diplomacy, and alliances, to expand and consolidate
their vast empire. The last method included matrimonial
alliances. A well-known example is that of Prabhavati Gupta,
(2]
daughter of Chandragupta II, who was married to a prince of Regent
Ruler:A
the Vakataka kingdom —the Guptas’ neighbours to the south. regent
Tragically, the Vakataka prince died early, making her the regent temporarily
ruler of the kingdom. During her reign, she ensured that the governs a
kingdom
ties between the Vakatakas and the Guptas remained strong. fora
One of her inscriptions describes her as a ‘mother of two kings’, monarch
unable to
referring to her two sons who ascended the Vakataka throne. As do so until
a devotee of Vishnu like her father, Prabhavati is also associated they can.
with the construction of seven temples dedicated to this god and
his avatars. Some of these temples are in Ramagiri (Ramtek hill)
in present-day Maharashtra.

Fig. 7.9. The Kevala Narasimha temple dedicated to Narasimha, one of the avatars of
Vishnu; according to some historians, this temple was constructed by Prabhavati Gupta’s
daughter in her memory

LET'S EXPLORE
Observe the painting of 7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity
Prabhavatl Gupta sitting in her
court (Fig. 7.10). Take note of
the details—her attire, posture,
the people around her, and the
Tapestry of the Past

setting of the court. What do

these elements tell you about her
life, role, and the time she lived
in? Discuss your observations in
groups and share your insights
Fig. 7.10. An artist’s reimagination of
with the class. Prabhavatt Gupta sitting in her court

195
 The Gupta Empire had awell-organised system of administration.
Instead of controlling everything from a central authority, they
divided the empire into provinces and granted land to local
rulers, priests and chieftains. These land grants were carefully
inscribed on copper plates to keep accurate records —many of
which have been discovered by archaeologists in recent times.
This system helped ensure proper tax collection and allowed the
Gupta rulers to govern efficiently while still giving local leaders
some control over their regions.

Thriving trade
The primary source of revenue of the Gupta’s was land tax.
Othersourcesincluded fines, taxes on mines, irrigation, trade and
crafts. This revenue was used for administration, maintaining
the army, building temples and infrastructure, and supporting
scholars and artists.
As we see once again, for such an empire to sustain itself, it had
to promote a vibrant internal and external trade. In the Gupta
era, India traded with the Mediterranean world, Southeast Asia
and China, exporting textiles, spices, ivory and gemstones. The
Indian Ocean trade network connected Indian ports to distant
markets. One significant stop on the way to the Mediterranean
markets was Socotra Island, strategically located in the Arabian
Sea. Archaeological evidence, such as pottery, inscriptions in
the Brahmi script, and designs such as a Buddhist stiipa, has
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part1

established the presence of Indian traders there over several

centuries, apart from traders from Egypt, Arabia, Rome and
Greece. This small island carries evidence of the rich cultural
exchanges that trade promoted in the Indian Ocean.

New Ideas and Wonders: The Classical Age

As we saw, Gupta rulers were devout followers of Vishnu; this
is often reflected in their coins and inscriptions. However,
they also supported other traditions and schools of thought.
They patronised Buddhist institutions, including the renowned
Nalanda university and several other Buddhist viharas
(monastery). Their approach was inclusive and open. We will
explore these institutions further in higher grades.
(5]

196
 Fig. 7.11. Remains of Nalanda University

Indeed, the prolonged period of peace and stability during the

Gupta period promoted notable achievements in various fields,
leading some historians to label this period the ‘classical age’
of India. It was also the time when knowledge from previous
eras was consolidated and compiled into numerous texts.
Sanskrit literature flourished, with Kalidasa’s works and many
major Puranas. Aryabhata and Varahamihira recorded major
advancementsinmathematicsandastronomy,whilemedicaltexts
compiled and refined medical theories and practices. Metallurgy
also progressed, as we saw with the rust-resistant Iron Pillar
This stability strengthened the
economy, allowing the state to
support scholars, artists, and
scientists, leading to cultural

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

and intellectual growth.
Chandragupta II kept himself
surrounded by many learned
men, poets and artists, and his
patronage of such diverse talent
enriched his court greatly.
Tapestry of the Past

Let us take a look at some of

the remarkable figures of this
period. Fig. 7.12. Chandragupta II goes to war
(an artist’s imagination from the 1920s)

197
 of a year as 365 days, 6 hours, 12 mmutes, and 30 seconds, just
‘__T‘
a few minutes off from the modern value (365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, and 45 seconds). Aryabhata also provided a fair
estimate of the size of the Earth and a correct explanation for
solar and lunar eclipses. His work became the foundation for
further scientific advances in India and beyond. In matfigmatics,
Aryabhata described a number of techniques of calculation and
equation-solving, some of which you learn at school without
knowing that they were first formulated 1500 years ago!

Varahamihira: He was a ;;?

mathematician, astronomer o
and astrologer from the same
period. He lived in Ujjayini,a
city famous for its tradition y
of learning and scholarship.
His encyclopedic work,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Brihat Samhita, covered a

wide range of subjects from
astronomy and astrology g‘
to weather forecasting,
architecture, town planmng
and even farmmg
ability to observe the world,
apply logical reasoning, and
combine it with traditiona
knowledge made hlm“‘q,
pioneer in science. o

198
LET'S EXPLORE
Let’s join Bhavisha and Dhruv with their time machine in the
time of the Guptas. You are getting an opportunity to meet
Aryabhata and Varahamihira—what would you ask them?
Divide the class into two groups and create a series of questions
for an interview with them.

Fig. 7.14. The yaksha’s message to the clouds — a scene from Meghadutam.

Kalidasa: Little is known about Kalidasa’s life; legends

suggest that he was once ridiculed by others, which
motivated him to work hard and transform his life. He

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

is renowned for his contributions to Sanskrit literature
and exquisitely refined poetry. One of his celebrated
compositionsis Meghadiitam, or ‘The Cloud Messenger’.
It tells the story of a yaksha (minor deity), who, after
being banished from his home by his master, sends a
message to his beloved through a passing cloud. Apart
Tapestry of the Past

from the many emotions of love, the poem describes in

great detail the landscapes and weather of north India
on its journey to the beloved.

199
 "~ DON'T MISS OUT
Codified: Did you know that Ayurveda got codified during the Gupta
Arranged or
period? This Indian traditional system of medicine has much
writtenin an
organised older roots, going back several centuries BCE. Texts like
and
the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, which laid the
systematic
way. foundation for Ayurvedic practices still in use today, were
compiled and given their final shape during the Gupta period.
They deal with a wide range of topics—the cataloguing and
diagnosing of diseases, their treatments, the importance of
diet in maintaining good health, the preparation of medicines,
and surgical techniques advanced for their time. Importantly,
Ayurveda emphasises holistic healing and a deep connection
between the mind, body, and nature.

The Quest for Beauty

The Gupta rulers created a supportive environment where
creativity and craftsmanship thrived; some of the iconic works
of history were produced during this time. Many key centres
of art emerged during these times, including Sarnath (near
Varanasi in present-day Uttar Pradesh), known for its exquisite
sculptures of the Buddha, and the awe-inspiring Ajanta caves
(in present-day Maharashtra). The rock-cut caves and detailed
carvings of deities at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh) are another
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

example of this abundant artistic production. ‘Gupta art’, as it

is sometimes called, set high standards of aesthetics and beauty
that left a lasting impact. (See Figures 7.15 to 7.18)

LET'S EXPLORE
Take a close look at the samples of Gupta sculptures shown
in Fig 7.15.1. and 7.15.2. By looking at the attributes, can
you guess which deities are depicted here? Write your
observations in the space provided and share your thoughts
during the class discussion!

200
The Decline of the Guptas
By the 6th century CE, the Gupta Empire began showing signs
of decline as the later rulers faced challenges from external
invasions. The fierce Huna tribe from central Asia repeatedly
attacked the empire, weakening its control over north India. At
the same time, the rise of powerful regional rulers led to internal
conflicts. However, was this truly the end, or the beginning of a
period that marked a turning point in Indian history? We will
explore this question in the next part of this book.

Meanwhile in the South and Northeast ...

Let us go back to the map in Fig. 7.8. While the Guptas ruled in
the north, the Pallavas emerged as a powerful dynasty in the
south, gradually consolidating their power in parts of present-
day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Their origins are not clearly known, but they appear to have
been a tributary power under the Satavahanas, whom we
encountered in the previous chapter, and to have gained power
as the Satavahanas declined.
The Pallavas were also great patrons of art and architecture. Most
of themweredevotees of Shivaandare credited with constructing
magnificent temples and rock-cut caves, some of which we will
visit when we explore classical Indian architecture. The capital
of the Pallavas, Kanchipuram (in present-day Tamil Nadu), often
known as the ‘city of a thousand temples’, developed as one of

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

the major centres of learning in the south. The establishment of
ghatikas — centres of learning that emerged during the reign of
the Satavahanas —fostered an environment for education and
intellectual growth.
In the northeastern region, the Kamartapa kingdom, ruled by
Tapestry of the Past

the Varman dynasty, extended over the Brahmaputra valley

(broadly, present-day Assam) and northern parts of present-day
Bengal and Bangladesh. An ancient name for the Brahmaputra
valley of Assam is Pragjyotisha, mentioned in the Ramayana
and Mahabharata; the latter text mentions Bhagadatta, king of

201
 Fig. 7.15.1 to 7.15.3. In the 3rd image, these terracotta sculptures from the Gupta period
(Ahichchhatra, western Uttar Pradesh) depict India’s sacred rivers, Ganga and Yamuna. Their
vahanas distinguish them: Ganga stands on a makara (a mythical creature akin to a crocodile),
while Yamuna [Link] a tortoise. Water flows over their heads, and the pot is another reminder
of their manifestation as rivers.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

oy N R
L ,klz“
Fig. 7.16. (Left) Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh), (Right) Vishnu on Sheshnag from Dashavatara temple
(2]

202
 Fig. 7.17. The renowned Ajanta Caves were carved out during this period with the
support of the Guptas and Vakatakas. Left: An elaborate cave replicating a temple ="
with a central stiipa from which a seated Buddha emerges (note the arched roof
imitating wooden beams). Right: A painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani.

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

Tapestry of the Past

-~
L. -4
Fig. 7.18.1. to 7.18.3. Udayagiri Caves and a Gupta-era temple near Sanchi are both
located in Madhya Pradesh. Arjuna and Karna in battle—A sculpted depiction from
the Mahabharata

203
 Chandragupta II

Samudragupta

Aryabhata

Varahamihira
Prabhavati Gupta

} Kalidasa

B
G

Vakatakas

Kamardpa

—RN Guptas

Pallavas
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 7.19

Pragjyotisha (modern-day Assam), as fighting on the side of the

Kauravas in the Great War, and some historical rulers claimed
him among their ancestors. Be that as it may, the Kamartpa
kingdom was a prominent cultural and political centre; temples
and monasteries flourished as hubs of learning.
Both the Pallavas and Kamartpa are mentioned in the prayaga
prashasti we saw earlier. During his southern campaigns,
Samudragupta defeated a Pallava ruler but did not take over
the region. Instead, he let the local kings, including the Pallavas,
e

204
keep their thrones as long as they accepted his rule and paid
tribute. This helped maintain peaceful relations. Under similar
conditions, in the northeast, Samudragupta defeated the ruler of
Kamaripa but did not take direct control. By now, we have seen
this pattern recur quite a few times.
The Gupta period was a time of remarkable progress. Itsinfluence
stretched far beyond the empire, shaping art, science, literature,
and governance for centuries. Advances in mathematics,
astronomy, medicine and metallurgy, among other fields, laid
the foundation for future scientific and technological growth,
while beautiful temples and Sanskrit literature continue to
inspire today. The Guptas created a stable and prosperous
society, setting a model for future rulers. Their legacy is still
alive in India’s culture, traditions, and way of life, marking this
era as one of the high points in Indian history.

Before we move on ...

- The Gupta kings consolidated their power through military
campaigns, land grants and matrimonial alliances to ensure
stability in the empire.
- The period saw remarkable contributions in the fields of
art, literature, science and mathematics.
- Other than the Guptas, dynasties like Vakatakas, Pallavas,
and Varmans ruled in their respective regions, making this
period full of cultural and intellectual vibrancy.

7 - The Gupta Era: An Age of Tireless Creativity

Questions and activities
1. Imagine you receive a letter from someone living in the
Gupta Empire. The letter starts like this:
“Greetings from Pataliputra! Life here is vibrant and full of
Tapestry of the Past

excitement. Just yesterday, I witnessed ...” Complete the letter

with a short paragraph (250-300 words) describing life in
the Gupta Empire.

205
 2. Which Gupta ruler was also known as the ‘Vikramaditya’?
3. “Periods of peace support the development of various
aspects of sociocultural life, literature, and the development
of science and technology.” Examine this statement in the
light of the Gupta empire.
4. Recreate a scene from a Gupta ruler’s court.
Write a short script, assign roles like the king, ministers, and
scholars, and enact a role play to bring the Gupta era to life!
5. Match the two columns:

Column A Column B
(1) Kanchipuram (a) Known for vibrant cave
paintings that depict
the Jataka tales.

(2) Ujjayini (b) Famous for rock-cut caves

featuring intricate carvings
of Hindu deities, especially
Vishnu.

(3) Udayagiri (c) Capital of the Guptas.

(4) Ajanta (d) Known as ‘a city

of a thousand temples’.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

(5) Pataliputra (e) A prominent centre of

learning in ancient India.

6. Who were the Pallavas and where did they rule?

7. Organise an exploration trip with your teachers to a nearby

historical site, museum, or heritage building. After the trip,
write a detailed report describing your experience. Include
key observations about the site’s historical significance, the
architecture, artefacts, and any interesting facts you learned
during the visit. Reflect on how the trip enhanced your
understanding of history.
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206
How the Land
Becomes Sacred
Ether, air, fire, water, earth, planets, all creatures,
directions, trees and plants, rivers and seas, are organs
of the supreme Lord’s body.

- Bhagavata Purana

W’r"flnh:n

o7aicHoe

207
 LET'S EXPLORE
Do any of the pictures look familiar to you? Can you name
similar places found in your neighbourhood?

What is ‘Sacredness’?
Sacredness can have many meanings. In the limited context of
this chapter, sacredness is finding something of deep religious or
spiritual significance, worthy of respect and reverence, holy or
divine. But what is this ‘something’? It can be a special location or
shrine that evokes such deep feelings, high thoughts or emotions.
It can also be, as we will see in this chapter, a journey of a special
kind (often called a ‘pilgrimage’), the route the journey takes, or
even the very land covered.
Sacredness, therefore, is not just connected with religion and
spirituality, but also with geography, all sorts of traditions, and, in
the case of India, with something more that we will discover soon.
Let us focus on sacred places first. You will find that almost every
school of thought and religion in India has its own sacred places.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
e

208
The places in these pictures are revered by followers of Islam, Pilgrimage:
A journey
Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism—religions that to a sacred
originated outside India. People visit or congregate in these places place thatis
significant
for prayer and worship. Followers from other faiths also visit
withina
them, as can be seen at the Dargah Sharif of Ajmer (Rajasthan) or religion
the Velankanni Church in Tamil Nadu. People go on pilgrimages or belief
system.
to these shrines on special occasions.
Shrine:
Naturally, when we turn to religions that originated in India,
A place
we find that they have many more sacred sites. In the case of regarded
Buddhism, those are often places that were visitedby the Buddha as holy
because
or where his relics are kept. Among them is the Great Stiipa at ofits
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), which is a relic stiipa (you saw this in associations
with
the chapter on ‘The Rise of Empires’), and the Mahabodhi Stipa the divine, a
in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), where, according to Buddhist tradition, sacred relic,
the Buddha attained enlightenment. They are important sites or a spiritual
figure.
for pilgrims; Bodh Gaya, for instance, receives more than four
million visitors every year. Relic:
A partof
In Sikhism, takhts a saint's
are seats or or other
spiritual
centres of spiritual figure's
authority — for body or
sometimes
example, the Takht to one
Sri Patna Sahib (in of their
belongings
Patna), the Akal Takht
keptas an
(part of the Golden object of
reverence.

