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 Glossary
Alienated: Made to feel separated, unwanted, Denounced: Publicly declared something to
or no longer a part of something. be wrong or evil.
Apparatus: The complete structure of Desecrate: To damage or treat a holy place or
institutions and processes organized for object with disrespect.
a specific purpose, such as conducting Devanagari: A script used to write Sanskrit,
elections. Hindi, Marathi, and several other Indian
Assent: Formal approval or agreement, languages.
especially by the President for a bill to Enterprises: They undertake business or
become law. commercial activities that include both profit
Ballads: Song-like poems that tell a story, and non-profit entities.
often passed down orally. Epoch: A very important or significant period
Ballot paper: A sheet of paper listing the in history or in someone’s life.
candidates or parties that voters mark to Guerrilla warfare: A fighting style where
indicate their choice in an election. small groups use speed, surprise, and
Barbaric: Extremely cruel or brutal; lacking knowledge of the local terrain to defeat larger
civilization or culture. armies.
Bibliophile: A person who loves and collects Impelled: Forced by a feeling or idea.
books. Incensed: Very angry or enraged.
Bureaucrats: Government officials who are Indigenous: Native to or naturally existing in
not elected but help run departments and a particular place; originating from that area.
carry out laws and policies. Innocuous: Harmless; not likely to offend or
Cognitive development: How a child's brain provoke.
grows and develops as they learn to think, Insignia: A symbol or badge representing a
understand, and solve problems. kingdom or ruler.
Confederacy: A group of leaders or states Kaizen: A Japanese approach to work
that join together for a common cause. that focuses on making small, continuous
Consortium: A group of separate improvements in how things are done.
organizations joining together for a common Legacy: Something valuable (like knowledge,
purpose or goal. traditions, or achievements) passed down
Corporate Social Responsibility: The from earlier times.
responsibility of businesses to contribute to Martyrdom: Dying or suffering greatly for a
the wellbeing of society and the environment, cause, especially religious or moral.
beyond just making profits.
Mercenaries: Soldiers hired to serve in a
De facto: In reality or in practice, even if not foreign army group, or organization.
officially stated.
Mulching: Covering the soil with a layer of
Decolonisation: The process by which a material (like straw or leaves) to protect it and
country becomes free from foreign rule, and improve its condition.
begins to recover its own control, identity, and
Notorious: Famous for something bad.
way of life.
Ornate: Highly decorated, often with complex
Demographic: Information about groups of
and fancy designs.
people, such as their age, gender, income,
and where they live.

186
Persecution: The act of treating someone Stratagem: A clever plan used to trick
unfairly and cruelly, especially because of someone or to gain an advantage.
their religion, race, or political beliefs. Subduing: Bringing under control by force.
Philanthropist A person who helps others by Subjugation: The act of bringing someone or
giving money, time, or effort to good causes, something under domination or control.
especially to improve people's lives. Succumbed: Gave in to pressure or force;
Plunder: To steal goods by force during a war failed to resist.
or invasion. Summon: To officially call people (like
Premium prices: Higher-than-average price Parliament members) to meet.
for a product or service. Swarajya: Self-rule or self-governance; the
Proxy voting: Voting in someone else's name concept of an independent kingdom that
(which is not allowed in fair elections). became central to Shivaiji's vision.
Repatriation: The act of bringing back SWAYAM: Study Webs of Active Learning for
something or someone to their own country. Young Aspiring Minds. It is an online platform
Resurgence: Arise or comeback of something that makes learning accessible to all.
after a period of little activity. Syncretic: Combining different beliefs,
Retaliatory: Done in response to an attack or practices, or philosophies.
harmful action. Tenacity: The quality of being determined
Riverine: Relating to or situated on a river or and persistent.
riverbank. Thrive: Grow and develop.
Sacked: (In warfare) Captured and looted a Torrent: A large, fast, and uncontrolled flow
town or city. — like a rushing stream or crowd.
Sanctum: The most sacred part of a temple Treachery: A betrayal of trust; disloyal
(often where the main idol is placed). behavior.
Scion: A descendant of a notable family. Treatise: A formal written work that deals
Siege: Surrounding a place (like a fort or with a particular subject in detail.
temple) with an army to make the people Tribunal: A type of court set up to deal with a
inside surrender. particular problem or dispute.
Spawning: The production or depositing of Windfall: An unexpected, unearned, or
eggs by fish, amphibians, or other aquatic sudden gain or advantage.
animals. Workmanship: The skill, quality, and
Stewards/Stewardship: The careful and craftsmanship shown in making something.
responsible management of something Wretches: People who are in a very bad or
entrusted to one's care. miserable condition.

187
 Images and maps from external sources
NCERT thanks the following organisations and individuals for
permission to use their images:

1. Organisations and individuals

- Fig. 1.13 [Link]
- Fig 1.17. Ministry of Jal Shakti [Link]
documents/[Link]
" Fig 1.19. Auroville Earth Institute, Auroville
- Fig. 1.21. [Link]
" Fig 1.19. Auroville Earth Institute, Auroville
- Fig. 1.21. [Link]
- Fig. 2.4. [Link]
- Fig. 2.5. [Link]
columns-stone-carving-courtyard-unesco-world-heritage-site-new-image 187427133
- Fig. 2.6. [Link]
- Fig. 2.7. [Link]
Muhammad_bin_Tughlug.jpg
- Fig. 2.8. [Link]
- Fig. 2.9. [Link]
- Fig. 2.10. [Link]
- Fig. 2.13. Courtesy Michel Danino
" Fig. 2.15. [Link]
and_Babur.jpg
- Fig. 2.17. [Link]
- Fig. 2.18. [Link]
Fatehpur-Fatehpur_Sikri_India0014.JPG
- Fig. 2.19. [Link]
Fatehpur-Fatehpur_Sikri_India0014.JPG
- Fig. 2.19. Smithsonian Institute
- Fig. 2.20. [Link]
- Fig. 2.22. [Link]
Udaipur_
[Link]
- Fig. 2.24. [Link]
- Fig. 2.25. [Link]
war_memorial_park_statues.jpg
" Fig. 2.26. [Link] Equestrian_portrait_of_Guru_Gobind_Singh_
attended_upon_by_a_Nihang.jpg
- Fig. 2.27. [Link]
author_and_advisor%2C_Abul_Fazl%2C_seated_on_a_terrace_with_the_completed_chronicles_
before_him%2C_from_an_illustrated_%27Ain-i-Akbari%27_manuscript_commissioned_by_the_
Sikh_E

188
Fig. 2.29. [Link]
Fig. 3.1. (Left) [Link]
fortification_of_Raigad_fort,jpg
(Right) [Link] [Link]/wiki/Raigad_Fort#/media/File:Nagarkhana,_Raigad_Fort,_India.jpg
Fig. 3.3 [Link]
original jpg
Fig. 3.4 [Link]
Colnect_158259_-_Sant_Tukaram_1608_-_1650.jpeg
Fig. 3.5 [Link]
Fig. 3.6 [Link]
ipg
Fig. 3.7 [Link] jpg
Fig. 3.8 [Link]
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Fig. 3.10 [Link]
Peshwa_Balaji_Bajirao.jpg
Fig. 3.12 [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 3.13 [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 3.15 [Link]
Fig. 3.16 [Link]
History_of_India_1906.jpg
Fig. 3.17 [Link]
Gallivats-attacking-an-English-Shipjpg
Fig. 3.18 [Link]
Fig. 3.19 [Link]
Fig. 3.20 [Link]
Fig. 3.21 [Link]
Script_1.jpg
Fig. 3.23 Courtesy: Nikhil Bellarykar
Fig. 4.1 [Link]
to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg
Fig.4.2 Images used on timeline
= [Link]
= httpsi//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Lord_Clive_meeting_with_Mir_
Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey.jpg
= httpsi//[Link]/wiki/Goa_Inquisition#/media/File:The_procession_of_the_
Inquisition_in_Goa_entering_th_Wellcome_V0041645.jpg
Fig. 4.3 [Link]
[Link]
Page no. 88 Rani Abakka postal stamp- [Link]
File:Abbakka_Chowta_2023_stamp_of_India.jpg
Fig. 4.4 [Link]
jpg
Fig. 4.5 [Link]
Fig. 4.6 [Link]
Fig. 4.7 Courtesy: National Army Museum

189
[Link]
Fig. 4.8 William Digby, The Famine Campaign in Southern India 1876-1878, London, 1878
Fig. 4.9 [Link]
Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg
Fig. 4.10 [Link]
ipg
Fig. 4.11 [Link]
Fig. 4.12 [Link]
Fig. 4.13 [Link]
Fig. 4.14 [Link]
to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg
Fig. 4.15 [Link]
Railway_No_425.jpg
Fig. 4.16 [Link]
Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg
Fig. 4.17 [Link] The_Santhal_Insurrection.
ipg
Fig. 4.18 [Link]
at_Meerut.jpg
Fig. 4.19 [Link] watercolour_
on_ivory,_c._1857.png
Fig. 4.20 [Link]
Fig. 5.1. (Newspaper cuttings)
= [Link] from-gir-forest-
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inaccessible-places/articleshow/[Link]?from=mdr
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crore-people-voting-in-lok-sabha-polls-cec-rajiv-kumar/[Link]
= [Link]
worlds-largest-5249885
= httpsi//[Link]/city/pune/election-commission-of-india-
aims-to-enhance-urban-rural-voter-participation-ahead-of-november-polls/
articleshow/[Link]
[Link]
t-in-india-
for-just-one-voter
-~ [Link]
eligible-voters-extended-pan-india-for-the-first-time-1016993-2024-05-29
[Link]
how-did-the-gender-gap-in-voting-close
Fig. [Link]://[Link]/wiki/File:The_Just_Government_League_of
Maryland_
marching_in_the_Women%27s_suffrage_parage,_March_3,_1913.jpg
Fig 5.5. [Link]
Fig. 5.6. (voter collage, left to right, top to bottom)
= [Link]
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= [Link]
pb.100069197080169.-2207520000&type=3

190
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pb.100069197080169.-2207520000&type=3
[Link] php?fbid=869409138708981&set=
pb.100069197080169.-2207520000&type=3
= [Link]
Fig. 5.10. [Link]
[Link]
Fig. 5.13. [Link]
administered_indelible_ink%2C_at_a_polling_booth%2C_during_the_8th_Phase_of General_
Elections-2014%2C_in_Nainital%2C_Uttarakhand_on_May_07%2C_2014.jpg
[Link]
during_the_6th_Phase_of_General_Elections-2024_at_Govt_Primary_School_NAC_Colony_in_
Bhubaneswar,_Odisha_on_May_25, 2024_(1).jpg
Fig. 5.14. [Link]
Fig. 5.15. [Link]
Negi_%28born_on_1st_July_1917_in_Kalpa%2C_Himachal_Pradesh%2C_is_a_retired_
schoolteacher_who_cast_the_first_vote_in_the_1951_general_election_in_India_-_the_
nation%E2%80%99s_first_election%[Link]
Fig. 5.16. [Link]
Fig 5.21. [Link] T.N._Seshan_in_1994.jpg
Fig.6.1. [Link]
Fig. 6.2. [Link]
Delhi_government_block_03-2016_img3.jpg
Fig. 6.3. [Link]
Fig. 6.4. [Link] India#/media/File:View_of_Lok_Sabha_
chamber_in_the_New_Parliament_building,_New_Delhi.jpg
Fig. 6.5. [Link] India#/media/File:New_Rajya_Sabha_
chamber_in_the_New_Parliament_building.jpg
Fig. 6.6. [Link]
jpg
Fig. 6.7. [Link]
Fig. 6.8. [Link]
(from_stamp).jpg
Fig. 6.9. [Link]
ReportFile/14/196/162_2025_2_13.pdf?source=rajyasabha
Fig. 6.10. [Link]
(from_stamp).jpg
Fig. 6.13.a [Link] cartoons/monsoon-session/232107
Fig. 6.13.b [Link] html|
Fig. 6.14. [Link]
(crop_2).jpg
Fig. 7.9. Recreation of a 5th-century stitched ship by the Ministry of Culture, India
Fig. 7.17 [Link]

191
2. Royalty free stock from [Link]
- Figs. 1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5,1.6,1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.18, 1.20, 1.22
- Figs. 2.1, 2.14,2.23,2.28
= Fig.3.22.
- Fig. 5.6. Picture of a manin a wheelchair going to cast his vote
= Figs.5.13. (top), 5.13. (1), 5.13. (3")
- Figs. 6.11, 6.12
- Figs. 7.1. Allimages, 7.2 Allimages, 7.3, 7.4,7.5,7.6,7.7,7.8,7.10,7.11, 7.12,7.13, 7.14, 7.15,
7.18,7.19,7.20,7.21, 7.22,7.23,7.24,7.25

3. Al generated images
= Fig.21.
= Fig.5.22
= Fig.221.

192
NoTEs

10
NoTEs

11
Exploring Society:
India and Beyond
Social Science Textbook for
Grade 8 | Part 1

T gt
NCEERT

I Afdrer g N ufdaror afReg

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING

12
0881 - EXPLORING SOCIETY: INDIA AND BEYOND
ISBN 978-93-5729-293-1
SociAL ScIENCE TEXTBOOK FOR GRADE 8 Part 1

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

July 2025 Ashadha 1947 Q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.
PD 1500T BS Q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by
way oftrade, be lent, re-sold, hired outor otherwise disposed
of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or
© National Council of Educational cover other than that in which it is published.
Research and Training, 2025 Q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on
this page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or
by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DIVISION, NCERT
NCERT Campus
Sti Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
108, 100 Feet Road
Hosdakere Halli Extension
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Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740
Navjivan Trust Building
P.O. Navjvan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
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CWC Complex
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Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869
-
Publication Team
Head, Publication : M.V. Srinivasan
Division
Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar

Chief Production Officer : Jahan Lal

(In charge)
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Chief Business Manager : Amitabh Kumar
watermark
Assistant Production : Prakash Veer Singh
Officer
Published at the Publication Division
by the Secretary, National Council Cover Design, Illustrations, and Layout
of Educational Research and
Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New The Banyan Tree
Delhi 110 016 and printed at Chandu
Press, 469, Patparganj Industrial Cartographer
Estate, Delhi-110 092 Arkaprovo Das

13
 Foreword
The National Education Policy 2020 envisages a system of education
in the country that is rooted in Indian ethos and its civilisational
accomplishments in all fields of knowledge and human endeavour.
Atthesametime,itaimstopreparestudentsto engage constructively
with the opportunities and challenges of the 21st century. The
basis for this aspirational vision has been well laid out by the
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE)
2023 across curricular areas at all stages. By nurturing students’
inherent abilities across all the five planes of human existence
(pafichakoshas), the Foundational and the Preparatory Stages set
the stage for further learning at the Middle Stage. Spanning Grade 6
to Grade 8, the Middle Stage serves as a critical three-year bridge
between the Preparatory and Secondary Stages.
The NCF-SE 2023, at the Middle Stage, aims to equip students
with the skills that are needed to grow as they advance in their
lives. It endeavours to enhance their analytical, descriptive, and
narrative capabilities, and to prepare them for the challenges and
opportunities that await them. A diverse curriculum, covering
nine subjects ranging from three languages — including at least
two languages native to India — to Science, Mathematics, Social
Sciences, Art Education, Physical Education and Well-being, and
Vocational Education, promotes their holistic development.
Such a transformative learning culture requires certain essential
conditions. One of them is to have appropriate textbooks in
different curricular areas, as these textbooks will play a central role
in mediating between content and pedagogy — a role that strikes a
judicious balance between direct instruction and opportunities for
exploration and inquiry. Among the other conditions, classroom
arrangement and teacher preparation are crucial to establish
conceptual connections both within and across curricular areas.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training, on its
part, is committed to providing students with such high-quality
textbooks. Various Curricular Area Groups, constituted for this