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

Temple at Amritsar,
see Fig. 8.3), and Takht
Sri Keshgarh Sahib
(at Anandpur). Sikhs
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

aspire to undertake
pilgrimages to these Fig. 8.3
places at least once in their lifetimes, as they are associated with
important Sikh Gurus and therefore have special significance. In
addition, Sikh tradition records pilgrimages conductedby several
Gurus, such as Guru Nanak, to places like Haridwar, Prayag,
Mathura, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Puri and many more, besides a few
Muslim shrines.
e

209
 India has, for ages past, been a country of pilgrimages.
All over the country, you find these ancient places, from
Badrinath, Kedarnath and Amarnath, high up in the snowy
Himalayas down to Kanyakumari in the south. What has
Tirtha: drawn our people from the south to the north and from
Literally, a the north to the south in these great pilgrimages? It is the
place where
one can cross feeling of one country and one culture.
ariver or —Jawaharlal Nehru, 1961
other body
of water.
Symbolically,
itbecomes a
Pilgrimages
place where Many Indians undertake tirthayatras or pilgrimages to various
one can
cross from sacred sites (tirthas) during their lifetime. This ancient and
the ordinary continuous tradition of pilgrimage is not just a physical journey
worldly life
but also an inner journey that requires a specified code of
to a higher,
spiritual conduct.
life. Such
places are For at least 3,000 years, and with no modern means of
held in high transportation available, Indians have been crisscrossing the
reverence
and regarded
Subcontinent, resulting in its entire geography being considered
as sacred. sacred. We will return to this soon.

Here’s an excerpt from the writings of Dharampal, a historian

and thinker:
“I was travelling from Gwalior to Delhi ... when I met a group of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

people ... about twelve of them, some three or four women and
seven or eight men ... They said that they had been on a pilgrimage,
three months long, up to Rameswaram, among other places. They
came from two different villages north of Lucknow. They had
various bundles of things and some earthen pots with them ... They
had taken all the necessities for their food—atta, ghee, sugar—
with them ... I asked them, “You are going to Delhi now?” “Yes!”,
they replied. “You will stop in Delhi?” “No, we only have to change
trains there. We’re going to Haridwar! ... We don’t have time ... We
have to go to Haridwar. And then we have to get back home.”
(<)

210
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Read the excerpt. What are your observations? Locate the
route the group must have taken from Rameswaram to
Haridwar. Why do you think the group was going straight
to Haridwar instead of stopping at Delhi?
- In ancient times, when people were travelling from
Madurai in Tamil Nadu to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh,
what languages would they come across? How would they
communicate with people in those places? Where would
they stay? What food would they eat?
Tirthankara:
Literally,
In the Jain tradition, the tirthas are associated with places where someone
who makes a
the Tirthankaras attained liberation or where significant events tirtha, that is,
of their lives occurred. Trees, ponds, hills and mountains that the who guides
the crossing
Tirthankaras visited or meditated at are also considered sacred.
from ordinary
Examples of such places include Mount Abu, Girnar and the to higher life.
Shatrufijaya hill in Saurashtra (Gujarat). In Jainism, the
Tirthankaras
Another example is the pilgrimage to Sabarimala temple are the
supreme
(Kerala), dedicated to the deity Ayyappa, which draws over ten preachers of
million devotees every year. This hilltop shrine was traditionally dharma.
reached by an immensely
difficult trek through hills and
forests. Such a challenging
approach, common to
many hilltop or mountain
shrines all over the country, Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions
symbolises the difficulties of
the inner path, with natural
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

landmarks along the route

being considered sacred.
Fig. 8.4. Pandharpur wari,
an 800-year-old tradition in
Maharashtra. Wart means a
pilgrimage that is held regularly,
in this case annually. Pilgrims
walk in large groups for 21 days
to the famous Vithoba temple in
Pandharpur.

211
 More sacred sites
Hindu and many folk and tribal belief
systems go further. In Grade 6 we learnt
that in such belief systems, peopleregard
elements of Nature, such as mountains,
rivers, trees, plants and animals, and
sometimes stones too, as sacred. In
Hinduism, for instance, this includes
countless geographical sites or features
of Nature, such as specific mountains,
rivers and forests, which are regarded as
particularly divine and are worshipped
as deities; many rivers are regarded M
as devis, while some species of trees, Fig. 8.5. In this image,
animals and plants are particularly holy. hl‘?;fi";lr‘ ;’\’)Z’Z{ ‘Z;ZISZ}; s
This tradition comes from the perception a demon and saves
. 4 Bhudevi (Mother Earth),
of a divine presence in all of Nature. suown nere sitting on his
Ultimately, the whole of planet Earth is elbow (from the Belur
considered sacred —she is Mother Earth ~ '¢"Ple Karnataka)
or Bhudevi.

Here are a few more examples of such traditions:

= The Niyam Dongar hill in the Niyamgiri Range of Jharkhand
is sacred to the Dongria Khond tribe. They believe that the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

hill is the abode of Niyam Raja, the supreme deity who

provides everything they need for sustenance. Cutting trees
here is prohibited and considered a sign of disrespect to the
deity.
= In the early 2000s, the Government of Sikkim identified
several sacred mountains, caves, lakes, rocks and hot springs
that were to be protected against all forms of damage.
= Inthe Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, the Todas, a tribal community,
regard many mountain peaks as sacred and associate them
with their gods. To them, this sense of sacredness extends to
many plants (which often become part of their rituals), Shola
forests, wetlands, and even specific stones and individual
trees.
(S

212
Becoming Aware of Sacred Geography
Some sacred places are marked on the map (Fig. 8.6) given
on the next page. Though spread all over India, they are also
interconnected. For example, some Hindus aspire to do the char
dhamyatra, and those four sites appear to have been deliberately
located in the southern, northern, eastern and
western corners of India! A similar aspiration
The 12 jyotirlingas
exists with respect to the 12 jyotirlingas, which are
are sacred shrines
considered highly auspicious. The 51 Shakti pithas,
dedicated to Shiva,
too, cover the entire map of India (even parts of
a major deity of
present-day Bangladesh and Pakistan). And there
Hinduism. Each
are many more regional networks.
shrine has its own
These networks crisscross India’s length and ynique mythology
breadth, creating a sacred geography. As a result, and name.
the land itself becomes sacred.
There is a story about the 51 Shakti pithas. Shakti, the divine
mother in the form of Sati, and her consort, Shiva, were insulted
by her father. An angry Sati immolated herself. Shiva was so
livid that he took her body and refused to allow the last rites.
Shiva’s anger was dangerous for the world and the cosmos. So
Vishnu used his chakra to cut up Satl’s body. The Shakti pithas
are the places across the Subcontinent where the body parts of
the divine mother fell one by one. The symbol behind the story
is clear: the whole land becomes the body of the divine mother.

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

LET'S EXPLORE
Note the locations of the char dham. What do you think it
implied for the people when they travelled north-south and
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

east-west?

While visiting the major sacred places connected to their

respective faiths, pilgrims would naturally cover the geography
of India. They would come across diverse languages, customs,
clothing and foods along the way, but would notice the
commonalities too.
(5]

213
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

70°E

Fig. 8.6. A map showing a few networks of traditional tirthas.

LET'S EXPLORE
Can you identify the names of a few traditional tirthas given
in the map above? You can refer to the political map at the
end of the book for help.

214
Why did people travel such long distances? Apart from religious
motivations, some, like merchants and traders, travelled to
exchange goods; others travelled to discuss, debate and popularise
their beliefs or to learn and study from eminent teachers in
different parts of the country. However, though they were
travelling for different purposes, their routes often converged.
Discussions and debates, sharing of goods, experiences, and
tales, enriched everyone. New ideas emerged, and old ones were
adapted. This complex process became a major factor in the
cultural integration of the Indian Subcontinent.

Sacred Ecology
Tirthas are usually located on the banks of a river or a lake, in a
forest or on a mountain. As we saw above, the natural landscape
itself is thus seen or perceived as sacred space, or punyakshetra.
This perception has helped us to protect and preserve Nature,
since we are not distinct from her. So geography, culture and
spirituality fuse together in these kshetras.

Rivers and sangams (confluence of rivers)

Rivers have been worshipped in India since Vedic times. The
nadistuti stikta of the Rigveda is a hymn (stikta) in praise of (stuti)
rivers (nadi) that invokes 19 major rivers of ancient northwest
India. Even today, many rituals involving water invoke the
presence of some of the most important rivers of India:

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

gange cha yamune chaiva godavari sarasvatt
narmade sindhu kavert jalesmin sannidhim kuru
Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu,
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

and Kaveri, may you manifest in this water.

Those rivers have been lifelines for the Indian civilisation. Their
sources, tributaries and the places they flow through are often
regarded as sacred too, and are visited by many pilgrims. In local
languages, theserivers are referred to with respect—for instance,
‘Ganga ji’ or ‘Yamuna ji’.
(5]

215
 DON'T MISS O
© Prayagraj hosts the Kumbh Mela every six years. Prayag is
located at the confluence of three rivers— Ganga, Yamuna
and the invisible Sarasvati. A few years ago, UNESCO listed
the Kumbh Mela as an ‘intangible heritage of the world’.
® An estimated 660 million people participated in the
Kumbh Mela of 2025. What proportion of the population
of India is this?

Kumbh Mela
The Kumbh Mela originates in the legend of amrita manthana.
The devas and asuras (i.e., more or less, gods and demons),
traditional enemies, for once joined forces in churning the
cosmic ocean to extract amrita, the divine nectar that would give
them immortality. To prevent the asuras from getting the amrita,
Vishnu, in the form of Mohini, a beautiful lady, snatched the
pitcher or kumbha which contained the amrita. In the process,
a few drops fell over four places —Haridwar, Prayagraj, Nashik,
and Ujjain. These are the places where the Kumbh Mela has been
held, and a dip in the rivers there during a prescribed period is
considered most auspicious.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
e

216
' THINK ABOUT IT
How do you think these
sacredplacesareconnected
with the people’s economic
lives and activities? Draw
a mind mabp to trace these
connections. (Hint: The
pictures above can provide
some clues.)

Mountains and Forests

All over the world, mountains are often associated with legends,
deities or heroes. Also mountains are seen as a symbolic gateway |
from earth to heaven because of their height. That is why many
tirthas and temples in India are located on hilltops, as the
physical journey to these peaks is seen as a symbolic journey
to reach the divine. People would undertake arduous walks
through mountain trails to those sites and shrines, which tested
not only their physical abilities but also their mental strength.
Today, such places are often accessible through roads and other
modes of transport.

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

Fig. 8.9

217
 Trees, Forests and Sacred Groves
In many parts of India, trees are adorned with offerings like
turmeric and kumkum. One species of fig tree commonly called
‘peepul’ (or ‘pipal’), ‘bo tree’ or ‘bodhi tree’ (ashvattha in Sanskrit)
issacred to Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. In fact, its
botanical name is Ficus religiosa (literally, in Latin, the ‘religious’
or sacred fig tree).
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

i N
Fig. 8.10. The tree in the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya is often cited as a direct
descendant of the original tree under which, according to Buddhist tradition, the
Buddha attained enlightenment — hence the names ‘bodhi tree’ and ‘Bodh Gaya’.

In Grade 6 we read about the two epics of India, the Mahabharata

and Ramayana. These texts have vivid descriptions of pilgrimages
undertaken and places visited, and of sacred rivers, forests and
mountains. In almost every region of India, numerous rural
and tribal traditions claim that the heroes of these texts passed
through their locality, with shrines often marking such passages.
Such legends allowed a wide diversity of communities to make
the two epics their own.
(5]

218
 Fig. 8.11. A shrine in
Bastar; Chhattisgarh,
celebrating Rama’s
passing through the
area

Fig. 8.12. A seal from

Mohenjo-daro

Observe this seal from Mohenjo-daro. Can you recognise the

leaves at the top? As you can see, the peepul tree has been an
important part of India’s cultural geography for millennia.

' THINK ABO

Many parts of the peepul tree have medical uses: the leaves
are used to treat some skin ailments while the bark is useful
for stomach ailments. Since it stays green almost through the
year, it provides food and shelter to many types of birds and
other animals.

Over time, many rural and tribal communities across India

decided to protect and preserve some natural forests from
harmful activities such as hunting, tree felling or mining.

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

They saw those forests as the abodes of deities—for example,
Ryngkew or Basa in Meghalaya. Such special forests are called
‘sacred groves’ in English (see the table below for a few names
in regional languages) and, thanks to their sacred status, have
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

come to shelter great biodiversity of flora and fauna. Many

sacred groves are also home to small water bodies and thus help
in water conservation.
There were many thousands of sacred groves in India. Sadly,
these numbers have been shrinking as people have started
encroaching on them for various purposes, from agriculture to
industry. Still, sacred groves continue to be protected in many
regions of India.
(3]

219
 S <&
Fig. 8.13. Kalkai temple, Mulshi, Maharashtra Fig. 8.14. Mawphlong, Shillong

Fig. 8.15. From the sacred Fig. 8.16. Udaiyankudukadu

groves ofthe Bhils Karumbayiramkondan, Tamil Nadu

Given below are the names of a few sacred groves in a few

regional languages of India. Can you add to this?
§ Malayalam kavu
3 Tamil kovilkadu
% Kannada devare kadu
g Marathi devarat
= Khasi (Meghalaya) khlaw kyntang
E Hindi (Himachal Pradesh) dev van
? Jharkhand sarna
H Chhattisgarh devgudi
‘E‘ Rajasthan oran
E
&
(&)

220
In Tamil Nadu, local chronicles highlight the relationship
between the deity of a sacred grove, Nature and humans. One
such chronicle in the Thanjavur District states that the groves’
deities protect fruit bats, which are regarded as sacred — spotting
one of them is considered auspicious. Besides, bats play a critical
role in the pollination of flowers and in the dispersal of seeds.
Sacred groves thus evolve a harmonious relationship between
the deity, the ecosystem, and humans.

From pilgrimage to trade

Pilgrims encounter traders and
merchants along their journey. This
interaction benefits both groups.
Pilgrims need various items, which
traders can provide. As a result, the
pilgrimage routes and the trade routes
often overlap. Some traders might
also double as pilgrims, taking their
wares to distant towns and cities
Fig. 8.17
while visiting sacred sites and shrines.
What routes did those traders use in ancient India? Revisit the
mabp of trade routes (Fig. 5.5) in the chapter ‘The Rise of Empires’.
Uttarapatha was a major trade route connecting the north-
western and eastern partsofthe Subcontinent; the Dakshinapatha
went from Kaushambi through Ujjayini (Ujjain) to Pratishthana

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

(Paithan). As you know, some of the goods traded along these
routes included precious stones like shells and pearls, coins, gold
and diamonds, as well as cotton, spices, and sandalwood.
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

LET'S EXPLORE
Take a sheet of transparent paper that can be used for tracing.
Trace a map of the trade routes from the chapter ‘The Rise of
Empires’. Place it on top of the map of the important tirthas.
What do you observe?
(=)

221
 Sacred Geography beyond India
The concept and practice of sacred geography are not unique
to India. Ancient Greece had many sacred landmarks, from
mountains to sacred groves. The Native Americans used to
have a special bond with Nature, which they viewed as sacred.
The Maoris, the indigenous people of New Zealand, regard the
Taranaki Maunga mountain as their ancestor and therefore as
sacred; after many representations by the Maoris, a law recently
granted this mountain the rights and responsibilities of a human
being —an acknowledgement of the Maori worldview. The elders
of the community represent the voice of the mountain or river
threatened with destruction. This ensures that the sacred places
are not exploited and degenerated.

Restoring and conserving the sacred

' THINK ABOUT IT

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 8.18
Look carefully at these pictures of places and animals that are
considered sacred. The Yamuna in the north, the Mahanadi in
the east or the Kaveri in the south are all sacred rivers. How
come they have become so polluted? Are there sacred places
in your locality or region that have been similarly polluted
or degraded by human activity? Whose responsibility is it to
preserve the sanctity of our sacred places? Discuss in class.
(&)

222
A harmonious relationship that once existed between people
and the sacred geography sustained Indian civilisation over
millennia, creating values that were shared all over the
Subcontinent. But today it is under great strain.
Sacred geography continues to be relevant today. When there
is a conflict in our relationship with Nature, when a river
is overexploited to the point of disappearance, or a sacred
mountain is challenged with competing ideas of development,
people have spoken up to protect their environment, their
deities and values. At a time when sustainability has become a
global issue, a worldview that embeds sacred geography has a
significant contribution to make.

Before we move on ...

- All religions in India have their sacred places dotted over
the landscape. In Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, such
places are usually associated with some of the great figures
in these belief systems.
-~ Hinduism has dense networks of pilgrimage sites, covering
the entire geography of India. The practice of pilgrimage
is interwoven with the lives of people, as it serves the
individual development and spiritual growth, but also the
socio-economic purposes of trade expansion and pan-Indian
cultural integration.
-~ In many Hindu, tribal and folk traditions, the very land is
perceived as sacred.

Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions

-~ Our sacred places are being polluted owing to widespread
neglect and a lack of concern. It is our duty to protect our
national heritage, as our Constitution also reminds us. [ ]
8 - How the Land Becomes Sacred

Questions and activities

1. Read the following statement by a well-known
environmental thinker, David Suzuki:
“The way we see the world shapes the way we treat it. If a
mountain is a deity, not a pile of ore; if a river is one of the
veins of the land, not potential irrigation water; if a forest
e

223
 is a sacred grove, not timber; if other species are biological
kin, not resources; or if the planet is our mother, not an
opportunity—then we will treat each other with greater
respect. Thus is the challenge, to look at the world from a
different perspective.”
Discuss in small groups. What do you think this statement
means? What implication does it have for our actions
with respect to the air, water, land, trees and mountains
around us?
List the sacred sites in your region. Enquire into why
they are considered sacred. Are there stories connected
with these sacred places? Write a short essay of 150
words. (Hint: You could speak to elders in your family and
community, discuss with your teacher, read books and
articles, etc., to gather relevant information.)
Why do you think natural elements like rivers, mountains
and forests are considered sacred for the people? How do
they contribute to our lives?
Why do people visit a tirtha or other sacred sites?
How did the ancient pilgrimage routes help in fostering
trade during those times? Do you think the sacred sites
help in developing the economy of the region?
How do sacred places influence the culture and traditions
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

of the people living near them?

From the various sacred sites of India, select two of your
choice and create a project explaining their significance.
What is the two-fold significance of a tirthayatra or a
pilgrimage?
e

224
From the Rulers to
the Ruled: Types of
Governments
A ruler’s duties in the internal administration of the country
are three-fold: raksha (protection of the state from external
aggression), palana (maintenance of law and order within the
state), and yogakshema (safeguarding the welfare of the people).
Kautilya in Arthashastra
(translation by L.N. Rangarajan)

Fig. 9.1. Inside the Indian Parliament

225
 What is Government?
What are its Functions?
In Grade 6, we learned what government is and explored some
of its roles.
The government plays an important role in our lives. This role
includes:
= maintaining law and order in society;
= ensuring peace, stability, and security for the people;
= managing relationships with other countries;
= taking care of national defence;
= delivering essential goods
and services (education,
healthcare, infrastructure);
= managing the economy and
economic activities;
= working for the welfare and
improving people’s lives.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Do you remember this
picture from your Grade 6
textbook?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

- The government also has

many other roles. Try to list
them.

In Grade 6, we learned that India has a democratic form of

government. Like India, many countries have a democratic
government; but some countries have other forms of
. governments. Even all democratic governments are not exactly
the same. In this chapter, we will learn about various forms of
government, how they differ from each other, and how they
function.
(&)

226
What is Democracy? THINK ABOUT IT

As we studied in Grade 6, ‘democracy’ is best understood as ‘rule The school

example helps
of the people.’ This means that the source of power and authority us to understand
in a democracy are the people of the country. Let’s understand the concept of
representation
this with the example of a school. and how it
works. However,
the students’
A school example committee is
different from
A school is full of activities and things that must be done. Many Parliamentary
and Legislative
day-to-day tasks need to be managed, and things need to be committees,
as class
organised. For example, there are timetables to be made and representatives
followed, sports activities to be organised, food to be served in aschool are
quite different
during lunch time (also called the mid-day-meal), utensils to be from Members of
cleaned, speakers to be decided for the morning assembly, and Parliament (MPs)
and Members of
activities to be arranged for ‘No Bag Days’. The list is very long the Legislative
in terms of all that needs to be done in the school. Assembly (MLAs).
What are these
With so many things to be done, the Head Teacher realised that a differences?
Discuss with your
Student Committee should be appointed so that students can be teacher in the
classroom and
part of making the relevant rules to get all this done, then help in make a list.
implementation of the rules, and ensure that the rules are being
followed. The question before the Head Teacher was — who will
be part of the committee?
The Head Teacher discussed this in the assembly. She proposed
that it would be good if some students can take responsibility

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

for these tasks. A student committee should be formed. Hearing
this, the students got excited and started arguing.
Naghma: Students in Grade 12 are
the most senior; we will take care of
everything.
Shobha: But you will finish school in a
Governance and Democracy

few months. The students in Grade 11

should take care of everything.
Gurpreet: If the students of only one
grade will take care of everything,
then how will they know about the
problems that other grades face?
(&)

227
 In this exciting situation, the students finally came to three
options:
= Everyone in the school becomes part of the committee and
Representative:
A personwho is takes responsibility.
chosen to actor
at = The Head Teacher chooses the students herself for the
make decisions
on behalfof committee.
anot:re ;Eij;oor} = The students choose their representatives through voting,
people and the chosen representatives become the members of the
committee.

LET'S EXPLORE
Which of the three methods do you think is most effective?
Why?

The first method may seem appealing, but if every student in

the school is part of the committee, it will be difficult to reach
decisions and manage implementation effectively. In the second
method, since the Head Teacher selects the students for the
committee, many students will not have a role and won’t have
a way to ensure that their voices are heard regarding what
they need and want. However, in the third method, students
from each grade can choose one representative from among
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

themselves—someone they believe will effectively advocate

for their class’s needs. This representative will serve on the
committee, meaning that the student committee will consist of
representatives from each grade. This approach is a democratic
way to choose representatives and form a committee.

Functions of Government
Previously, we discussed the various roles that a government
plays in our lives, similar to the responsibilities of a student
committee in a school. Just like the school committee, a
government must create necessary rules, implement them,
and ensure that everyone follows these rules. These three
responsibilities are known as the functions of government.
-
@

228
The creation of rules is called the legislative function; these
rules serve as the framework for running the country. The
implementation of these rules and the administration of the
country according to them is known as the executive function.
Finally, ensuring that the rules are followed is referred to as the
judicial function.
Democracy is defined as the ‘rule of the people’. This means
that, similar to the third method of electing representatives in a
school, in a democracy, the people select their representatives to
govern them. However, not every country uses the same method
for choosing these representatives. We will explore this topic in
more detail in the following sections.

“.' DO YOU KNOW?

Mural:
Alarge
painting
or artwork
created
directly on
awall or
a ceiling

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Fig. 9.4. An 1896 mural by the painter Vedder called

Governance and Democracy

‘Government’ from the Library of Congress, USA.

Abraham Lincoln, a U.S. president in the late 19th century,

described democracy as a ‘government of the people, by the
people, for the people’, a phrase still widely used today.
(2]

229
 What Makes Governments Different?
The government of any country evolvesovertime. Since countries
have their own history, culture, and aspirations, it is natural that
governments of different countries are different. Let’s look at
some aspects that can make one form of government different
from another. These differences will become clearer when we
look at various types of government later in the chapter.

Key differences between governments

Who gets to decide that ‘this is the government’?
Who gets to
This is the most basic difference across many types
decide that
of government. Who or what says that ‘this is the
‘this is the
government of our country’? That is, who or what gives
government'?
the government its authority and power? For example,
in a democracy like India, it is the people of the country
who decide and are the source of authority, while in a
theocracy, the source of authority is religious beliefs and
the head of a religious institution.
How is the government formed? In a democracy, a
How is the
government is formed usually through some kind of
government
election. While in kingdoms which have kings or queens,
formed?
the kind that you have read about in other chapters,
usually someone from within the family continues to
rule and decide how the government will be set up.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

There are other ways of forming a government, and even

in democracies there can be different kinds of elections.
What are the different parts of the government and
What are
what do they do? Any government has many parts
the different
and systems, and these vary across different types
parts of the
of government. For example, the three functions
government
of government referred to earlier—legislative,
and what do
executive, and judiciary—can be performed by totally
they do?
independent bodies or by the same body. The system to
decide how the government will work can be written
down in a book of fundamental rules of the country,
called the ‘constitution’, which is what happens in most
(2]

230
 democracies. Or it can be decided by the king or queen, as it
happens in ‘monarchies’—governments of kings or queens.
4. Whatis the government working for? What goals is it
What is the
trying to achieve? Governments are designed to work
government
towards certain values and ideals. Some governments,
working for?
like the government of India, are designed to work
What goals
towards equality and prosperity for all, while some other
is it trying to
governments may be designed only for the prosperity of
achieve?
some families or groups.
There are differences between different forms of government
based on these four major aspects, but there could be other
kind of differences. So, let us now look at some types or forms of
government.

Democratic Governments around

the World
Democracy is the most popular form of government in the
modern world. In this part of the chapter, we will see that there
are different kinds of democratic governments. Before we
get into the differences, we should know that there are some
fundamental principles of any democracy.

Fundamental principles of democracy

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Equality in a democracy means that every person has
. ==
the right to be treated equally. It also means that everyone m
should have equal access to facilities like education and
health, and that everyone is equal before the law.
Governance and Democracy

Freedom in democracy means that citizens have the right

to make their own choices and express their opinions.

Representative participation means that every person

has a right to choose and elect their representatives.
This is done through the process of elections. Elected
representatives become a part of the legislature.
2]

231
 Ij Universal adult franchise grants every citizen
(above a certain age) the right to vote to choose their
= representative.

Fundamental rights of a citizen, such as—right to

S
equality, right to freedom of speech and expression,
and right against exploitation—are all provided and
protected in a democracy.

Independent judiciary ensures that every citizen’s

fi fundamental rights are protected, and that laws are
=" followed by the citizens and also by all the parts of the
government.

It is useful to remember that even these fundamental principles

have evolved over time. For example, India provided universal
adult franchise (meaning the right to vote in elections to all
adults) from the very beginning of the Indian republic in 1950;
on the other hand, in Switzerland, women got the right to vote
only in 1971.
Clearly, the above principles are ideals; not all democracies are
able to put them in practice. But equally clearly, it is important
for the citizens to keep these ideals in front of them.

Different forms of democratic governments

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Let us now understand the different forms of democratic

governments around the world.
1. Direct democracy
This is a form of democracy where all the citizens of a
country are directly responsible for all the rules, regulations
and functions. They participate in all the decisions directly.
In contemporary times, some kinds of this form are
followed in a few countries, like Switzerland. The limitation
of this form of government is that it is very hard to carry
out in practice, particularly in larger countries —just as we
saw in our school story: if everyone becomes a part of the
(&)

232
 committee, then decision-making and working on all tasks
smoothly will be difficult.
2. Representative democracy
This is the form of democratic government in which the
people elect their representatives through universal adult
franchise, just like in India. In this form of democracy, the Accountability:
Accountability
people do not directly govern, but the government is always in democracy
accountable to the people. means that the
government is
Elections are an integral part of representative democracy answerable to
through which people can express changes in their choices as the people who
have elected
well. To accomplish this, elections happen in regular and fixed them.
intervals of time. In India we have general elections every five
years, while in the United States of America they occur every
four years.

0
. DON'T MISS OUT
As we stated in the beginning, democracies have evolved
over time, and so have their characteristics. Even today,
there are a lot of differences in the functioning of these
democracies. It is useful to remember that when these
countries adopted democracies, they may not have had all
the principles of democracy as we understand them today.
For example, effective Universal Adult Suffrage in the UK

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

happened in 1928 and in the USA by 1965.

Country Year when democracy was established

USA 1787

Switzerland 1848
Governance and Democracy

India 1947

Germany 1949

Kenya 1964

Nepal 2008
e

233
 Most of the democracies today are
representative democracies. But every
democracy functions differently. Here are
the two forms ofrepresentative democracy.
a. Parliamentary democracy
In this form of government, the
members of the executive are also
part of the legislature. For example,
in India, the prime minister and the
council of ministers are also members
of the parliament.
Fig. 9.5. Voting in India

The council of ministers are accountable to the legislature

and continue working as long as they have the confidence of
the legislature. In India, the council of ministers can continue
working while they have confidence of the Lok Sabha.
In this form of government, people elect the legislature
but not the executive. Selected members of the legislature
become ministers.
Presidential democracy
In this form of government, the executive works
independently of the legislature. The president is elected
by the people. The president does not need to have the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

confidence of the legislature for his/her position.

In some countries like India, states within the country such
as Rajasthan or Kerala have their own governments, but they
are not completely independent. They are still governed by a
larger national government, the Union Government of India.
The different forms of democratic government have different
structures. You can understand the basic differences from the
table 9.1 on the facing page.

What do these terms mean?

Executive: The executive is the organ of the government
which is responsible for implementing the law. But the
process of its election is different in different countries.
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234
 Different forms of democratic government

Institution Executive Legislature Judiciary

Lower House (Lok independent from

prime minister
Sabha) is more executive and
and the council
powerful than Upper legislature (separation
of ministers
House (Rajya Sabha) of power)

equal power between

independent from
Upper House
executive and
president (Senate) and Lower
legislature (separation
House (House of
of power)
Representatives)

independent from
single house (National executive and
president
Assembly) legislature (separation
of power)

equal power between

independent from
prime minister Upper House (Senate)
executive and
Australia and the council and Lower
legislature (separation
of ministers House (House of
of power)
Representatives)

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Governance and Democracy

Table 9.1 Different forms of democratic government

= Legislature: The legislature is the body of the government

whichisresponsible for makinglaws. It is known by different
names in different countries. In India, it is called Parliament;
in the USA, it is called Congress. In most democracies, it has
two houses, the Upper House and the Lower House.
2]

235
 = Upper House and Lower House: In most countries, the
Lower House is elected by direct voting and is generally
more powerful than the Upper House, which is formed
either by election or nomination. These Houses are known
by different names in different countries. In India, the
Lower House is called the Lok Sabha, and the Upper House
is called the Rajya Sabha.
= Separation of Power means that the three organs of the
government— Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary—work
independently and do not interfere in each other’s functions.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Fill the blank columns under Country A and Country B
in table 9.1 given on the previous page by taking two
different countries of your choice.
- Analyse the table and discuss amongst yourselves the
similarities and differences in all the examples.