14
purpose, comprising notable subject experts, pedagogues, and
practising teachers as their members, have made all possible
efforts to develop such textbooks. The Social Science textbook for
Grade 8 — Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Part 1 — has been
prepared for the final year of the Middle Stage. It carries forward
the themes and approach of Grades 6 and 7; the focus is on core
concepts and major developments. It endeavours to keep students
engaged in learning through illustrations, maps, and pictures laid
outin an attractive design. There are abundant reflective exercises
and activities embedded in the text to support exploration,
discovery, and meaning-making. The thematic approach with a
multidisciplinary lens continues, helping students understand
ideas and concepts holistically. The text integrates the values we
desire our students to develop, is rooted in the Indian cultural
context, and introduces global perspectives in an age-appropriate
manner. For all practical purposes, it has, to my mind, succeeded
in its curricular goals: first, to foster natural curiosity among
students through a proper selection of content; and second, to
employ a pedagogical approach in line with the recommendations
of NCF-SE 2023.
However, in addition to this textbook, students at this stage should
also be encouraged to explore various other learning resources.
School libraries play a crucial role in making such resources
available. Besides, the role of parents and teachers will also be
invaluable in guiding and encouraging students to do so.
With this, I express my gratitude to all those who have been
involved in the development of this textbook and hope that it
will meet the expectations of all stakeholders. At the same time, I
also invite suggestions and feedback from all its users for further
improvement in the coming years.

March 2025 Dinesh Prasad Saklani

New Delhi Director
National Council of Educational
Research and Training

15
 Letter to the Student
Dear Student,
You have now entered the third and final year of the Middle Stage.
In Social Science, this year we will explore more aspects of our
country, India, across all five themes — India and the World: Land
and the People, Tapestry of the Past, Our Cultural Heritage and
Knowledge Traditions, Governance and Democracy, and Economic
Life Around Us. You will encounter different types of people who
lived in the past, their accomplishments and their mistakes, the
impact they had on the economy, society and culture, and what
they mean to us today. As you are older now, there will be a little
more independent reading, writing and doing through reflective
exercises and activities including some small research studies that
you would need to take up. There is a little more text in the book as
well. As with Grades 6 and 7, we have made ample use of colourful
maps, pictures and illustrations, which we hope will help you to
visualise better.
Sincegoodeducationshould promote understandingandreflection,
we have created opportunities for you to explore, discover, think,
imagine, create, ask questions and propose answers.
You will notice how each theme brings together multiple inputs
from several disciplines — not only history, geography, political
science or economics, but also art, literature and science. This
brings us closer to real life and helps us understand the events of
today.
In short, you will observe that the threads of the past continue to
be part of today’s tapestry and give us the design for strengthening
it for tomorrow.
Given India’s rich past and enormous dimensions — both
geographical and human — we were very eager to share a lot
with you; deciding what to include and what to leave out led to
arguments and heartaches, because all those involved wanted
to give you the best. In the end, it has been an enriching and

16
gratifying experience. We hope it will be an enjoyable experience
for you too!
sokok

We need to add an important detail. In this textbook, every part of

it — text, side box, image or map — can be subject to evaluation
and assessment. There are however five exceptions:
" The quotation or quotations on the first pages of chapters.
Some are straightforward, others offer deep thought. Do not
worry if you do not understand them at the first reading; they
are meant to stimulate you or inspire you.

" Wherever we have mentioned in the text, “You need not

remember this.”

® The diacritical signs on some Sanskrit words — do look at

‘Your Journey through this Textbook’ in the next few pages to
understand what we mean.

" The Glossary (at the end of the textbook).

No evaluation should bear on these five aspects.

otk

vi

17
 Your Journey through this Textbook
This is your final year in the Middle Stage — a stage where you've
been discovering new ideas, asking questions, and building an
understanding of the world around you. By now, you are more
confident in studying Social Science and are ready to go deeper. This
year, our journey will take us on an exploration and reflection on
natural resources and how we use them, the tapestry of our past as
political and cultural transformations took place, and how we have
organised the functioning of our democracy through our electoral
process. Together we'll continue asking important questions about
how societies organise themselves, how resources become products,
and how citizens participate in governance.
This textbook has interesting features. As you flip through it, you will
see colourful illustrations, including pictures, maps and drawings of
many kinds. Let us give you a quick tour of the book and its features.
Your teacher will also guide you through it.
Each chapter begins with an inspiring quotation from a
renowned person or text. Read it and let it stay with you. Some of
these quotations are profound thoughts. Don’t worry if you do not
understand right away; you can return to them later, and they can
also be discussed in the class. Here’s an example —

For a country like India, the largest contribution to growth

and productivity will probably come about from more
efficiently using land, labour and capital, thus they must be
used more efficiently.
— Bibek Debroy,
Chairman, Economic Advisory Council
to the Prime Minister (2017-24)

The main text is written in simple language. You will learn about
people and places in India and beyond.

18
 RESPONSIBLE AND WISE USE OF NATURAL
RESOURCES: STEWARDSHIP
Sustaining life on Earth requires that we respect Nature and
use natural resources in a way that enables the restoration and
regeneration of renewable resources, and the responsible and
judicious use of non-renewable ones.
Biodiversity
loss Scientists studying these aspects have warned that the
The df,f';:s irresponsible treatment of natural resources hasled to pollution,
d vaneE[y or: biodiversity loss and climate change, which has been taking place
ife on Eartl at an increased pace in recent years.

Technical words are explained in the margin right next to the text. They
are also listed in the glossary at the end of the textbook. In addition, we
have included a few words you may not be familiar with. Do consult the
glossary often.

. . e Bi
‘The Big Questions’, between Quegstiul\s °
three and five, give you an
idea of what you are going to
explore in the chapter.

As we move through the chapter you will find some sections

called ‘LET’S EXPLORE’, ‘THINK ABOUT IT’, ‘LET’S REMEMBER’ which
propose activities, in-text exercises, recall of concepts learnt earlier or
will invite further reflection.

LET'S EXPLORE

About 34 per cent of eligible voters did not exercise their

right to vote in the 2024 elections. Why do you think this is
so? What are some challenges people face in exercising their
rights? Design and conduct a short survey among adults in
your family and neighbourhood to answer these questions.
Analyse the data and write a report with suggestions on how
it may be possible to ensure everyone votes.

19
 HINK ABO

- What could be the lessons for young entrepreneurs that

you can gather from the above case?
-> Does the existing knowledge of the entrepreneur help in
finding solutions to the problem at hand? Or do they need
to seek other sources?
> Is profit the only motivation for an entrepreneur? Why or
‘why not?
> What are the other personality traits required to be a
successful entrepreneur?

. LET'S REMEMBER
India is a parliamentary democracy where, at the national |
level, citizens choose representatives for the Lok Sabha (the |
lower house of the Parliament). They focus on issues affecting
the entire country. In addition, voters elect representatives
from their constituencies to the legislative assemblies in the
state and union territories where they are registered. These
members focus primarily on regional issues.

|| TN. Seshan became the Chief Election

Commissioner in 1990. He brought in
‘Don’t miss out’ brings | reforms to ensure free and fair elections,
out intriguing or fun among them: campaigning to follow
precise rules, voter IDs to eliminate proxy
facts that will trigger voting, and strict vigilance on spending
your curiosity. | toby protect
candidates. T.N. Seshan worked hard
the rights of voters and is often
[ remembered asthe officerwhomade Indian =~
elections fairer, transparent and fearless! rig. 5.21. TN Seshan

Before we move on ... At the end of every

= “Natural resources’ are materials and substances that chapter, ‘Before
occur in Nature and are valuable to humans. we move on’ sums
> There are different ways of categorising resources;
renewable and non-renewable are useful categories.
up some of the
> The ‘resource curse’ can be overcome through investments core ideas that the
in the development of technology and skills. chapter tried to
We need to become vigilant about the rate at which we use
renewables so as not to overexploit them; judicious and convey. A choice of
wise use of non-renewables will enable stretching their exercises, questions
use for a longer period of time.
or projects follow.