The exercise must have given you an understanding that

different forms of democratic governments have different ways
of formation, structures and functioning. Along with this, the
relationships between the three organs of government also
differs. But as we read in the beginning, some characteristics,
like equality, freedom and universal adult franchise remain the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

same in all democracies.

LET'S EXPLORE
- After studying the above examples, list the core principles
ofademocraticgovernment. Based on your understanding,
do the activity given below:
= You have to form a Student Committee in your school
Make a plan and execute it in a democratic manner,
ensuring that:
& Functions of the committee are well defined
& The election process of the committee members is
democratic
(2]

236
A Peek into History
Early republics
A republic is a form of government in which the head of state is
elected and is not a hereditary monarch.
This was the case in at least two of India’s ancient
mahajanapadas, as you might recall from the chapter ‘New
Beginnings: Cities and States’. In the Vajji (or Vriji) mahajanapada,
the Lichchhavi clan, in particular, practised collective
decision-making, and leaders were chosen based on merit
rather than birth. Key positions were filled through elections,
and representatives from various clans met regularly to address
issues and develop solutions to ensure the people’s welfare. As a
result, such states have been called early republics.
Indeed, the voice of the common people has been valued and |
upheld in India through the ages, even when the power was
in the hands of a king or queen. A remarkable example from
the Chola period is seen in the Uttaramerur inscriptions from
the 10th century CE in Tamil Nadu, which provide us with
details about the election of members to the village sabha (local
administrative body). We learn about the election process,
including sealed ballot boxes, qualifications of members, their
duties, and also the conditions that could lead to their dismissal.

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Governance and Democracy

Fig. 9.6. Chola period inscriptions on the walls of Vaikuntha Perumal temple,
Uttaramerur;, Tamil Nadu
e

237
 Slave: For instance, members would be immediately removed if found
A person to have indulged in any corruption.
who is
forced to There were republics in other parts of the world too. In the 5th
work for and 4th centuries BCE, Rome and Greece had republics. In some
and obey
another regions of Greece, free men could vote, but women, workers and
and is slaves could not. Other areas had a system where only a small,
considered
privileged group could vote or make decisions.
to be their
property.
Other Forms of Government
In the previous sections we saw that democracy is the most
popular form of government in today’s world, and that there are
Subjugate:
different forms of democracy as well. Let us now look at other
To take forms of governments, and understand their basic structures.
control of
people or 1. Monarchy
aplace by
using force As we saw in chapters of ‘Tapestry of the Past’, mahajanapadas
and make
the people
wereheadedbykings, whowere guidedby thesabha orsamitiand
obey. were expected to take decisions and advice of these institutions
seriously. As empires were built and
expanded across India, kings began to
gain immense power. Yet, they relied on
a council of ministers and a network of
officials to help them govern the empire.
In many cases, the king also sought the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

advice of learnt scholars on matters

related to dharma. Of course, there were
also examples of kings who used their
power to subjugate their people.
In some parts of the world, kings had all
the power; they made the laws, enforced
them, and also decided the punishments.
In some cases, they claimed to have
received divine power from God.
However, in many parts of India, the
Fig. 9.7. Adoration of the pillar power of the raja was neither absolute
of Sanchi Stipa nor beyond question. The king was
(2]

238
expected to make decisions while staying within the limits
of rajadharma; this meant ruling according to dharma and
ensuring the welfare of all people. This was an ideal that kings
did not necessarily achieve.

' THINK ABOUT IT

What might happen if the king considered himself to have
divine powers? How would he rule over the people?

DON'T MISS OUT

Fig. 9.8. A 17th-century Rajput miniature painting depicting

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Bhishma lying on a bed of arrows, teaching Yudhisthira while
Krishna sits at the head, witnessing the moment.

In the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, when Bhishma,

the wise elder of the Kuru dynasty, lies on a bed of arrows
awaiting his death, he teaches Yudhisthira, the eldest
Pandava, at greatlength on good governance, justice, and the
Governance and Democracy

moral responsibilities of a raja. A raja is not just a ruler; the

welfare of his people is his highest priority. He must apply
the law without bias to ensure fairness and equality. He must
not get attached to power, as it fosters ego and corruption.
He must seek guidance from wise advisors to ensure just
and well-informed decisions. The raja must understand that
his authority is temporary and bound by dharma.
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239
 King Chandrapida wanted to build a temple to his deity,
but the hut of a stubborn cobbler stood in the way. When
the builders complained to the king that he did not even
allow them to take measurements, the king blamed them
for not asking the cobbler’s permission first. The king
received the cobbler, who explained that his humble hut
was like a mother to him and as precious to him as the

4y
palace was to the king: “The misery people feel when
their homes are forcibly taken away can be described
only by a god who has fallen from his celestial car or
by a king who has lost his kingdom!” Nevertheless, the
cobbler expressed his readiness to let go of his hut if
only the king would come and respectfully ask for his
permission—which the king did, giving him adequate
money as compensation. “For those who desire
happiness, there should be no false pride,” concludes the
text, while the cobbler praised the king’s commitment
to dharma, even towards a lowly subject!
— From Rajatarangini by the Kashmiri
scholar Kalhana (12th century CE) )
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Sovereign: 2. Monarchies today

Sovereign indicates
that the source of A monarchy is the type of government that is ruled by a
power of a country
is independent from
monarch. Kings and queens are called monarchs, who
external influence. exercise their sovereign power. Monarchies are usually
hereditary; typically, the eldest son of the ruling
Monarchs: Kings or
queens who inherit monarch becomes the next king.
their position from
their family, usually Today we have two types of monarchy:
passing it from
a. Absolute monarchy
one generation to
the next within the In an absolute monarchy the monarch
royal family.
has complete control in the making of laws,
(3]

240
 ensuring that they are followed and adjudicating when Adjudicating:
they are not. Saudi Arabia is an example of an absolute Judging a case
when there is
monarchy; here the king holds all power and governs a dispute
according to Islamic law. However, he appoints a council
that advises and assists him on governance; but he is not
bound by the council’s advice.
Constitutional monarchy
Let us consider an example of a different kind of monarchy.
The United Kingdom or Britain is also a monarchy. The
head of the state is the king or queen, but he or she has
only nominal power and the real power of the executive
is exercised by the prime minister. The legislative power is
exercised by the parliament.
This means that all the laws are made by the elected
parliament, and executive power is exercised by the Council
of Ministers led by the prime minister. So while Britain has
a king, it really is, today, a parliamentary democracy. This
kind of monarchy is called a constitutional monarchy.

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Governance and Democracy

Fig. 9.9. King Charles III in a ceremonial coach during the visit of a foreign dignitary.
(2]

241
 2. Theocracy
A theocracy is a form of government where the country is ruled
by the rules of religion and religious leaders.
Iran, whose full official name is ‘Islamic Republic of Iran’ has a
unique political system combining elements of both a theocratic
and democratic governance. Their constitution is based on the
fundamental principles of Islam, the country’s official religion.
The Supreme Leader, who has the ultimate authority over
the legislature, executive and judiciary, is selected by a group
of Islamic clerics and his term is for life. There are also an
elected president and a parliament that take care of everyday
governance. The intent of the republic is to establish a society
based on Islamic norms.
Other theocracies currently in existence include Afghanistan
and Vatican City.

3. Dictatorship
A dictatorship is a form of government in which one person,
or a small group possesses absolute power —they do not have
any limits imposed on them by a constitution or law. The 20th
century witnessed many examples of dictators who created
extremely difficult circumstances for the people; we will only
see two of them here.
= Soon after Adolf Hitler was appointed
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Chancellor of Germany in 1933, he

passed laws that gave him full power
and eliminated the opposition. He
was now a dictator. Convinced of the
superiority of his people, he believed
that Germany should rule the world
and dominate ‘inferior races’. He was
responsible for the killing of at least
Fig. 9.10. Caricature
six million Jews (this is known as the of Adolf Hitler
‘Holocaust’) as well as hundreds of
thousands of Roma and other groups of people. In fact,
he was the cause for World War II in the years 1939-1945,
(3]

242
 which resulted in immense loss of life Caricature:
Adrawing that
and property in many countries. makes someone
= Idi Amin was a military dictator in look funny or
foolish because
Uganda. He was directly responsible some partof
for the merciless killing of thousands the person’s
appearance is
of people. Many Indians whose exaggerated
ancestors had migrated to Uganda a
few generations before were forced to
flee the country. Fig. 9.11. Caricature
of Idi Amin
} &9 DON'T MISS OUT
The Roma, or Romani people;
were originally nomads. Based
on their linguistic and cultural
characteristics, scholars have
determined that they originated
in India. They first settled in parts
of eastern Europe but have now
migrated to several countries of
the world. Fig. 9.12

Story of Shane

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Shane lives in North Korea which has a set of defined rules
for his everyday living. He is currently serving in compulsory
military service in which he is expected to serve in the military
till the time government decides. There are also rules about
how his hair should be cut and the clothes he should wear.
He cannot access the global internet, and so is unaware of the
Governance and Democracy

world outside his own country. The government watches his

every action closely and he is also expected to report about
anyone who tries breaking any of the defined rules. One day
he met a tourist who asked him, “Why do all of you have the
same haircut here?” To this Shane responded, “We all want to
explore new styles, but the government decides the way we
should keep our hair.”
(3]

243
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Does Shane’s country look like a democracy?
- How do you think Shane’s everyday life would be?
- Would you like to live in such a country? Explain why.

4. Oligarchy
The word ‘oligarchy’ is of Greek origin, where oligos means a few
and drkho means to rule or command. Itis a type of government
where a small, powerful group makes all the important deci-
sions; usually they are wealthy families or influential people.
Political
commentators: In some places in ancient Greece, aristocratic families ruled
People who
as oligarchies. In modern times, political commentators have
analyse and
share their observed that even some democracies show signs of oligarchy
opinions about when a small group of politicians and wealthy businesspeople
political events
hold too much influence in governance.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 9.13. A cartoon from 1889 depicting an oligarchic situation.

e

244
 LET'S EXPLORE
> Look carefully at the picture in Fig. 9.13 on the previous
page. It depicts an elected body in the USA in the late 19th
century. The people shown in the cartoon are all elected
members. What do you observe? What do you see at the
top left-hand corner of the cartoon? Who do you think is
making decisions in this elected body?
- Canademocracy turn into an oligarchy? What can people
do to keep democracy strong?

Why Democracy Matters

These different types of governments show us that democracy
is not the only way in which countries are governed. But in
most countries, democracy is considered to be a better form
of government than others. Let us do a quick comparison to
understand this better.
Consider the characteristics below in different forms of
government and fill in the blank boxes with Yes or No:

e . h Absolute .
Characteristics | Democracy | Dictatorship Ry Oligarchy

Universal

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Adult Yes No No No
Franchise
Equality
amongst citizens

Freedom of
speech
Governance and Democracy

Separation of
powers
Wellbeing and
Prosperity of all
citizens

Table 9.2 Characteristics of different forms of government

o

245
 N
=4 LET'S EXPLORE
You have learnt the basic characteristics of various forms of
governments. Do a small role play of the various forms in
your classroom:
- Enact democracy
Enact monarchy
U

Enact dictatorship
What do you find to be the most suitable form of
v

government?

You have read about different forms of government above and

how the form of government defines the lives of its citizens.
In the previous table, we could see that the representation of
people’s choices and rights varies across the different forms.
In a genuine democracy, the people can lead their everyday lives
in the way they want. They can choose what to speak, what to
wear, what beliefs to follow, and how to express themselves. All
of this can be done in a democracy until and unless it harms
someone else’s rights.
In a democratic government, the people choose their
government. The government is accountable for protecting the
rights of its people and is responsible for providing basic needs
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

to its citizens. If the government does not perform its functions

properly, the people can change their representatives through
elections. This ensures that there is a constant check of what the
government does. Thus, the values and ideals of the government
in a democracy should focus on the well-being of all its people.
Our countryisa democracy, and you can see many of the features
of a democracy in our lives every day. It is therefore no wonder
that more than half of the countries in the world have adopted
democracy and democratic forms of government.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that even democracies
have their problems. Issues such as corruption, wealth disparity,
excessive control by a few over democratic institutions, erosion
of the judiciary’s independence, manipulation of information
(3]

246
channels, and several more, can cause hurdles in achieving the
ideals of democracy. What can we do as individuals, and as a
society, toremain vigilant and minimize theseissues and hurdles?

Before we move on ...

> Government plays an important role in running a country.
Different types of governments across the world have
different answers to the following questions: Who decides
“This is the government”? What are the parts of the
government and what do they do? Who or what is the
government working for? What values and ideals should
the government follow?
The most popular form of government in the world
today is democracy. Democratic governments across the
world have variations, including direct democracy and
representative democracy.
There are two types of representative
democracy —presidential and parliamentary democracy.
India is a parliamentary democracy.
Other types of government include monarchy, theocracy,
dictatorship and oligarchy.
Democracy matters, but there are serious challenges to
democracy that citizens need to remain vigilant about.

9 - From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government

Questions and activities
1. Write names of the various types of government that you
have learnt in the chapter.
Governance and Democracy

Which type of Government does India have? And why is

that called that type?
Youread that an independent judiciary is present in all types
of democracies. State any three reasons why you think it is
important for the judiciary to be independent.
Do you think democratic government is better than other
forms of government? Why?
o

247
 5. These are some practices in a few different countries. Can
you match the practice with the type of government?

o Type of
S. No Practice in the country P
Government
L All citizens are treated equally Dictatorship
before law
The government refers to the
II. |religious leader for each and every Monarchy
decision it takes.
After the queen’s death, her son
100%, q Democracy
became the new king.
The ruler is not bound to follow
IV. | any Constitution. He makes all the Theocracy
decisions as per his choice.

Below is a list of countries. Find out the types of government

these countries have:

[Link] Country Type of Government

1 Bhutan

2 Nepal

3 Bangladesh
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

4 South Africa

5 Brazil

What are possible hurdles in a democracy in achieving its

values and ideals? How can they be overcome?
Democracy is different from monarchy and dictatorship.
Explain.
(3]

248
The Constitution of
India— An Introduction
I would like to point out that if we are able to act according to the
Constitution which has been adopted..., I am sure we shall be able
very soon to make our country great. This is a goal which is within
our power toreach, butits realisation would require hard physical
and mental labour and above all great moral regeneration.
We have prepared a democratic Constitution. But the successful
working of democratic institutions requires in those who have to
work with them willingness to respect the viewpoint of others,
capacity for compromise and accommodation.
— Dr. Rajendra Prasad, first President of India

249
 It was yet another chilly January morning in Delhi, much like every
Republic Day. Ma’s voice echoed through the house, “Wake up! It’s
time, or youw’ll miss the parade!” Papa, already up, switched on the
television to Doordarshan and called out, “Kumar, Niharika, come
quickly! The parade has started!” The children jumped out of their
warm beds, rushing to sit in front of the television, eager not to
miss even a moment of the Republic Day Parade.
The sight of the majestic marching bands, vibrant displays, and
the unfurling of the tricolour at Kartavya Path filled the room
Helium
is a gas that
with pride and excitement.
doesn'treact This day carries a deep significance —it marks the coming into
with paper or
ink, helping to effect of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950.
preserve the
Constitution
The book in the picture is our Constitution. To keep it safe, it is
over time. carefully preserved in a helium-filled glass case in Parliament.
But what exactly is a constitution, and why is it so important?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Recall that in Grade 6, we saw the meaning of the word

‘constitution’—a document that lays down the basic
principles and laws of a nation. In small groups of three, list
all the questions that come to your mind about a country’s
constitution.
e

250
The Constitution of India is the document that many of the
important officials of our country pledge to uphold. The
president takes an oath to preserve, protect, and defend it. The
prime minister, council of ministers, and judges promise to
follow its provisions.