20
On the first page of every chapter, you will find a QR code leading you to
resources related to the content of the chapter. Do scan it, or take an adult’s
help to scan it, and browse through the material.
Finally, note that the chapter “Reshaping India’s Political Map” is meant
to be read alongside the chapter “Cultural Currents: 13® to 17 Centuries”,
which will be found in Part 2 of this textbook (to appear later in 2025).
Accordingly this Part I does not have Theme C, “Our Cultural Heritage and
Knowledge Traditions”. It will appear in Part II.
Your teacher will be with you on this journey of exploring this textbook. We
hope you will read parts of it with your parents or guardians too. Maybe
you can try out some of the activities with them!
We wish you an enjoyable journey through Social Science and its rich
insights into human life and society.

W e 3

A note on the pronunciation of Sanskrit words

Since this textbook is in English, we use the Roman alphabet. But we will
also encounter some words in Sanskrit and a few other Indian languages.
The Roman alphabet cannot make their pronunciation clear without some
additional marks or signs, such as dashes, dots or accents, called ‘diacritical
signs’ or ‘diacritics’. You can ignore all these signs if you wish, and you don’t
need to remember them. However, as we are using only a few simple signs,
you will find it easy to get used to them. You will also find that they help
you pronounce Sanskrit words fairly correctly. (Please note that for proper
names, we have used diacritics only up to 1200 CE, not afterwards.)
Here is how they work:
= Ashort dash (called ‘macron’) over a vowel makes it long. For instance,
dana is pronounced ‘daana’; lila is pronounced ‘leelaa’; stitra is sootra.
" shand sh are pronounced more or less as ‘sh’ in ‘shall’ (there is a slight
difference, since they correspond to = and ¥ in the Devanagari script,
but you can ignore it in practice). So shastra is pronounced ‘shaastra’;
kshira is ‘ksheera’.
" Consonants with a dot below them (¢, t and n mainly) are ‘hard’, i.e.
pronounced by hitting the tongue on the palate; without a dot, they
X

21
 are soft, with the tongue on the teeth. (As a rough comparison, in the
preceding English word ‘teeth’, the first ‘” is hard, while the final ‘th’ is
soft.) Examples of hard consonants: Aryabhata, gana, pathana (studying),
pitha, gosthi (association, assembly), dhanadhya (rich), anu (atom).
" Finally,risthe Devanagariletter s. We choose to write it as ri, although
in some parts of India it is also pronounced as ru. So we write ‘Rig Veda’,
for instance.
For those who wish to know the precise correspondence between the
Devanagari alphabet and the Roman script in our system, the tables of
short and long vowels are as follows:
Devanagari Roman script
SI a
g i
3 u
£ ri
g e
il )

all a
€ i
5 u
Ed Fi
T ai
kil au
And the table of consonants:

Guttural | ® | ka kha | T |ga|¥ |gha|¥ | na % ha

Palatal cha| ® |chha|¥ |ja|¥ |jha |¥|fia|¥ | ya
Cerebral | © |ta |3 | tha [$|da|%|dha| ™ |na|¥|ra
Dental T lta|¥|tha |[T|da|¥|dha|7 |na|[T|la
Labial T |pa|% | pha |¥|ba|¥|bha|" |ma|T|va
Sibilants | ¥ |$ha| ¥ | sha | ¥ | sa
xi

22
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 — 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
before law and equal protection of laws:
irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
of opportunity in public employment;
by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences:
of protection of life and personal liberty:
of freeand compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right against Exploitation

for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.

Right to Freedom of Religion

freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation ofreligion;
freedom to manage religious affairs;
freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion:
freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.

Cultural and Educational Rights

for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

—— e

23
 National Syllabus and Teaching Learning
Materials Committee (NSTC)

. M.C. Pant, Chancellor, National Institute of Educational Planning and

Administration (NIEPA), (Chairperson)
2. Manjul Bhargava, Professor, Princeton University, (Co-Chairperson)
. Sudha Murty, Acclaimed Writer and Educationist
4. Late Bibek Debroy, Former Chairperson, Economic Advisory Council to the
Prime Minister (EAC — PM)
. Shekhar Mande, Former Director General, CSIR; Distinguished Professor,
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
6. Sujatha Ramdorai, Professor, University of British Columbia, Canada
7. Shankar Mahadevan, Music Maestro, Mumbai
8. U. Vimal Kumar, Director, Prakash Padukone Badminton Academy,
Bengaluru
. Michel Danino, Visiting Professor, IIT-Gandhinagar
. Surina Rajan, IAS (Retd.), Haryana; Former Director General, HIPA
. Chamu Krishna Shastri, Chairperson, Bharatiya Bhasha Samiti, Ministry of
Education
. Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister
(EAC-PM)
. M.D. Srinivas, Chairperson, Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai
. Gajanan Londhe, Head, Programme Office, NSTC
. Rabin Chhetri, Director, SCERT, Sikkim
. Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, Department of Education in
Social Sciences, NCERT, New Delhi
. Dinesh Kumar, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
. Kirti Kapur, Professor, Department of Education in Languages, NCERT,
New Delhi
. Ranjana Arora, Professor and Head, Department of Curriculum Studies and
Development, NCERT, New Delhi (Member-Secretary)

24
 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties

It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —

(2) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;

®) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;

(© to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;

(e to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all

the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010)

25
 Textbook Development Team
CAG Social Science Chairperson
Michel Danino, Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar
CAG Economics Chairperson
Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, EAC-PM

Contributors
Aasheerwad Dwivedi, Faculty of Management Studies, Shri Ram College
of Commerce, University of Delhi
Alka Singh, Assistant Professor in Geography, Department of Education
in Social Sciences and Humanities, RIE, Bhopal, NCERT
Ankur Kakkar, Associate Professor, Centre for Indic Studies, Indus
University, Ahmedabad
Aziz Mahdi, Scholar of Persian, Former Fellow, Indian Institute of
Advanced Study, Shimla
Bhairu Lal Yadav, Associate Professor of Population Studies, DESS, NCERT
Bhawna Paliwal, Educator and Senior Consultant, Programme Office,
NSTC
Divya Indra Chatterjee, Chartered Accountant; Senior Consultant,
Programme Office, NSTC
Diya Tanmay Devare, Faculty (Economics), Symbiosis College of Arts
and Commerce, Pune
Javaid Igbal Bhat, Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Department of
English, University of Kashmir
Johnson Odakkal, Commodore, Indian Navy (Retd), Former Director,
Maritime History Society & Faculty at Aditya Birla World Academy
Kumari Rohini, Assistant Professor, History, DESS, NCERT
M.V. Srinivasan, Professor, DESS, NCERT
Nabajyoti Deka, Faculty of Management Studies, Shri Ram College of
Commerce, Delhi University
Nikhil Bellarykar, Historian, Author and Translator
Pawan Kumar, Assistant Professor and In-charge, Department of
Geography, Faculty of Earth, Environment and Space Sciences,
Chaudhary Bansilal University, Prem Nagar, Bhiwani

26
Payel Mukherjee, Faculty, Department of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi
(IITD) and Adjunct Faculty, Department of English, College of Arts and
Science, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Prachi Lahiri, History Teacher, National Public School, Bengaluru
Probal Roy Chowdhary, Director, Centre for New Indian Studies;
Professor, Department of English, Sister Nivedita University, Kolkata
Purva Bhatt, Senior Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC
Radha Narayanan, Researcher and Author, History textbooks,
Chinmaya Mission, Chennai
Riddhi Garg, Research Writer and Editor, Senior Consultant, Programme
Office, NSTC
Ruchika Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography,
University of Allahabad and Coordinator, IKS Division, Ministry of
Education
Sandeepa Madan, Educator, Shiv Nadar School, Gurugram
Saumya Dey, Professor, Rishihood University
Savita Sagar, Assistant Professor, Political Science, DESS, NCERT
Seema Shukla Ojha, Professor, History, DESS, NCERT (Member
Coordinator)
Srishti Chauhan, Young Professional (EAC-PM), NITI Aayog
Suman Gautam, Principal, Shiva International Residential School,
Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh
Suparna Diwakar, Educator and Development Sector Professional,
Chief Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC
Surendra C Thakurdesai, Professor and Head, Department of
Geography, Department of Rural Development, Gogate Joglekar College,
Ratnagiri