What Is a Constitution?
A simple answer is that it is a document that spells out a nation’s
basic principles and laws. It lays out:
= the framework of the three organs of the government
(legislature, executive, and judiciary) and their roles and
responsibilities;
= checksandbalancesamongstthethreeorgansof government
to ensure fairness, responsibility and accountability;
= the rights and duties of the citizens;
= an outline of the long-term goals and aspirations of the
nation.

Why do we need a constitution?

LET'S EXPLORE
Imagine that your school has reached the final tournament in
kabaddi at the state-level. The opponent is a strong team that
has won the tournament two years in a row. They are aiming

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

to win a third time, a hat-trick. The match is on, and a player
from your team has just got one of the players from the other
team ‘out’; then a dispute breaks out. The player from the other
team insists that she had already crossed into her team area
before your team player caught her. The referee has seen that
Governance and Democracy

the player from the other team was indeed ‘out’. To settle the
dispute amicably, she pulls out a little official rulebook. The
team captains confer with the referee and look at the rules.
They then agree that the player was indeed ‘out’, and your
team has won the state-level trophy.

251
 Discuss in your group what mighthave happened if there was
no official rulebook that the referee and the team captains
could refer to. What is required to ensure everyone agrees
to abide by the rulebook? What might happen if the team
captains did not agree to refer to the rulebook at all?
Think of a game that you play often and list the rules you
follow. Each group will then present their set of rules to the
rest of the class. Listen to each presentation, discuss the rules,
and work together to decide on a common set of rules for the
game. What challenges do you face in reaching a consensus
on rules that everyone agrees with?
What could be the ‘rulebook’ for a country? How would it be
made?

Our Constitution is something like a rulebook for the country.

) DON'T MISS OUT

Just as your textbook has many sections and chapters, the
Constitution of India has 25 parts and 12 schedules. Each
part has sections within it. It is the world’s largest written
constitution. When it came into effect, it had 22 Parts and 8
schedules. You don’t need to remember these numbers, but
can you guess why they have increased since 1950?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

The basic rules and principles in a constitution determine what

kind of government will be there, how it will be formed, and
how it will function. This includes many principles we saw in
the previous chapter, such as how the legislature, executive
and judiciary are formed and how they work. A constitution
describes, for example, how laws are to be made and
implemented, who elects the executive, how the judiciary is
made, and what rights and duties individual citizens have.
Many constitutions, including the Indian Constitution, also state
the values and ideals the country is committed to —for instance,
e

252
equality and justice for all, fraternity, pluralism and freedom. In
fact, it is these values and ideals that usually form the basis for
the laws and principles in a constitution.
Some of the important things that most constitutions contain:

Consti
1

Values and Structure and

Political
ideals of a formation of the
society SR government

Functions of different Guiding principles for

parts of the government government

Writing the Constitution of India

Iwish yourlabours success, andinvoke Divine blessings
that your proceedings may be marked not only by
good sense, public spirit, and genuine patriotism, but
also by wisdom, toleration, justice, and fairness to all;
and above all with a vision which may restore India to
her pristine glory, and give her a place of honour and

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

equality amongst the great nations of the world.
— Dr. Sachidananda Sinha,
President of the Constituent Assembly at the start of
the process of the writing of the Constitution
Governance and Democracy

While India was struggling for independence from British

rule, it was necessary to start planning for how we would
govern ourselves. There were many important questions to be
answered in a large, culturally diverse and complex country like
India: What type of government should we have? What rules
and principles should guide us? Who should have the right to
vote? How should we decide on disputes?

253
 To answer these and many other questions, a Constituent
Assembly was formed in 1946, initially with 389 members (later
reduced to 299 after the Partition of India), of which 15 were
women. These members represented India’s diverse regions,
professions, and social groups.

How was our Constitution developed?

The Indian Constitution was developed and written by the
Constituent Assembly over a period of almost three years. It
was formed on 9 December 1946, with its members elected by
the legislative assemblies of the provinces (whose members
had been, in turn, elected by the people). Dr. Rajendra Prasad
was the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly. The work was
completed on 26 November 1949, and the resulting document
was adopted as the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950,
which is why we celebrate this day annually as Republic Day.
The initial text of the Constitution was prepared by a Drafting
Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an eminent social
reformer and the first Law and Justice minister of independent
India (Fig. 10.3).
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 10.3. Dr: B.R. Ambedkar (seated, centre) with a few other
members of the Drafting Committee.
e

254
 LET'S EXPLORE
In small groups, try to find out the names of people from
your region who may have participated in the making of
“ the Constitution. What sources can you use to gather this
information? (Hint: Look for books in your school or local
library. You could also ask your teacher, parents and other
elders in the neighbourhood. Explore [Link]
about/constituent-assembly )

What Shaped and Influenced the Indian

Constitution?
While the Constitution was developed by the Constituent
Assembly, it had many influences. The experience, ideas and
ideals of the Indian freedom movement were a significant
influence. India’s civilisational heritage and culture also played
akey role. Useful learnings from constitutions of other countries
were also considered.

Influence of the Indian Freedom Movement

Many key ideals and values of the Indian freedom struggle
were enshrined in the Constitution. The Constitution was the
cornerstone for an independent India. A number of leaders of
India’s freedom movement were members of the Constituent
Assembly and, therefore, carried their experience and ideas

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

from the freedom struggle to the Constitution.
Some of these values and ideals are: equality of all, justice
for all, freedom, fraternity,
preservationofIndia’s cultural
heritage, and the idea of using
Governance and Democracy

the Constitution as a tool for

and means of achieving these
values and ideals.
The experience and learnings
from the freedom struggle also
provided answers to many of
the ‘how’ and ‘what’ questions: Fig. 10.4.1. Workings of the Constituent Assembly

255
 Fig. 10.4.2. and 10.4.3. Workings of the Constituent Assembly

= How do we make sure that = What should be the process

every adult citizen has a right if we want to amend the
to vote? Constitution?
= How do we ensure that the = What should be the
powers of the executive, relationship between the
legislature and judiciary are Central and State governments?
kept separate? : And so on.
= How do we guarantee that . We will get glimpses of how all
every individual’s fundamental these have been structured in the
rights are respected? Constitution later in this chapter.

India’s civilisational heritage and history

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

; LET'S REMEMBER
In the chapter on “Unity in Diversity, or ‘Many in the One’”
in Grade 6, we studied what makes India one country and the
underlying unity that embraces the diversity.

This idea of India being one country is embedded in the

| Constitution.
Some fundamental principles are embedded in our
culture— acceptance of the idea that people could have different
points of view, Nature as sacred, the pursuit of learning and
knowledge, respect for women, the concepts of vasudhaiva
kutumbakam (“the world is one family”) and sarve bhavantu
e

256
 sukhinah (an invocation for the well-being of all creatures). All
these principles find a place in our Constitution though you
might find them expressed a little differently.

‘) LET'S REMEMBER
Earlier, we described various types of governance systems that
we experimented within India—from the janapadas, sanghas,
rulers and their councils, Kautilya’s concept of saptdanga,
rajadharma and so on. On the whole, there has been a great
emphasis on the duties and role of the people in governance.

It was, therefore, quite natural that the Constitution makers would

incorporate these ideas of our civilisational heritage into our
Constitution— ‘Fundamental Duties’, for instance, are part of it.

Learnings from across the world

In addition, in the Indian tradition
of a no bhadrah kratavo yantu
vishwatah —“Let noble thoughts
come to me from every side”— the
Constitution makers studied the
constitutions of France, USA,
UK, Ireland, Australia, and other
countries that have a democratic
system, to explore their usefulness

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

for our context. For example,
the ideals of ‘iberty, equality,
fraternity’ were adopted from
France’s constitution ~ (which
enshrined them from the French
Governance and Democracy

Revolution of 1789); the idea of the

Directive Principles of State Policy
(which we will study shortly) was Fig. 10.5. This ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man
inspired by the Irish Constitution; and of the Citizen’, which focused on equality,
liberty and justice for all, was formulated
and the American Constitution gyring the 1789 French Revolution. It helped the
helped shape the concept of an spread of such ideals in many parts of the world;
many constitutions (including the French one)
independent judiciary. adopted or adapted its values and principles.

257
 Some illustrations in the Constitution of India

Fig. 10.6. A scene

from an ancient

Fig. 10.7.A
scene from the
Ramayana: Rama’s
conquest of Lanka
and recovery of Sita

Fig. 10.8. A
scene from the
Mahabharata:
Krishna
propounding the
Gita to Arjuna

Fig. 10.9. A scene

from Orissan
sculptures

258
 Fig. 10.10. An image
of Nataraja

Fig. 10.11.
Scenes from a
‘Mahabalipuram
bas-relief:
Bhagiratha’s
penance and the
descent of Ganga
S
L

Fig. 10.12. A
scene with Akbar
and Mughal
architecture

Fig. 10.13. A scene

depicting Nalanda,
one of India’s
ancient universities

259
 Key Features of the Constitution of India
Before we get acquainted with the main features of the
Constitution, let us revisit some of the concepts we saw in Grade 6.

: LET'S REMEMBER
-> There are three organs of government—Ilegislature,
executive and judiciary—and the ‘separation of powers’
is essential to their effective working.
- The legislature makes the laws.
- Thelaw isimplemented by the executive, which isheaded
by the prime minister.
- Thejudiciary ensures that alllaws made are in accordance
with the Constitution. It also decides whether a law has
been broken and what punishment is necessary.
- We have a three-tier system of government—central,
state and local (Panchayati raj system).
- Some functions and responsibilities are reserved for the
central government, and others are assigned to the state
government.

The Constitution addresses these points comprehensively.

It clearly defines the roles, functions, responsibilities, and
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

accountability measures for each organ of government. The

electoral system has been laid down to ensure that every eligible
citizen of the country is enabled to vote.
Other core aspects of the Constitution are the Fundamental
Duties, Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State
Policy. The infographic (Fig. 10.14) provides us with examples
of a few of the Fundamental Duties and Rights (which are listed
in full in the beginning of all NCERT textbooks). The Directive
Principles of State Policy (DPSP, as they are popularly called)
represent the essence of the social and economic vision that
the framers of the Constitution had for India. The examples we
present in the infographic illustrate the principles they wanted
governance to follow.
(5]

260
 ON'T MISS OUT
Directive Principles are goals that the government should try
to achieve. They reflect the direction they wished the country
take to make India better for all; for example, everybody in
the country must have a good standard of living. But if the
government does not make efforts to follow this, one cannot
go to a judge and complain about it. The DPSP are more like
guidelines than strict rules. Fundamental Rights, on the other
hand are promises that must be kept. If someone treats you
unfairly because of who you are, you can actually go to court
and the judge can help you.

The people who wrote our Constitution created this system on

purpose. They wanted some rights that could be demanded
immediately (Fundamental Rights) and some bigger goals
(Directive Principles) that might take time to achieve as our
country progressed.

LET'S EXPLORE
Read the quotation given below. Which article of the
Constitution do you think she was referring to? Why do you
think she said that the equality of women was not a new
concept for India? Discuss in the class.

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

Sir, the women ofIndia are happy to step into their rightful
heritage of complete equality with men in all spheres of
life and activity. I say so because I am convinced that
this is no new concept which has been postulated for
the purposes of this Constitution, but is an ideal that has
Governance and Democracy

long been cherished by India, though social conditions

for some time had tragically debased it in practice. This
Constitution affirms that ideal and gives the solemn
assurance that the rights of women in law will be wholly
honoured in the Indian Republic.
— Begum Aizaz Rasul, 22 November 1949,
during the Constituent Assembly’s debates

261
 Right to Equality (Article 14. Equality before law)
* Right to Freedom (Article 21. Protection of life and personal
liberty)
* Right against Exploitation
* Article 21-A. (Right to education)

Fundamental

Qs

+ Article 41: Welfare Fundamental

Government Duties
¢ Article 44: Uniform Civil
Code
* Article 38: Social, Political,
and Economic Justice
to abide by the Constitution and respect
¢ Article 48-A: Environment its ideals and institutions, the National
and Wildlife Protection Flag, and the National Anthem;
¢ Article 49: Protection b. to defend the country and render national
of monuments, places, service when called upon to do so;
&5 and objects of national
c. tovalue and preserve the rich heritage of
~ importance
o our composite culture;
k] * Article 47: Nutrition,
o d. to protect and improve the natural
[c] standard of living,
environment including forests, lakes,
o2 and public health
rivers and wild life, and to have
o
& compassion for living creatures;
B e. to strive towards excellence in all spheres
cT
g of individual and collective activity so
5 that the nation constantly rises to higher
=
levels of endeavour and achievement;
2@
g<1 f. if a parent or guardian, to provide
@ opportunities for education to his or
=)
£ her child or, as the case may be, ward
K]5 between the age of six and fourteen years;
& Fig 10.14. A glimpse of how the
parts of the Constitution are
organised
0

262
The Constitution is a Living Document
Our Constitution makers realised that a need for new laws
and rules would emerge over time. For example, ‘Part IV-A:
Fundamental Duties’ was added in 1976. However, we must
remember that any changes (called ‘amendments’) to the
Constitution are rigorously debatedin the Parliament before they
are accepted. Some require a debate in legislative assemblies as
well. Many times, opinions are sought from the general public.
Some changes can also be initiated by popular movements.

LET'S EXPLORE
> There was a time when people were not allowed to fly
the national flag at their homes. This changed in 2004
when a citizen felt it was his right to express pride in his
country and challenged the rule in court. The Supreme
Court agreed, saying that flying the flag is part of the
Fundamental Right to Freedom of Expression. We can
now fly the tricolour with pride, keeping in mind that it
should never be dishonoured.
We studied the Panchayati Raj System in Grade 6. This was
not a part of the original Constitution; it was integrated in
it in 1992 with the 73 Constitutional Amendment Act.
Can you find out the amendments made to the Constitution
in the past ten years?

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

The government also creates opportunities for people to
provide feedback on proposed laws or changes in rules. See the
highlighted portion on the next page.
Governance and Democracy

DON'T MISS OUT

The Indian Constitution is not just a legal document but also a
work of art. Calligrapher Prem Behari Narain Raizada wrote
its text by hand, while Nandalal Bose and his team illustrated
its pages with scenes from Indian history, from Mohenjo-daro
to the freedom movement (see Figs. 10.6 to 10.13).