Xvi

27
Reviewers
Aditi Misra, Director Principal, Delhi Public School, Gurgaon; and
Teachers: Kanu Chopra, Avni Mehta, Mamta Kumar, Suparna Sharma
Aparna Pandey, Professor, NCERT
Ashwini Londhe, Educational Psychologist for Samvit Research
Foundation, Bengaluru
Birbal Luniwal, Assistant Professor, NCERT
Jaya Singh, Professor, NCERT
Pratima Kumari, Professor, NCERT
Rashmi, Associate Professor, NCERT
Sainath Kabade, Assistant Professor, NCERT
Shankar Sharan, Professor, NCERT
Shipra Vaidya, Professor, NCERT
Shivakumar Jolad, Associate Professor, Public Policy, School of Liberal
Education, FLAME University, Pune
Subhash Singh, Assistant Professor, NCERT
Tannu Malik, Professor, NCERT
Uday Kulkarni, Surgeon, Commander of the Indian Navy (Retd.),
Historian, Author, and Member CAG Social Science
Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor, NCERT
Vinita Rikhi, Director (Indian), La Mondiale Group, La Mondiale
Academia
CAG (Social Science) Convener
Gouri Srivastava, Professor, DESS, NCERT

CAG (Economics) Convener

M. V. Srinivasan, Professor, DESS, NCERT

xvii

28
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the guidance and support of the esteemed Chairperson
and members of the National Curriculum Frameworks Oversight
Committee for their invaluable contributions in overseeing the
translation of NCF-SE 2023 perspectives into the textbook. NCERT is
also deeply grateful to the Chairperson, Co-Chairperson, and members
of the National Syllabus and Teaching-Learning Materials Development
Committee for their continuous guidance and thorough review of
the textbook. Furthermore, NCERT extends its heartfelt thanks to the
Chairpersons and members of the Curricular Area Groups (CAGs) for
Social Science and for Economics, as well as other relevant CAGs, for
their support and guidelines on the cross-cutting themes.
The participation and contributions from members of the Social Science
and Economics CAGs have beenindispensable. Additionalthanks are due
to the Chairpersons and members of other CAGs involved in integrating
cross cutting themes into this textbook.
The unstinted efforts and exemplary dedication of the Social Science
team of Programme Office, NSTC — Suparna Diwakar, Bhawna Paliwal,
Divya Indra Chatterjee, Riddhi Garg, Purva Bhatt — in assisting the
making of this textbook at every stage, are gratefully acknowledged.
We are also much obliged to Shweta Rao of the Banyan Tree for her
outstanding contribution to the textbook’s appealing design and visual
quality, and her steadfast work throughout the entire process. We are
also indebted to Gouri Srivastava, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS) and member-coordinator, TDT, Social Science for
Grade 8, for her constant assistance and advice; and to M.V. Srinivasan,
NCERT’s Department of Education in Social Sciences and member-
convener of the CAG Economics and head of NCERT’s Publication
Division, for his patient guidance and inputs. Thanks are also to Deepika
Shukla, JPF, DESS for her constant assistance.
The Council is grateful to M.D. Srinivas, Centre for Policy Studies
(Chennai); Amartya Kumar Dutta, Indian Statistical Institute (Kolkata),
and V. Ramanathan, Department of Chemistry, IIT-BHU, for their expert
guidance in the area of Indian Knowledge Systems.

29
The Council is thankful to M Pramod Kumar, Fanindra Sharma, Rajashri
Saligrama and Siddhartha A Bhargava (members of the Programme
Office, NSTC) for their valuable inputs.
The Council is grateful to Aradhana Gupta, Artist, Mentor, NMM
and President, Global Knowledge Network Society (GKNS); Manasi
Prasad, Carnatic Vocalist, Board Member (Former Director), Indian
Music Experience Museum, Arts Consultant; Suhani Dhanki Mody,
Bharatanatyam artist, teacher and international performer, for offering
their expert guidance.
The illustrators — Albert Shrivastava, Attri Chetan, Nidhi Kashyap,
Prachi Sahasrabudhe, Prashant Singh — deserve commendation for
their innovative illustrations, and sketches, which have significantly
enriched the visual quality of the textbook. The contribution made by
the cartographer Arkaprovo Das is much appreciated.
The contributions of Soumma Chandra, Editor (contractual); Deepti Garg,
C. Thanglenmang Doungel and Dwaipayan Upadhayay, Proofreaders
(contractual), Publication Division are also appreciated. The NCERT
gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Pawan Kumar Barriar,
Incharge, DTP Cell; Manoj Kumar, DTP Operator (contractual), Publication
Division, NCERT for all their efforts in giving this book its final shape.

Xix

30
 THE CONSTITUTION OF
INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
solemnly resolved to constitute India into a |
'[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure
to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and |
political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the ’[unity and |
integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY |.
this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO |
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Sovereign Democratic Republic” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976, Sec.2,
for "Unity of the Nation” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)

31
 Contents

Foreword
Letter to the Student
Your Journey through this Textbook

THEME A — INDIA AND THE WORLD: LAND AND THE PEOPLE

Chapter 1 Natural Resources and Their Use

THEME B — TAPESTRY OF THE PAST

A Note on History’s Darker Periods

Chapter 2 Reshaping India’s Political Map
Chapter 3 The Rise of the Marathas
Chapter 4 The Colonial Era in India

THEME D — GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY

Chapter 5 Universal Franchise and India’s
Electoral System 117
Chapter 6 The Parliamentary System:
Legislature and Executive 139

THEME E — EcoNoMIC LIFE AROUND Us

Chapter 7 Factors of Production 163

Glossary 186
Images and Maps from External Sources 188

32
) o) T
@
[ O

33
Natural Resources

CHAPTER
and Their Use
Concerned social scientists are clear on what we need to do: we
must move toward a regenerative economy, an economy that
operates in harmony with nature, repurposing used resources,
minimizing waste, and replenishing depleted resources.
We must return to the innate wisdom of nature herself, the
ultimate regenerator and recycler of all resources.
— Christiana Figueres and
Tom Rivett-Carnac in ‘The Future We Choose’

Fig. 1.1. Dudhsagar waterfall and the railway

bridge, Goa, India

Qickit
1. How do we categorise natural
The Big
resources?
Questions @
What is the connection between
the distribution of natural
0881 CHo
resources and different aspects
of life?
3. What are the implications
of unsustainable use / over
exploitation of natural resources?
 Fig. 1.2. A microhydel plant in Fig. 1.3. An offshore oil rig extracts
Himachal Pradesh—the power of flowing petroleum from below the seabed
water converted into electricity

WHEN DOES NATURE BECOME A RESOURCE?

One of the meanings of the word ‘Nature’ is the totality of life
and non-life forms that are part of our environment but have
not been created by humans. When humans use these for their
sustenance, or create new things from them for consumption,
these elements of Nature become ‘resources’. For example, trees
arepart of the environment; they existindependently of humans.
When we cut them and convert their wood into furniture, we
see the trees as a resource.
Often these entities are not easily accessible. For example, there
may be petroleum in places deep under the ocean that we do
not have the technology to access, or the extraction cost may
| Grade 8 Part 1

be too high; or it may be culturally unacceptable like cutting

trees in sacred groves. So, for an entity to be called a resource, it
should be technologically accessible, and its exploitation should
be economically feasible and culturally acceptable. (Usually, the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

word ‘exploitation’ has a negative connotation; in the context

we use it here, it means ‘extraction, utilisation and consumption
of Natural resources’.)
The Earth has treasures, many of which have formed over
millions of years, and which humans have taken and learnt to
use. These include the most obvious ones like water, air and soil,
and also the not-so-obvious ones like coal, petroleum, precious
stones, metal ores, timber, etc.
°

35
 Fig. 1.4. Gentle ploughing causes minimal Fig. 1.5. Honey from a beehive
disturbance to the underground ecosystem
and retains soil moisture.

DON'T MISS OUT

- In many indigenous traditions of the
world, Nature is considered sacred. You
have read about this. In such traditions,
Nature is a nurturer and nourisher.
- Do youknow of practices that reflect this?
Fig. 1.6. Tulasi puja for wellbeing

@ THINK ABOUT
Take a pause. Look at yourself and the things around you. What
is the origin of each of them? At some point they all lead to
Nature; even the plastic button on your shirt.
India and the World: Land and the People

In short, we apply the term ‘natural resources’ to materials and

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

substances that occur in Nature and are valuable to humans.

CATEGORIES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In Science, we learn the usefulness of categorisation and naming
— we use some shared characteristics (or criteria) when we
categorise ideas or things; we name the categories so that we can
refer to them with just one word or a short phrase. When these
names and meanings are shared across groups of people, ithelps

36
 us discuss a set of ideas or things without needing to describe
them every time. We can communicate more effectively, too. In
earlier classes, you learnt about living and non-living things. As
soon as we use these words, you know what they mean. Thisis a
simple example of categories.
‘We do the same with natural resources.

' THINK ABOUT IT

‘What might be the different criteria we can use to categorise
natural resources?

One of the ways we could categorise natural resources is based

on the uses we put them to — essential for our life, source for
materials and sources for energy.

Resources essential for life

Life could not exist on Earth without the air we breathe, the
water we drink and the food we eat. We take these from the
atmosphere, the rivers and ponds, and through the cultivation
of soil or other living things. We cannot make the air we breathe,
the water we drink, or the soil which gives us food.

Resources for materials

Human beings create physical objects out of Nature’s gifts. We
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

make them for our utility or to create things of beauty that

enrich our lives and those of others — a piece of wood can be
transformed into a chair and also carved into a statuette. India’s
geographical diversity provides us with a wide variety of natural
resources, from wood to marble, and coal to gold.

Resources for energy

Energy is a cornerstone of modern living — electricity for our
buildings, transportation, and all types of production processes.
This energy can come from diverse natural sources: coal, water,
petroleum, natural gas, sunlight, wind, etc.
°

37
 N R i " - S 2
Fig. 1.7. River water; a renewable Fig. 1.8. We can take timber from the
resource as long as glaciers and forest, in limited quantities, for a long
forests exist time if we allow it to regenerate.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

A second way of categorising natural resources could be based on
whether they are renewable or not.
A general principle of Nature is that it functions in a restorative and
regenerative way. Restoration is the process of returning something
toitsoriginal healthy state ifithasbeen degraded or damaged. Nature
heals, renews and maintains herself over time. A cut on your skin
will normally heal; a forest recovers after a wildfire. Regeneration
goes beyond restoration. It is about Nature’s ability to create new life
and the conditions for thriving.

We plant trees in areas that may have lost them on account of human
interventions like clearing forests for housing. Planting the types
of trees that were originally growing there restores the ecosystem
— the trees provide food and shelter for birds, squirrels and other
creatures, enabling life to return.
India and the World: Land and the People
Nature works in cycles where there is no waste. Take a forest. Let’s
say a tree falls in the forest. It decomposes with the bacteria, fungi
1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

and insects feeding on it. The tree becomes part of the soil enriching
it. New trees and plants grow from seeds ... eventually some will fall
and the cycle starts again.
These are examples of Nature’s principle of restoration and
regeneration in practice.

Renewable resources
Renewable resources exhibit these characteristics over time. Most
of India has abundant sunshine. In the natural course, rivers are

38
 fed regularly by rain and melting glaciers,
forests renew themselves, soil replenishes
itself through natural processes, and so on.
Solar energy, wind energy, energy from
flowing water, timber from forests are
renewable resources as long as we are able
to manage them in a sustainable manner.
However, for them to remain renewable
there is a condition — the natural rhythm
of restoration and regeneration must not
Fig. 1.9. Offering arghyam to Sirya, be disturbed. If we harvest timber faster
the sun-god, in gratitude.
than the forest can grow trees, we will
Arghyam: eventually deplete the forest. Scientists have shown that through
offering, irresponsible human actions, many of Nature’s cycles have been
generally
of water, as
disturbed. A combination of several factors interacting — fossil
amark of fuel-driven industrialisation and the cutting down of forests
respect or for agriculture and other purposes are two of them — has led
gratitude
to rising temperatures that we are experiencing; on account of
this, the glaciers in some places in the Himalayas are melting
at a rate faster than precipitation can replace them. This has
implications on water security for the populations living in the
plains dependent on the ‘water tower’.

q DON'T MISS O
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

- Traditionally, communities had a system of regulating

(or refraining from) fishing during the spawning season
to enable the maintenance of the fish population.
However, the commercialisation of fishing resulted in
over-fishing. In the case of a type of fish called tuna,
for example, the rapid and extensive decline in their
population led to some agreements on control of fishing.
Nevertheless, this important type of fish that keeps the
ocean ecosystem in balance by consuming smaller fish,
shrimps, etc., is on a decline.
- Do you know of other traditional practices that help the
ecosystem to stay in balance?
°

39
‘We need industries to produce the
goods we consume. The process
also creates wastes that are
frequently discharged into rivers
and other water bodies. Often,
these wastes cannot decay to
become the food of some lifeform.
Instead, it leads to a disturbance
in Nature’s cycle of restoration
and regeneration, leading to a
situation where the river becomes § L
) ) Fig. 1.10. Waste from industries is often disposed
poisonous and cannot support life. without proper treatment

LET'S EXPLORE
Identify human actions in your surroundings that result in |
Nature losing her ability to restore and regenerate. What
types of interventions can be undertaken to restore Nature’s
cycle?

DON'T MISS OUT

- Ecosystem functions and ecosystem services: Nature
has some inherent ways of working. For example, trees
naturally produce oxygen. When these natural processes
benefit humans, we call them ‘ecosystem services’. We
can think of it like this: a forest naturally filters water,
prevents soil erosion, and provides habitat for animals India and the World: Land and the People

— these are ecosystem functions. When we benefit from

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

clean water, protected farmland, and pollinated crops

because of that forest, we are receiving ecosystem services
from Nature.
- Amature tree produces about 275 litres of oxygen per day
(this varies a little depending on the type of tree). A human
being needs about 350 litres of oxygen every day (this can
change based on the type of activity that an individual
engages in, their height and weight, and so on).
 ? Take up a small research study to assess the types of
renewable resources in your region; you may discuss with
your teacher the geographical area of your study and sources
to access information that you may need. What has been the
change in their status over time? Make a small report that
identifies the reasons for the change and what may be done.

Non-renewable resources
Non-renewable resources are created over long periods. They
cannot be replenished at the rate we use them. For example,
fossil fuels (coal and petroleum), and minerals and metals like
iron, copper and gold, are non-renewable resources. India has
significant quantities of coal reserves. We mine coal to meet
our growing need for energy, but it has been estimated that the
coalreserves in India may last another 50 years; the demand for
electricity has been increasing as the population expands and
development work accelerates. Till more sustainable options
become available widely, we need to use the coal we have
judiciously.

LET'S EXPLORE
What are the non-renewable resources that you use daily,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

directly or indirectly? What are the possible renewable

substitutes? What are some of the steps we can take to
transition to renewables?

DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
Naturalresources are not evenly distributed across our planet or
even within countries. This uneven distribution shapes human
settlements, trade patterns, international relations, and conflicts
too. Many wars have been fought, and continue to be fought, to
gain control over natural resources.
 [Link]
25°N

Katni
* Bokaro o Ranis
Amarkantak , Korba
.0 e Guay .Mayur /
i
Bilaspur
Ankleshwar a
Chandrapur Durg
=
20°N

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Koraput
ey
£Bailadila y -
15°N

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u Tumkur LEGEND
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& N Aoil
It M Iron Qre
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>, 3
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N 0L
1
70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Fig. 1.11. Distribution of important minerals

Observe the map in Fig.1.11. Notice the uneven distribution of

important minerals. What types of resources are available in India and the World: Land and the People
your region? How are they distributed? 1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

Industries located near natural resources create employment

opportunities for the local people. Townships grow around them
and expand economic opportunities for others, too. More modern
facilities that improve the quality of life become accessible.
However, these benefits are often accompanied by costs, in
the short term as well as in the long term. We have examples
from across the world of people living in resource-rich areas
who have been displaced from their homes to facilitate such

42
 developments. In some cases
their sacred places are under
threat, leading to conflicts.
National and international trade
depend on the geographical
location of natural resources.
Combined with human
knowledge and skills, these can
create unique products like the
s Wootz steel. As we know, trade
Fig. 1.12. Shared waters of the fuelled the development of large
Brahmaputra river empires in India.