263
 Inviting comments on ’ ‘
draft amendments to the
Aadhaar Authentication
for Good Governance
Rules, 2020
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

H+ H Enavats ooy 2023

R =

Fig 10.15

Understanding the Preamble: The Guiding

Values of the Constitution of India
The Constitution’s core values are the guiding principles for
policies and decision-making, which the government is expected
to follow. Citizens are also expected to practise them to the best
of their ability. These guiding values are present across the
Constitution, but their essence is written in the Preamble. So, let
us study the Preamble, which is a fitting end to this chapter.
(3]

264
 PREAMBLE OF THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION
WE, THE REPUBLIC
PEOPLE OF INDIA The head of the state
The Constitution has is an elected person
been drawnup and not a hereditary
and enacted by the position.
people through their
representatives, and not JUSTICE
handed down to them by Citizens cannot be
aking or any discriminated on the
outside powers. grounds of caste,
religion and gender.
SOVEREIGN o %’FHE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly Social inequalities
The people have have to be reduced.
| resolved fo constitute Indin info a SOVEREIGN DEMO- |
supreme right to make Government should
decisions on internal as CRATIC REPUBLIC and fo secure to all ifs citizens: | work for the welfare
well as external matters. JUSTICE, social,economic and political; of all, especially of
No external power can less advantaged
dictate the government LIBERT'Y of thought, expression, belief, faith and groups.
of India. worship;
LIBERTY
EQUALITYof status and of opportunity;
SOCIALIST There are no
Wealth is generated and to promote among them all unreasonable
socially and should be
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual restrictions on the
shared by the society. citizens in what they
Government should and the unity of the Nation think, how they wish
regulate the ownership IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLYhis twenty- to express their
ofland and industry to thoughts and the
reduce socio-economic sixih day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, way they wish follow
inequalities. ENACT AND GIVE TO“OURSELVES THIS up their thoughtsin
action.
SECULAR CONSTITUTION. ‘
Citizens have complete EQUALITY §

qu;c?‘—l
freedom to follow any All are equal g
religion. But there is before the B
no official religion. law. The social e
Government treats all DEMOCRATIC FRATERNITY inequalities =
religious beliefs and A form of government All of us should behave have to be |
practices with equal where the people enjoy as if we are members ended. The e
SN

respect. equal political rights, elect of the same family. No government gs

their rulers and hold them one should treat a fellow should 22
accountable. The government citizen as inferior. ensure equal §.g
is run according to some basic opportunity © 2
rules. for all. & @
s
g5
£2
Note: The terms ‘Socialist' and ‘Secular’ were added in the s
Preamble through the 42" Constitutional Amendment in 1976 &
Fig. 10.16. Preamble of the Indian Constitution

265
 LET'S EXPLORE
Below is the list of features given in the Preamble. Read them
closely from the image above and write down examples of
the application of these values in daily life around you. Two
have been completed to help you with the exercise.

Features of ow we see them in our daily lives

the Preamble 4

A person does not have to take permission

S from the State to practice the rituals of their
religion if the practice does not interfere with
anyone else’s day-to-day life.

The State provides equal opportunity to all in

jobs, regardless of gender, caste, religion, etc.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Before we move on ...

- The Constitution of India is a guiding book or ‘rulebook’ which
protects the rights of all citizens. Citizens are also expected to
follow the fundamental duties of the Constitution.
= Therich civilizational heritage of India, the freedom struggle
and good practices from the constitutions of other countries
served as the building blocks of the Indian Constitution.
- Itskey features define the social, economic, and political
structure of the country and its parliamentary form of
government.

- Itis aliving document that can be improved as per the country’s

needs.
(5]

266
Questions and activities
1. “The Constituent Assembly had representatives from diverse
backgrounds in India.” Why do you think it was important
to have a diverse set of representatives from all over India?
Read the statements below carefully and identify which key
features / values in the Constitution of India are reflected in
each statement.
a. Sheena, Rajat, and Harsh are standing in aline. They are
excited to cast their first vote in the general elections.
b. Radha, Imon, and Harpreet study in the same class in
the same school.
c. Parents must make arrangements to ensure their
children’s education.
d. People of all castes, genders, and religions can use the
village well.
It is said that ‘All citizens in India are equal before the law’.
Do you think this is a fact? If yes, why? If not, why not?
Formulate your arguments.
You have learnt that ‘India is the only country that provided
universal adult franchise to its citizens from the beginning.’
Can you explain why India did it?
How did the freedom struggle inspire the making of the

10 - The Constitution of India — An Introduction

Constitution of India? How did India’s civilisational heritage
inspire some of the key features in the Constitution of India?
Explain.
Do you think we, as a society, have achieved all the ideals of
the Constitution? If not, what can we each do as citizens to
Governance and Democracy

move our country closer to these ideals?

Read the clues carefully to solve the crossword on the
next page to uncover important concepts from the Indian
Constitution.

267
 il

2]

4.
3

6.

8.

gl 10.;
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Across Down
2. The branch of government that 1. The group of people who wrote
makes laws. the Indian Constitution.
7. The part of the Constitution that 3. The statement at the beginning
outlines the duties of citizens of the Constitution that tells us
towards the country. the values it upholds.
8. The highest court in India that 4. The document that lays out the
protects the Constitution. rules and laws of a country.
9. Asystem where the head of state 5. The gas used to preserve the
is elected, not hereditary. original Constitution safely.
10. The process by which the 6. Basicrights given to every
Constitution can be changed citizen, like freedom and
over time. equality.
(5]
 o
[}
s
From Barter to Money o
<
I
(&)

The importance of money flows from it being a link

between the present and the future.
—John Maynard Keynes
20th century economist

The Bi . How did exchange take place

before money?
Questions @ Why did money come into
existence?
How has money transformed
into various forms over time?

In the theme “Tapestry of the Past”, you read about the crops
that people grew, such as food grains or goods they made like
carnelian beads. How do you think they exchanged these
goods for things that they needed?

269
 Barter People exchanged goods or services for other goods and
System:
away of services. This system is called the barter system. How did
exchanging this work? Suppose you need a pencil and have an extra
goods and
services eraser. Meanwhile, your classmate forgot to bring their
without using eraser but has an extra pencil. You could exchange your
money.
extra eraser for the extra pencil that your classmate has.
Money: Wouldn’t this satisfy your and the classmate’s needs? This
the common
tool that is how the barter system works.
everybody
accepts and
Today, we use coins and notes to buy and sell things. People
uses in order also use their mobile phones and computers for such
to make
or receive
transactions.
payments in The barter system was the earliest form of exchange. There
exchange for
goods and is a lot of evidence of it from around the world. People
services. used commodities such as cowrie shells, salt, tea, tobacco,
Transaction: cloth, cattle (cows, goats, horses, sheep), seeds, etc.
a piece of
business
thatis done
between Fig. 11.2.1. Stone Money: Giant
people, discs of rock - called Rai stones
especially an — were used as money on the
actofbuying Yap Island, in the Pacific Ocean
or selling. country of Micronesia.

Commodities:
Products
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

or goods
that can
be traded, Fig.11.2.2. The Aztec copper
bought Tajadero (Spanish word for
and sold. chopping knife) was a form of
money used in Central Mexico
and parts of Central America.

Fig. [Link] (Red

feather coil made from birds’
feathers) used as money on
the Solomon Islands.
(5]

270
Why Do we Need Money?
LET'S EXPLORE
Imagine that you are a
farmer and that people
use a barter system where
you live. You need a whole
variety of things—a pair
of new shoes, a sweater,
and medicines for your
grandmother. But you only
have an ox that you can

spare. How would you be

able to exchange the ox for
all the different things you
need from different people or
places? What difficulties are
you likely to face?
For one, you would have to
find someone who needed an
ox. Now, swapping your ox for
a pair of shoes would hardly be a fair exchange! You may have
had to go through a series of exchanges—for example, find
someone to exchange your ox
for several bags of wheat. You
would then have to transport
all that wheat to several
11 - From Barter to Money
Economic Life Around Us

places; first, find someone

willing to exchange a part of
the wheat for shoes, another
person for the sweater, and
yet another for the medicines.
(%)

271
 In each of these cases, a discussion would take place to arrive
at the fair amount of wheat that you could exchange for shoes
or for the sweater.

You would have to take the

leftover bags of wheat and find
a place to store them safely.
The next time you needed
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

something, you would have to

carry the bags of wheat with
you again!

' THINK ABOUT IT

What are the different types of difficulties you encountered
in the situation above?

In the farmer’s story, imagine he finds someone who

is willing to trade a pair of new shoes, a sweater, and
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272
medicines—all in exchange for his ox. Do you think it Double
would be easy to come across such a situation? f,m;':;n;
Just like the farmer, people who depended on the barter E;fi?g;?'fhat
system would face many problems in making an exchange describes a
in their everyday lives. They would have to find someone izfia;'eoonp‘l';here
who wants the exact item that they want to give, and in each have
return are also able to offer exactly what the other party oy :tt:érr]g
wants. This scenario is called double coincidence of wants. War:::nedt;aer;n
Even if there are two people who want each other’s goods Zfrcectlyg
and are also willing to make an exchange, other issues Commhn
could arise—in what proportion should the two goods be standard
exchanged? In such cases, it becomes difficult to compare ":’jj:”;en"f
the value of one good against another. If one of the people agreed-upon
feels that the exchange is disadvantageous, they would not figrfi[Link]
be interested in the exchange. This is because there is no that helps in
common standard measure of value. f;etevrarm';‘?
goods and
' services in the
economy.
What are the instances of double coincidence of wants in the Divisibility:
above example? The capacity
Evenifthere are two people whowant each other’s goods and are g: am"a?ebfiifit
also willing to make an exchange, other issues could arise—in to be split
what proportion should the two goods be exchanged? In such into pieces or
cases, it becomes difficult to compare the value of one good portons.
against another. If one of the people feels that the exchange is Portability:
disadvantageous, they would not be interested in the exchange. Z?Z: bility
This is because there is no common standard measure of value. objector
In the situation given above, what are the cases where you could Bn:?:praileao 2 )
encounter the lack of a common standard measure of value? ormoved 532
fromone 3¢
place to 3]
Similarly, you cannot exchange only a part of the ox for another. £z
a sweater; this is the problem of divisibility. Taking the EE
ox everywhere is a problem and leads to the problem of g
portability. You solved part of the problem by exchanging
(2]

273
 the ox for bags of wheat, but you cannot store the wheat
for long; it would rot or get eaten by rats! Thus arises the
problem of durability.

' THINK ABOUT IT

What are the different ways in which money would make the
above situation easier for the farmer?

.=/ DON'T MISS OUT

Durability: Although money has
Traitofan
replaced traditional
objector
material that barter systems all around
indicates its the world, there are some
longevity
and ability that still exist today! One
to withstand of them is the Junbeel
damage due
to which it can
Mela (jun means moon
be stored for in Assamese and beel
a longer time means wetland), a three-
period.
day annual socio-cultural Fig 113
fair at Junbeel in Morigaon district of Assam. Interestingly,
the mela begins with the Agni Puja or worship of fire, a
prayer for universal wellbeing.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Beginning in the 15th

century, the chiefs of
the Tiwa, Karbi, Khasi,
and Jaintia tribal
communities of Assam
and Meghalaya would
gather every year to
discuss political issues
and to maintain friendly
Fig. 11.4
relationships. Members of
these communities began to gather around this event and
soon it turned into a fair, where people would bring their
produce and began exchanging them among each other.
(&)

274
This continues to be an
important socio-cultural
event even today.
Bartering begins early
in the morning, with the
trade of local products
such as roots, vegetables,
fruit, herbs, and spices.
Also seen at the fair are
handmade goods and
artifacts, made from
Fig. 11.5
natural materials sourced
from the forests of the hilly region. These are often exchanged
with people from the plains for rice cakes, and other types of
food that cannot be grown in the hills.

Book exchange: Think of a fun club where you can

trade your old books with friends! It’s like a treasure
hunt for stories. e
You bring books
yowve read and
pick new ones from
a big collection. For
example, you might
swap your exciting
jungle adventure
book for a friend’s
mystery story. It’s a
cool way to discover
11 - From Barter to Money

new adventures
Economic Life Around Us

Fig. 11.6
without spending any money!
One common example is the exchange of old clothes
for new utensils, a practice that has persisted over the
years. In this system, a vendor visits homes, offering
(&)

275
 households new utensils
or other household items
in return for their used
clothes or fabrics. This
exchange Dbenefits both
parties—households get
rid of items they no longer
need, while vendors
collect materials that can
be resold, repurposed, or
recycled.

LET'S EXPLORE
The illustrations above show you some of the ways in which
people practise barter today. Have you observed similar
practices in your locality? What are the types of experiences
people have in this process?

Basic Functions of Money

It is said that “necessity is the mother of invention.” As the
types and numbers of things that were being exchanged
grew, and the distances across which barter was beginning
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

to take place became longer, it became clear that there was a

need for a different system. A common medium of exchange
would make trade easier and so,
money came into existence. As more
and more people began to use it for
transactions—buying and selling
goods and services—it became the
accepted method of payment.
As we saw in the farmer’s story
above, he could not store the wheat
; for long as it would rot or get eaten
Fig. 11.8 by rats.
(&)

276
 If the farmer uses money instead of wheat as a medium of
exchange, he can keep the money for a longer time and use
it for making purchases later. So, money acts as a store of
value that can be used later. Isn’t it fascinating!
Money also serves as a common denomination that
measures the value of goods and services, and enables the
comparison of goods and services in terms of their prices.
For example, your parents pay money to the shopkeepers
in exchange for various products. This money is used by the
shopkeepers to pay salaries to their workers. The workers
use the same medium to buy everyday essentials and other
goods, pay their children’s school fees, etc.

Fig. 11.9
' THINK ABOUT IT
Suppose you need to buy a book. You have 50 in your
pocket. You visit the bookshop in your neighbourhood
where the shopkeeper tells you that the book is worth ¥100.
What options do you have to buy the book today? Will you
request the shopkeeper to allow you to make the rest of the
11 - From Barter to Money
Economic Life Around Us

payment later?

The fact that money is accepted as a way of making

deferred payments makes money a standard of deferred
payment.
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277
 The Journey of Money
LET'S EXPLORE
Look at the timeline given below. What are the changes in
money that you observe?

Coinage
Minting: As you can see from the timeline, coins were among the
J*}fifgflifj; earliest forms of money. During those times, rulers would
coins. A mint issue coins that were used by the citizens of their respective
manufacturing
refers © a kingdoms ) for transactions.
3
So Ldifferent . kingdoms . would
facility that have their own coinage. The minting and issue of coins was
P't"hda‘:c:rseclfs';‘; controlled entirely by the rulers. Over time, the coins of
as a nation's powerfulrulerswere accepted across various kingdoms and
currency. notjust their own. This facilitated trade across geographies.
A‘r‘r:'e"t!afi The coins were made from precious metals like gold, silver,
made by and copper or their alloys. They were called karshapanas
COmEILT;Qr or panas. They had symbols punched on them called ripas.
more
metallic digital money
elements. debit cards and
This makes credit cards
the coin barteN
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

strong.

metal coinage
iron, silver, gold, copper 1980

official paper
money

Fig. 11.10. Evolution of money in India - a broad timeline

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278
Does this word sound familiar to a word we use for money
today in India?

DON'T MISS OUT

© Is it not interesting that variations of the word ‘pana’
continue to be used in Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam as
panam and in Kannada as ‘hana’ for money?
© Alloys of silver and copper were used to mint coins. The
coins we use today are also alloys consisting largely of
iron. They contain other materials like chromium, silicon,
and carbon in precise proportions. You will learn more
about alloys in your science lessons.

In ancient times, the two sides of the coins—the head ‘

(obverse) and the tail (reverse)—had different kinds of Obverse:
symbols and motifs engraved on them. These included tor;eascigfi]
nature motifs like animals, trees and hills, and those of or medal
:
kings .
or queens, and deities. bearing
the hosd
For example, the coins of the Chalukyas had a Varaha image or principal
. . . design.
(avatar of Vishnu) on one side and decorated three-tiered eslan
parasol on the other.