LET'S EXPLORE
Select any two natural resources. Gather information
about their availability across different parts of India.
Mark them on a map. What do you observe about their
distribution? What are the types of economic activities
connected with them?
- Discuss the implications of extracting the natural
resources in those parts for current and future gene-
rations. Suggest ways in which we can use Nature’s gifts
in responsible ways.
| Grade 8 Part 1

Nature does not pay attention to political boundaries. This

leads to tensions regarding the sharing of natural resources
across states as well as countries. One example is the sharing of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

Kaveri River water among Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and

Puducherry; negotiations and deft management were required
to maintain peace and fair sharing. Of course, reaching such
| agreements between neighbouring countries is not easy.

Find out about such a conflict in the international context.

Discuss your findings in the class.
e
 - T

Fig. 1.13. Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu built on the Kaveri river

Having abundant natural resources does not guarantee

economic prosperity. Some regions rich in natural resources
can experience slower economic growth and development — a
phenomenon economists call the ‘natural resource curse’ or
the ‘paradox of plenty’. Put very simply, this means that often
having plenty of natural resources does not automatically
mean that a country is rich. Frequently, economies are unable
to develop industries that convert the resources into products
of higher value; the chapter ‘Factors of Production’ in the latter
part of this book will give you an understanding of this.
India has generally avoided this curse by investing in the
development of such industries to meet our growing needs.

India and the World: Land and the People

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

What do you think are the different inputs required to I

enable the use of the natural resources available in different
geographical areas? ‘

However, the challenge of balancing resource extraction with

sustainability remains. Understanding and managing natural
resources is a valuable starting point, but human knowledge,
good governance, and strategic planning determine whether
they become lasting benefits or temporary windfalls.

44
 RESPONSIBLE AND WISE USE OF NATURAL
RESOURCES: STEWARDSHIP
Sustaining life on Earth requires that we respect Nature and
use natural resources in a way that enables the restoration and
regeneration of renewable resources, and the responsible and
judicious use of non-renewable ones.
Biodiversity
loss : Scientists studying these aspects have warned that the
The decline
inthe irresponsible treatment of natural resources has led to pollution,
variety of biodiversity loss and climate change, which has been taking place
life on Earth
at an increased pace in recent years.

Restoration and regeneration of

renewable resources
Here are two examples of how we are pushing the use of natural
resources beyond their capacity to regenerate.
Many farmers in our country extract groundwater for irrigation
purposes. In most states, the extraction rate is greater than the
rate at which the watertableis replenished. Over time, this deficit
builds up, leading to higher cost of extraction of groundwater and
eventually to its unavailability. It has been predicted that many
of our growing cities will run out of groundwater soon. Initiatives
to raise groundwater levels have been launched to remedy this.
Traditional practices of water harvesting, rejuvenation of ponds
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

and tanks, cutting down on wasteful consumption of water,

processing and reusing water are
some of the strategies attempted.
Similarly, the improper use of
chemical fertilisers and pesticides
has led to soil degradation. Tradi-
tional farming practices considered
soil to be part of Mother Earth.
Practices like the use of cow dung and
other natural fertilisers, mulching,
multi-cropping, and so on, enabled
Fig. 1.14. Crop failure on account of holistic soil management. We must
injudicious use of chemical fertilisers learn from these practices and apply
e

45
them in our current situation to prevent further degradation.
We need to replenish and rejuvenate our soil.

Overexploitation of groundwater:
a caselet from Punjab
A crisis has unfolded in the fertile plains of Punjab where
groundwater resources have been severely depleted. Punjab was
home to the Green Revolution that fed a large proportion of our
population, and contributed to India becoming self-sufficient
in food. Today the same state faces issues of sustainability —
Nature has been exploited beyond regeneration, at least in the
short term. However, this concern is not particular to Punjab; it
affects many other states.
In the 1960s, farmers shifted to high-yielding varieties of wheat
and paddy. Theserequired more water than the traditional seeds,
and farmers began to extract groundwater to meet this need. In
addition, the supply of free power led to the over-pumping of
groundwater (a situation still prevalent in much of India today).
Modern farming techniques also required the use of chemical
pesticides and fertilisers.
The combined effect of these factorsis that the groundwater level
in a large part of Punjab (see fig. 1.17) has become inaccessible
till depths of about 30 metres; and the chemicals from the
pesticides and fertilisers have dissolved in the groundwater
causing health hazards.

India and the World: Land and the People

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

Fig. 1.15. Extraction of groundwater Fig. 1.16. Wet paddy fields

46
 Almost 80% of the area of Punjab has been classified as ‘over-
exploited’; in other words, we have drawn water at a rate
much greater than at which restoration and rejuvenation of
groundwater is possible.
We can see that food security was ensured for the short term,
but the long-term consequences will take time and effort to heal.
74 0000" E 75°0000" £ 76°0000" E 77°0000" €
1 1 I
Depth to Water Level Map of Punjab State & Chandigarh (U.T.)
(June 2022)

1] 25 30
z Kilometers ©
8 8
8l s
& z

z E
3 S

= z
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

z w
g27 Chandigarh
g
's
H z

INDEX
Depth to Water Level (m bgl)
N 02 1020
N 2-5 W 20-40
B 5-10 mm >40
T T T T
74° 000" E 75° 0000" E 76°0000" E 77° 0000"E
Fig 1.17. Depth to water level map of Punjab and Chandigarh, June 2022
e

(m bgl = metres below ground level)

47
 LS :
Fig. 1.18. Jaisalmer fort, Rajasthan. A mud structure built in the
12% century and refurbished later using sandstone.

We cannot imagine life without cement. Our houses, schools

and hospitals and other buildings, bridges, roads and airports,
all require cement. The production of cement has been listed as
one of the most polluting industries. The process of production
releases fine dust that enters our lungs and those of animals
damagingthem, settles onleaves of plants decreasing theiryields, |
and causes soil and water pollution too. The Central Pollution
Control Board has created guidelines for cement factories to
ensure that the pollution is minimised or eliminated.
Inaddition, thereisamovetowardscreating alternative materials
that reduce pollution. These include the use of traditional
materials like stone and mud, new plant-based materials and
recycled materials from waste plastic.

India and the World: Land and the People

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

Fig. 1.19. A community building in Auroville constructed by Auroville Earth Institute

(which holds the UNESCO Chair for Earthen Architecture). This modern building is
made of mud using special techniques.

48
 Traditional materials and methods are being combined with
modern technological advances to create new materials that
are sustainable — the process of production is less polluting,
provides local employment, and is designed keeping in mind the
climate of the place.