Coinage from Chalukyas of Kalyana Silver coin showing tiger

featuring Varaha (avatar of Vishnu) emblem of Cholas (850-1279 CE)
and Royal Parasol
Fig. 11.11
11 - From Barter to Money
Economic Life Around Us

LET'S EXPLORE
The coins shown in Fig. 11.12 were found during excavations
in Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu. Their heads embossed are those
of Roman kings. What conclusions can we draw from such
a finding?
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279
 Fig. 11.12. Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai India

The use of coinage helped boost India’s maritime trade with

the world. For example, they were found in parts of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. This throws light on the trading activities
of southern India with the rest of the world. Based on this
finding, scholars conclude that the trade was in favour of
India.

20 DON'T MISS OUT

1 anna was equal to 1/16 of a rupee! In 1947, one anna

09060
could buy a dozen bananas.

1 half 1 quarter 1 anna, 1 paisa,

anna, 1942 anna, 1918 1943 1945
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 11.13
Today, we see coins of different sizes (shown below) for
various denominations with both Hindi and English
used on each coin. Special coins are also minted to
mark important events for the nation.

% DON'T MISS OUT

The sign was adopted by the Government of India in 2010.
It was designed by Udaya Kumar from the Indian Institute
of Technology, Bombay (Mumbai). The symbol is a mix of
the Devanagari “Ra” and the Roman “R” with two parallel
e

280
 horizontal stripes running at the top representing the national
flag and also the “equal to” sign.

Coin with symbol marking India’s

Coinage today
75 years of independence in 2021
Fig. 11.14

LET'S EXPLORE
Organise yourselves into groups of five students each. Take
up a group project to collect old coins from family members,
neighbours, shopkeepers, and so on. Document their various
features—what are they made of, what is the year inscribed
on the coins, what do you observe on the obverse and reverse
sides of the coins. What can you guess from your observations?
How would you know if your guesses are true?

While the barter system used non-metallic money as

discussed above, coinage, that is metallic money, gave way
to other forms of money!

Paper Money
LET'S EXPLORE
What do you think happened as coins began to be used for all
11 - From Barter to Money
Economic Life Around Us

types of exchanges, whether to buy vegetables or to buy some

land? What problems could have come up?

As you may have imagined, it became difficult to carry

a large number of coins. Storing the coins also became a
problem. The search for a more suitable alternative ended
e

281
 Currency: with the use of paper money. Paper money or currency was
System of
money that
first used in China and was introduced in India in the late
isused ina 18th century.
particular
country. For
example, coins
and paper
notes thatare
used inIndia in
terms of rupee
is the Indian
currency.

Denominations: Fig. 11.15. Uniface notes of Bank of Bengal (Left) and

Units in which Ten rupee note from Bank of Bombay (Source:RBI)
coins and
paper notes While coins are used for smaller denominations, paper
are classified.
For example,
currency is used for higher denominations.
denominations of
Today, most of the currency notes you see look like this ...
Indian currency
include 50 paisa,
%1,%2,%5, %10,
¥20 coins and
paper notes of
%10, %20, ¥50,
%100, ¥200, ¥500
and ¥1000.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

LET'S EXPLORE
Look at a 50 and a 100-rupee note. Can
you identify the motifs depicting India’s
cultural heritage on the reverse side of
the notes? Find out more about them.
> Feel the surface of the notes. What
special features of currency notes
help visually impaired persons to
identify the notes’ denominations?
Fig. 11.17
e

282
Earlier in this chapter, we read that in ancient times coins
were issued by rulers. Today, in India, we have a central
authority called the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) that
controls the issue of currency. It is not legal for anybody
other than the RBI to issue currency.

New Forms of Money

As time has progressed and technology has advanced, other
forms of money have come to be used today. Let’s look at
some of them.
Krishnappa sells seasonal fruit on a cart. Alongside the QR Code:
Stands
colourful fruit that he arranges neatly on his cart is a little for “quick-
card with a QR code. response”
codes, these
His customers scan are collections
the QR code with of black and
white squares,
their mobile phones which are
and pay for their readable by
devices like
purchase digitally. smartphones
The payment then and QR
scanners.
goes directly into They contain
Krishnappa’s bank ) information
about the
account. Fig. 11.18
receiver's
Apart from tangible forms of money such as coins and bank account
and are used
paper notes, money has taken intangible forms that we for making
cannot touch and feel. This is called digital money which is monetary
transactions.
in electronic form. Have you observed other people around
you making or receiving payments without using coins and
notes? Different payment methods like debit cards, credit
11 - From Barter to Money

cards, net banking, UPI (Unified Payments Interface), etc.,

Economic Life Around Us

are also used for transactions. These mediums directly

transfer money from one person’s bank account into
another. You will learn more about the modern methods of
monetary transactions later.
e

283
 Before we move on ...
> The barter system existed before money came into
existence. A variety of commodities were used to facilitate
exchange.
The limitations of the barter system led to the development
of money as a medium of exchange.
Forms of money evolved through time, such as shells,
coins, and paper currency. This evolution continues as we
create new and easier ways to make and receive payments,
including the QR code that you saw in the illustration
above.

Questions and activities

1. How does the barter system take place and what kinds of
commodities were used for exchange under the system?
What were the limitations of the barter system?
What were the salient features of ancient Indian coins?
How has money as a medium of exchange transformed
over time?
What steps might have been taken in ancient times so that
Indian coins could become the medium of exchange across
countries?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Read the following lines from the Arthashastra.

“An annual salary of 60 panas could be substituted by an
adhaka of grain per day, enough for four meals...” (One
adhaka is equal to about 3 kg) What does this indicate
about the value of one pana?
The fine for failing to help a neighbour was 100 panas.
Compare this with the annual salary. What conclusion
can you draw about the human values being encouraged
through this?
Write and enact a skit to show how people may have
persuaded each other to use cowrie shells (or other such
items) as the medium of exchange.
e

284
The RBI is the only legal source that prints and distributes
paper currency in India. To prevent illegal printing of
notes and their misuse, the RBI has introduced many
security features. Find out what some of these measures
are and discuss them in class.
Interview a few of your family members and local
shopkeepers, and ask them their preferences in making
and receiving payments—do they prefer cash or UPI?
Why?

11 - From Barter to Money

Economic Life Around Us
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285
 Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

*Noodles’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

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286
Understanding
Markets
Prosperity emanates from the market that develops when
people need goods and services that they can’t create
themselves.
— Adam Smith, 18th century economist

In the picture on the following page you will see people buying
and selling goods —vegetables, fruits, clothes, groceries, mobile
phones, refrigerators, and so on. These goods result from
various types of economic activities —primary, secondary, and
tertiary —that you studied in Grade 6. But how do these goods
reach us?
 Needs: What is a Market?
In economics, a
need is something
A place where people buy and sell goods is called a market.
thata person It is also known as bazaar, haat (in Hindi), and marukatté
requires to survive,
(in Kannada). What is it called in your region? This can
such as food,
water, clothing, be at a physical place or, as is becoming popular today,
and shelter online. Goods and services become available to individuals,
Wants: households, and businesses through markets. For a long
In economics, a
time, people have relied on markets to fulfil their needs
want is something
thata person and wants for goods and services. In addition, markets
desires butis connect people, traditions, and ideas.
notessential for
survival. Let’s see an example of a market from 16th century India.

The Glorious Hampi Bazaar, Karnataka

-
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 12.3. Hampi Bazaar today

The Hampi Bazaar in Karnataka was one of the prosperous

Trade:
buying and markets in the Vijayanagara Empire which was the centre
selling or of flourishing trade. The bazaar was located opposite the
exchange
of goods Virupaksha temple. The sheer abundance and prosperity
and services of the city have been described in many foreign accounts.
between
people or The famous Portuguese traveller, Domingos Paes, called
countries Hampi “the best-provided city in the world” due to the
wide variety of products traded in the market— grains,
seeds, milk, oil, silk, animals like cows, rabbits, horses, and
even birds like quails and partridges. Another Portuguese
traveller, Fernao Nuniz, wrote about the bazaar, “There
were craftsmen, also, working in their streets, so that you
(3]

290
saw made there, golden jewels and gewgaws, and you will
find all kinds of rubies and diamonds and pearls, with
every other kind of precious stone for sale... sellers of
cloths... they being of cotton... grass and straw in infinite
abundance. I do not know who could describe it to be
believed, so barren a country is this... it is a mystery how
there should be an abundance of everything therein.”

LET'S EXPLORE
- Canyouimagine what this bazaar must have looked
like during its peak?
- Do you know of any old markets from your state?
How would they be similar or different from today’s
markets? Discuss with elders in the family and
community.

Let’s learn more about markets and how they function!

LET'S EXPLORE
Observe the illustration.
What are these people
discussing? Imagine you
and your partner as a
buyer and a seller of
guavas. Prepare a set of
dialogues between both ZZ
of you and present it in
your class as a skit.
Fig. 12.4
12 - Understanding Markets

Price:
Price is the
Economic Life Around Us

Certain features are required for places to be called

amountat
markets. Asyou observed inthe figure 12.2 (on introductory which a buyer
big spread page number 248) every market has a buyer is willing
to buy, and
and a seller. They both need to agree on a price at which aselleris
the transaction would take place. Price is an important willing to sell
particular
feature in completing a transaction.
goods or
services.

291
 Often the buyers and sellers negotiate and bargain to arrive at
an acceptable price. What type of negotiation and bargaining
took place in your skit?

' THINK ABOUT IT

Can you think of a type of market where negotiation is less
common and why?

Prices and Markets

What happens when there are many buyers and sellers in the
market? How do prices respond to how buyers and sellers
interact in the market?
In the figure given below, the seller wants to sell the guavas at
%80 per kg. However, buyers may not be willing to buy at that
price. If a buyer finds the price very high, he will ask for a price
thathe is willing to pay. The seller may not be willing to sell at the
price offered by the buyer because it would not be profitable for
him. The buyer and seller negotiate until a mutually agreeable
price is reached. The transaction can then be completed. If such
a point is not reached, i.e. the point where the buyer and the
seller agree on a price, the transaction may not take place.
Let’s see some scenarios below to understand this.
1. What happens in case the seller fixes the price
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

very high?
(%)

292
2. What happens in case the seller fixes the price very low?

Fig. 12.6
3. Over time the price of guavas is fixed at one that is just
right, not very high for the buyer, not too low for the
seller!

Fig. 12.7
12 - Understanding Markets

Learning from all three scenarios, the seller can assess

Economic Life Around Us

approximately what quantity of guavas are needed by the

buyers and offer that quantity in the market in future.
Over time, the amount of goods offered by the sellers and the
amount required by the buyers help determine the price of
the goods that is just right, high enough for the seller, and low
enough for the buyer.

293
 ' THINK ABOUT IT
Vegetables are sold cheaper late at night at the weekly market
compared to during the day. Why do you think this is so?
Garment stores offer heavy discounts on woollen clothing at
the end of the winter season. Why does this happen?

Markets Around Us
Markets are present everywhere and in various forms.

Physical and online markets

Aphysical market is where buyers can meet the seller physically,
and purchase goods or services in exchange for money. This is
the most common type of market. It includes weekly markets and
Inputs for
production: haats where vendors sell vegetables, other essential items, and
Materials or handicraft items lined up on a cart. Local markets with shops
resources that
are used in the and buzzing with vendors selling street food, knick-knacks, and
production so on are also physical markets. There are also multi-storey
of goods and
buildings, i.e., malls in cities and towns spanning large areas
services.
with stores inside.
Manufacturer:
A personor Today buyers and sellers need not necessarily meet in person
company that to engage in a transaction. They can transact from a convenient
makes goods
for sale
location even thousands of kilometres away from each other.
They can use shopping applications (apps) or
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

websites on a phone or a computer. These apps

or websites are created by businesses that make
available a wide variety of goods and services. We
will read about how this works in a section below.
One can buy goods ranging from books, clothes,
furniture, and grocery items to electronic items
like TVs, mobile phones, and laptops, and get
them delivered to their doorstep. Manufacturers
can also buy components online to be used as
inputs for production of goods. Apart from goods, one
can also avail of services like online classes without having
) ADDTOCART to step outside the home. Payments for such services can also
Fig. 12.8 be made online.
(3]

294
' THINK ABOUT IT
& What do you think are the pros and cons of online and
physical shopping respectively? Explore this question from
the point of view of both, sellers and buyers.
& Some services require in-person contact like tailoring and
cannot be provided online. Can you suggest other services
where physical markets are needed?

There are other types of markets that do not transact goods and
services. One of them is the share or stock market.
Ask your family members, teachers, or members in your
community about it. We will explore these concepts later in the
year.

Export:
Selling goods
or services
Fig. 12.9. Stock Market produced in
one country

Domestic and international markets o :nw]:'r

A market where goods and services are bought and sold within country.
the geographical boundaries of the country is called a domestic Import: .,.fi
market. For example, to print this book, paper was procured Buying 25
from big paper mills located all over India. The transaction ggfi/?cse‘;r 32
between the buyer and the seller took place within the country. from other ;E
. . . . tri 25
International markets exist outside a nation’s boundary; the ;‘;zn nes H §
sellers in one country export their products to another country, bringing 27
i g
or the buyers in one country import products produced in g:fef: g::l‘:] e
another country. Thus, trade occurs across borders of countries. country. @

295
 North America: Outsourced
services like software
South America:
India’s Chemical products
exports and Africa: Pharmaceuticals
imports
around the Europe: Engineering
goods like machineryin
world
food processing, boilers
West Asia: Refined
petroleum products

antic Ocean 77+

South East Asia

N g

01400 2800 5600

—— —

North America: Aircraft

and components
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

South America:
Mineral ores like copper
E Africa: Diamonds
E n Europe: Electrical
equipment
West Asia: Crude
petroleum, fertilizers
South East Asia:
Vegetable oils

India was the world’s largest importer of vegetable oils like

palm oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil in 2024. Most of the
palm oil is imported from Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand.
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296
Wholesale and Retail Markets
Several participants play their role in the smooth functioning of
the markets.

Wholesaler

Producer — Producer Wholesaler

Wholesaler

Fig. 12.11
LET'S EXPLORE
Observe the diagram and describe the flow of goods from the
manufacturer/producer to the consumer. What is the role of
the wholesaler and the retailer in the flow?

In the case of physical markets,

wholesalers buy goods in large
quantities from the producer or
manufacturer of the product.
For example, grains, vegetables,
12 - Understanding Markets

and fruits are bought by

Economic Life Around Us

wholesalers directly from the

farms. The produce is then
stored in large warehouses
called godowns. In the case of
perishables, the warehouses Fig. 12.12. Cold storage facility for vegetables

297
 Cold may also have cold storage facilities. They are then brought to
storage:
Specialized markets called mandis.
warehouses
or designed
to maintain
specific low
temperatures
to preserve
perishable
goods.

Fig. 12.13. Warghouse Fig. 12.14. Large warehouses

storing grains of wholesalers

Similarly, there exist wholesale markets for other commodities

like chemicals, electronic items and components, construction
materials, automotive parts, etc.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Fig. 12.15. Khari Baoli spice market, Fig. 12.16. Flower

0ld Delhi (spices and dry fruits) market, Bengaluru

The wholesalers supply goods to the shops and stores located

near households. These shopkeepers are called retailers. They
sell goods to final consumers like us. Unlike wholesalers,
retailers sell in smaller quantities, and the products are meant
for consumption rather than resale. Retail stores also exist for
services like salons, movie theatres, and restaurants. Retailers
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298
 Fig. 12.17. Johari Bazaar, Jaipur (gems and jewellery)
Distributors:
help increase the availability of goods and services to households. Individuals or
| businesses who
In some cases, it may be difficult for wholesalers to reach a supply goods from
large number of retailers because of distances and terrains. | manufacturers
and wholesalers
Distributors help to bridge this gap. Do you remember the 1o retailers.
middlemen for milk in the AMUL story from Grade 6?
R . . . . Aggregator:
However, the distribution channel is different in the case of Website or mobile
online markets. Here manufacturers send bulk quantities application that
organizes and
of their products to the warehouse of the business that sells combines offers
through online apps. Consumers buy the product from the from multiple
online option (website or mobile application). These businesses ::”:rtshgnmdm
are called aggregators. The aggregator then packs the products consumers at one
and delivers them to the online buyer. place.

12 - Understanding Markets
Economic Life Around Us

Fig. 12.18. Garment shop Fig. 12.19. Salon

299
 Fig. 12.20. Mall

Let’s explore the chain of supply

in physical markets for the textile
market in Surat, Gujarat— Asia’s
oldest textile market, and the city
famously known as a textile hub.
The Surat textile market consists
of thousands of factories manu-
facturing cotton and synthetic
textiles. In the case of cotton
textiles, raw cotton is received here
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

through cotton mandts from nearby

states like Maharashtra, as well as
from other parts of Gujarat. It is
transformed into finished fabric or
garments after processing at various
stages —weaving on power looms,
dyeing in processing units and so on.
The product moves from one stage
to another through markets—for
woven fabric, for dyed fabric, and
for finished products (sarees, or
ready-made garments, for example).
Fig. 12.22.
(3]

300
The finished product from the fabric is traded by the
manufacturing units in the wholesale market. The wholesalers
are an important channel of supply as they oversee the
distribution of products to small shopkeepers and big retail
stores across the country and internationally. They also assess
how much product is required by retailers. This helps maintain
the stock of products with the manufacturers and ensures an
uninterrupted supply of products to the end consumers.

Surendranagar:
A, ‘
b
Jamnagar
ot "

Amreli@l surat Amravati

Nagpur,
Akola g Wardha
Yavatmal

LCIELED]

Fig. 12.23. Supply of raw cotton from surrounding cotton clusters to Surat

12 - Understanding Markets
Economic Life Around Us

& Port | River

4 Airport M Surat City
## Railway || Textile
— Road Market
T

Fig. 12.24. Surat City Map

301
 Fig. 12.25. A wholesaler’s warehouse of fabric

LET'S EXPLORE
Ask your nearest retailer about a product, its place of origin,
and the chain of suppliers in the process of the product
reaching the shop. Trace this using a flow chart like Fig. 12.11
and share it in class.

»> DON'T MISS OUT

- Apart from textiles, Surat is home to the largest diamond
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

industry in the world. Approximately 1.5 million artisans

are involved in activities like cutting and polishing
diamonds on a gigantic scale. Trade flourished here from
the 16th century onwards. The city’s location on the west
coastled to the setting up of ports and road networks that
continue to be important today. Communities of expert
artisans and skilled persons have lived here for centuries;
their skills have been passed on over generations making
it a flourishing city.
- Can you spot the port, highway and railway network on
the map in Fig. 12.24? How do you think they helped make
Surat a trading hub?
(3]

302
 The Role of Markets in People’s Lives
Aswe cansee fromthe sections above, markets play an important
role in the economic life of the people. It facilitates transactions
between producers and consumers. It helps individuals,
households and businesses access goods and services that they
need and cannot produce themselves.

' THINK ABOUT IT

We have discussed different dimensions of markets. Can we
imagine what life might be like without markets? What would
happen if farmers did not bring rice, wheat, dal, vegetables
and fruits to the market? What would happen if the producers
of cloth in Surat could not procure inputs like cotton from
markets?

In this section, we will explore a few other dimensions of the

role of markets.
Aakriti is a professional artist who creates oil paintings on
canvas. Her paintings are appreciated, but she finds it difficult to
find buyers. She is worried about where to sell the paintings and
what price she should offer them for. Unlike the case of guavas,
there are fewer local buyers and sellers for artwork.
Can you think of other products which do not have a ready
market? How does it affect those willing to buy or sell? What
are the different ways in which artists can find buyers for their
work today?

How markets benefit society

12 - Understanding Markets

LET'S EXPLORE
Economic Life Around Us

Consumers prefer to buy refrigerators that use less

electricity. When a large number of consumers begin to ask
for refrigerators that use less electricity, what do you think
happens in the network you saw in Fig. 12.11?

303
 The producers get an indication as to what consumers would
buy. They produce refrigerators which use less electricity. This
benefits society through the production of energy-efficient
refrigerators.
Although buying and selling is an economic activity that
involves monetary exchange, interactions in the markets often
move beyond just enquiring about the product or service or
negotiations between parties.
Often, a relationship develops between buyers and sellers
that continues even across generations. Some families have
long-lasting trusted relationships with their tailor, jeweller, and
doctor over decades. Many families in India maintain an account
with the local grocer that is settled at the end of the month.
So, while the primary role of the market is to promote economic
activities, it also has non-economic significance in many
people’s lives.

Mother’s Market, Ima Keithal in the Meitei language of

Manipur, is a unique market in Imphal. About 3000 women
own and run all the shops in this market. They sell vegetables,
clothes including traditional Manipuri attire, hand-loom and
handicrafts, local produce, and daily essentials that people in
the city and the surrounding areas require. On one hand, the
market provides employment, becoming an important source of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

income for thousands of families; on the other hand, the market

is a melting pot of cultures. People from different communities
come together to exchange ideas and enjoy shared traditions.

A=
Fig. 12.26. Ima Keithal of Imphal
(3]

304
 DON'T MISS OUT
There are many traditions followed
eventoday that go beyond just buying
and selling. In south India, the sellers
of haldi and kumkum (turmeric and
vermilion) give a small quantity of
haldi and kumkum separately, at no
charge, as a mark of auspiciousness
and good wishes to the buyer.
Fig. 12.27

LET'S EXPLORE
Have you observed any such practices in your community or
neighbourhood? Describe the practice as a drawing or in a
short paragraph.

Government’s Role in the Market

Markets function through interactions of demand from buyers Demand:
Quantity of
and supply by sellers. However, there are some situations in a productor
which this may not work very well. The government plays service that
a crucial role in such situations. It monitors the interaction consumers are
willing and able
between consumers and producers, and fair determination to purchase ata
of price. particular price
ata given time.
Controlling prices for protecting buyers Supply:
and sellers Quantity of
a product
The government controls the prices of certain goods. For or service
that sellers
example, it sets the maximum price that the seller can charge. are willing
12 - Understanding Markets

Several essential goods and services, such as lifesaving drugs, and able
Economic Life Around Us

have an upper limit on their prices. Another instance is where to sellata

particular
the government sets the minimum price at which essential price ata
agricultural products like wheat, paddy and maize can be sold. given time.
This ensures that farmers do not incur losses. The government
also sets minimum wages for work done by employees so that
employers make fair payments to them.

305
 However, the government needs to carefully implement such
price limits. If the price is too low, producers would not have
any motivation to produce. If the prices are too high, consumers
would be disadvantaged.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Onions are an important part of the cuisine in most parts
of India. In some seasons, the supply of onions comes
down in the market. What do you think happens to the
price of onions when this happens?
- What will happen if the people supplying onions do not
bring the required quantities to the market? What do you
think the government should do in this situation?

Ensuring quality and safety standards

The government has arole in ensuring the welfare of consumers
and protecting them from unfair practices. The government
ensures that manufacturers follow the required quality and
safety standards while producing goods and delivering services.
For instance, pharmaceuticalcompanies manufacture medicines
for treating diseases. The government sets procedures for
approvals of medicines and conducts sample testing to check if
the produced drug meets standards of quality. These regulations
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

ensure the quality and safety of the drugs so that there is no risk
to the consumers’ health.

Mitigating the external effects of markets

Markets sometimes have significant effects beyond the selling
and buying. For example, the markets for certain goods require
production in factories that could pollute the environment.
The government plays a crucial role in understanding and
controlling such effects of markets. For example, what happens
when the manufacturing of certain items, like single-use plastics,
pollutes the environment and poses health risks to consumers?
In such cases, the government intervenes by implementing strict
regulations to mitigate these negative effects.
(3]

306
 Similarly, the government puts in place systems to monitor the
weights and measures of the packaged products to check the net
quantity contained in the package.

' THINK ABOUT IT

The practice of rulers protecting consumers is not a
phenomenon of modern India. Kautilya’s Arthashastra
includes instructions for the traders trading in clarified butter
(ghee). It mentions that buyers shall be given 1 /50 part more as
manasrava to compensate for the reduction in quantity owing
to (the ghee)...sticking to the measuring can.

Governments make rules to ensure markets work fairly and

consumers are not exploited. However, too many rules can make
it difficult for markets to function properly.

Providing public goods

Producers make and sell goods and services to be able to make
a profit. However, there are some goods and services that Public goods:
producers do not expect to make a profit on; for example, public Service or
parks, roads, policing, and so on. In addition, you read about ifia”:ri:"d'ty
the rights that citizens have to certain welfare provisions in a accessible or
previous chapter. So, the government provides these public ana”ab'im
. all members
goods and services. of a society.
Their present
use does not
' THINK ABOUT IT diminish their
availability for
& Whatarethe otherareas where you can see the government future use.
being involved in the markets?
& Are there areas where government intervention needs to
12 - Understanding Markets

be reduced? Discuss with family or relatives.

Economic Life Around Us

How can consumers assess the quality of

products and services?
Markets enable access to a wide variety of goods and services to
consumers. How will consumers decide what they would like to
buy?

307
 ' THINK ABOUT IT
There is a marbles competition
in your neighbourhood with
the team in the next street. You
want to buy new marbles for
the competition. You have ¥150
saved up. You go to a shop to
buy the marbles. What are the
qualities you would look for in
the marbles so that you can win
the competition? Fig. 12.28

Did you think about the price, size of the marbles, strength and
the attractive colours? As you can see, every consumer would
need to assess the quality of products that they are buying.
In the following section, we will look at various ways in which
this can be done.
Suppose your parent asks you to get a 1 kg packet of gram flour
from the nearby grocer. There are different types of packets
available at the shop such as the one shown below. Observe it
carefully. How would you determine that the quality of gram
flour meets the required standards?

— Net quantity
£5
s sl Date of manufacture
E
Batch number M. o
S
Best before date
T
£ o oo [
B '—
3
Name & address of the
22
Nutrition facts panel manufacturer
=
FSSAI mark &
2 license number
E
]
8
v Ingredients list
g —
Hg Allergen declaration
&"mIIlllll
(3]

Fig. 12.29

308
Did you notice the FSSAI logo?
FSSAI means Food Safety & Standards Authority Wi
of India and its symbol on the food packets and Ssal
cartons indicates that food has been tested by
the government and is safe to consume.
Government agencies provide such certifications that help
buyers to assess product quality. Their presence on the product
or its package confirms that the product fulfills the minimum
quality standards.
Let’s see what each of these labels mean:
® Just like FSSAI, there is Indian Standards
Institution (ISI) Mark issued by the Bureau of
India Standards (BIS). This symbol is generally
present on electrical appliances, construction
materials, automotive tires, paper, etc. This
ensures quality and that the product is safe to use.
= Similarly, AGMARK (Ag for agriculture) is the certification
mark for agricultural products like vegetables, fruits,
cereals, pulses, spices, honey, etc.
Voo ¥
/,,\
® Electronics items like TVs, laptops, air
conditioners, etc. have BEE STAR rating. BEE
stands for Bureau of Energy Efficiency. These
| i)
POWER SAVINGS
GUIDE
ratings are printed on the product package as
stars. Higher stars indicate that the appliance
uses less energy and electricity. This is good for consumers
as the electricity bill would be lesser and good for the
environment as well.

LET'S EXPLORE
12 - Understanding Markets
Economic Life Around Us

Check out the BEE Star labels on the electronic devices in your
home and make a chart of all the devices in an increasing order
of their energy efficiency.

On the other hand, purchase decisions of buyers are influenced

by the reputation of the product. This is built through word
of mouth. Have your family members bought some product
because their friends or relatives suggested it to them?

309
 Online reviews and feedback from other consumers about
products and services help us decide whether to buy or not while
shopping online.

Fig. 12.30
Before we move on...
> Markets facilitate exchange between buyers and sellers at a
mutually agreed price which is determined by the demand
from buyers and supply by sellers.
Markets have a chain of participants like manufacturers,
wholesalers, distributors and retailers that enables supply
of goods to the final consumers.
Markets are also places for interaction as they bring people
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

together and enable exchange of ideas and traditions.

The government plays a regulatory role in the markets
to promote quality standards for products and services
and fair practices in the market. However, consumers can
also assess the quality of products and services through
certification marks on the products from government
agencies and through online reviews.
(3]

310
Questions and activities
il, What are the main features of a market? Recall a recent visit
to a market to purchase a product. What are the different
features of a market that you observed during this visit?
Remember the epigraph from a famous economist at the
beginning of the chapter? Discuss its relevance in the
context of the chapter you have read.
In the example of buying and selling of guavas, imagine that
the selleris getting a good price, and is able to make a profit.
He will try to get more guavas from farmers to be able to
sell them at the same price and increase his earnings. What
is the farmer likely to do in this kind of a situation? Do you
think he will start thinking about the demand for guavas in
the next season? What is likely to be his response?
Match the following types of markets with their
characteristics:

[Link]. Markets Criteria

Physical Goods and services flow outside the

market nation’s boundaries

Online
Deals in bulk quantities
market

Domestic Serves the final consumers with goods and

market services

International | Requires physical presence of buyers and

market seller

Wholesale Buyers and sellers meet virtually and can

market transact at any time
12 - Understanding Markets

Retail
Economic Life Around Us

Lies within the boundaries of a nation

market

Prices are generally determined by the interaction between

demand from buyers and supply by sellers. Can you think
of products where prices are high despite lesser number of
buyers demanding the product? What could be the reasons
for that?

311
 Look at the real life situation that a retail seller of vegetables
encountered: A family came to shop for vegetables. The
price of beans that the seller on the cart was offering was
¥30/kg. The lady started to bargain with the seller to bring
the price down to ¥25/kg. The seller protested and refused
to sell at that price saying he would make a loss at that price.
Thelady walks away. The family then goes to a super bazaar
nearby. They buy vegetables in the super bazaar where they
pay ¥40/kg for the beans that is neatly packed in a plastic
bag. What are the reasons that the family does this? Are
there factors that affect buying and selling which are not
directly connected to price?
There are some districts in India that are famous for growing
tomatoes. However, during some seasons, the situation is
not good for farmers. With a large quantity of harvest, there
are reports of farmers throwing away their produce and all
their hard work going to waste. Why do you think farmers
do this? What role can wholesalers play in such situations?
What are the possible ways of ensuring that the tomatoes
are not wasted, and the farmers are also not at a loss?
Have you heard about or visited a school carnival/fair
organized by your school or any other school? Discuss
with your friends and teachers about the kind of activities
organized by students there. How do they conduct selling
and negotiation with the buyers?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

Choose any 5 products and check out the label with the
certification signs discussed in the chapter. Did you find
products that did not have a logo? Why do you think this
is s0?
10. You and your classmates have manufactured a soap bar.
Design a label for its packaging. What in your opinion
should be mentioned on the label for the consumer to know
the product better?
(Y]

312