Vrikshayurveda is an ancient Indian botanical science that

focuses on the study and care of plants and trees. The term
comes from Sanskrit, with vriksha meaning tree and ayurveda
meaning the science of life or health. This traditional knowledge
system dates back several millennia and was formalised in texts
such as Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda around the 10" century CE.
It has elaborate recommendations on the specific plants to be
grown on different soil types, and provides intricate methods
for seed collection, preservation, and pre-planting treatments.
Irrigation techniques are elaborately described, with
recommendations varying according to plant species, growth
stage, and seasonal conditions. It specifies pest management
strategies through natural repellents and plants that should be
grown together. This form of sustainable agriculture promotes
practices like crop rotation and mixed cropping to maintain soil
health. Vrikshayurveda also offers advice on proper methods of
ploughing soil so as to retain soil moisture as well as facilitate
the growth of living organisms in the soil like fungi, bacteria and
earthworms.
| Grade 8 Part 1

A caselet from Sikkim

Pema’s family farm in Sikkim faced
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

declining yields and mounting

debts from expensive chemical
inputs. When the state government
announced a policy to promote
organic farming throughout the state,
Pema’s family decided to try. It was
not an easy transition — initially
the yields dropped as the soil was
Fig. 1.20. Organic farming in Sikkim recovering fromyears of chemical use.
e

49
The family switched to compost, prepared natural pest
repellents using neem and garlic, and started growing multiple
crops across the year. After about five years, Pema’s farm
was thriving. She was able to sell her cardamom, ginger, and
traditional vegetables at premium [Link] 2016, Sikkim became
a 100 per cent organic state with all of its farmland certified
organic. The effects were transformational — local biodiversity
flourished, with beneficial insects and birds returning; tourism
increased as visitors came to see the organic farming model, and
farmers’ incomes grew by 20 per cent on average. Today, Sikkim
serves as a global model, demonstrating that an entire region
can successfully transition to sustainable agricultural practices
while improving both ecological and economic outcomes.

Responsible and judicious use of resources

In the case of non-renewables we need to ensure that we use the
resources so that they can last long enough for humanity to find
more sustainable alternatives. For example, we need to make
the switch to renewable sources of energy for as many purposes
as we can.

India and the World: Land and the People

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

Mg i, ) Vo g ,
Fig. 1.21. Satellite image of one of the largest solar parks in the
world located in Rajasthan. It can generate enough electricity
to power about 15% of the current needs of Rajasthan.

50
 L 2 8
Fig. 1.22. Solar farm near Raichur; Karnataka

The International Solar Alliance — India’s leadership in

renewable energy
India and France launched the International Alliance for Solar
Energy (IASE) in 2015 — a coalition of sunshine-rich countries
committed to harnessing solar power. The alliance focuses on
countries blessed with abundant sunlight throughout the year.
India has helped channel billions of dollars into solar projects
across developing nations, sharing technical expertise and
creating affordable financing options. The Bhadla Solar Park
is a symbol of India’s solar ambitions, demonstrating how
a country can transition from traditional energy sources to
renewable alternatives. For Indians, this alliance represents
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

both environmental responsibility and economic opportunity.

Even as we deal with these issues we must be mindful that the

distribution and access to resources, including basic ones like
water and clean air, is often unfair to some sections of society. In
cities, many areas do not receive adequate and regular supply of
drinking water. Air pollution caused by industries and excessive
use of fossil fuels, affects those who are unable to protect
themselves from these hazards.
We must remember our relationship with Nature and act as
stewards of natural resources toward restoration, regeneration,
and sustainability. The Bhagavad Gita refers to lokasangraha,
e

51
the idea that everyone must transcend personal desires and act
for the wellbeing of all. Has the time come for us to consider this
seriously?

Before we move on ...

> ‘Natural resources’ are materials and substances that
occur in Nature and are valuable to humans.
> There are different ways of categorising resources;
renewable and non-renewable are useful categories.
The ‘resource curse’ can be overcome through investments
in the development of technology and skills.
We need to become vigilant about the rate at which we use
renewables so as not to overexploit them; judicious and
wise use of non-renewables will enable stretching their
use for a longer period of time.

Questions and activities

il, What can make what is today a renewable resource non-
renewable tomorrow? Describe some actions that can
prevent this from happening.

Name five ecosystem functions that serve humans.

What are renewable resources? How are they different

from non-renewable ones? What can people do to ensure
that renewable resources continue to be available for our India and the World: Land and the People

use and that of future generations? Give two examples.

1 - Natural Resources and Their Use

Identify cultural practices in your home and neighbourhood

that point to mindfulness in the use of natural resources.

What are some considerations to keep in mind in the

production of goods for our current use?

52
 A NOTE ON HISTORY’S DARKER PERIODS
History sometimes seems to be full of wars and destruction; it is true that
itrarely focuses on periods when the society is, on the whole, harmonious
and peaceful. But while every country may have had such peaceful eras
and some benevolent rulers, history seems peopled by incompetent,
corrupt or cruel rulers. We find them especially in what we may call
the darker chapters or periods of history, when war, abuse, fanaticism,
bloodshed, etc., suddenly dominate the landscape and inflict suffering
and misery on the whole society or country.
The world over, historians have faced this dilemma: how much attention
should we draw to such darker periods? Should we omit them entirely?
Should we mention them in passing, with most atrocious details left out?
Or should we face them and analyse them so as to understand what made
such developments possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence
in future? The third option is, in our opinion, the best, if it can be done
with enough detachment and sensitivity; it is important to know our
past, pleasant or unpleasant, since the past continues to live with us and
shapes the present.
What do we mean by ‘detachment and sensitivity’? Simply that it is
important to study those darker developments dispassionately, without
blaming anyone living today for them. For instance, you will learn later
that World War II (1939-1945) resulted in millions of deaths worldwide;
Germany then followed a cruel ideology (known as ‘Nazism’) which
believed in the extermination of ‘inferior races’ and resulted in the
inhuman treatment of some ethnic groups and a brutal rule of occupied
nations. Yet it would be clearly unacceptable to blame today’s Germans
for what happened over eight decades ago. Rather, what matters is to
understand what made the Nazi ideology possible, so that similar
ideologies today or tomorrow may be defeated.
The same principle applies to the ‘Tapestry of the Past’ chapters in this
textbook, which include passages on warfare and instances of cruelty or
brutality. While those happenings cannot be erased or denied, it would
be wrong to hold anyone today responsible for them. Understanding
the historical origin of cruel violence, abusive misrule or misplaced
ambitions of power is the best way to heal the past and build a future
where, hopefully, they will have no place.

53
Reshaping India’s

CHAPTER
Political Map

Fig. 2.1. An aerial view of the Qutub Minar complex, Delhi

o 1. How did foreign invasions and

The Bl , Joreig
Questi ons @ the ?‘lse of Tlf?W dynastles‘reshape
India’s political boundaries
during this period?
2. How did Indian society respond
to invasions? How did India’s
economy adapt during times of
political instability?
3. What impact did this period have
on the lives of the people?
 1336: Establishment of VERB Nl eitin
the Vijayanagara Empire Portuguese in India

1206: Establishment of 1398: Timur

the Delhi Sultanate attacks Delhi

1347:
Establishment of the
Bahmani Sultanate

1326: Re-establishment
of the Mewar Kingdom

The period in this chapter and the next is often called the latter part
of the ‘medieval period’ of Indian history. The term ‘medieval’ (i.e.,
‘between two ages’) was originally applied to European history,
roughly from the fall of the Roman Empire (5% century CE) to the
Renaissance (Europe’s cultural revival in the 14"™-16" centuries,
nurtured by the rediscovery of Greek and Roman art and literature).
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

It was once thought to mark a dark age before the development of

modern science; but, of course, Europe’s and India’s histories are very
different, so applying the same term ‘medieval’ to both is not ideal,
and historians do not always agree on which period it covers in India.
‘We will sometimes have to use the term ‘medieval’ but for us it simply
means the period from the 11% to the 17* centuries.
In ‘Tapestry of the Past’ chapters, we have tried to keep as few dates
as possible — only those that mark important reference points. You
will find it helpful to keep revisiting the timelines in those chapters.
Revisit the maps too, as they will help you visualise the geography
that was traversed by armies, common people, traders, scholars or
spiritual figures.

55
 1556: Second Battle
of Panipat; Akbar's
decisive victory
1576: Battle of 1799: Establishment
IR (Yl R 1699: Formation of of the Sikh Empire
Pratap forced to retreat the Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Singh

1565: Battle of
Talikota, destruction 1754: Beginning
of Vijayanagara city of Maratha
1671: Battle of control of Delhi
Saraighat; the Ahoms
1526: First Battle defeat the Mughals
of Panipat; Babur's
victory establishes the
Mughal Empire

Spellings, spellings ...

Turkic:
Because of difficulties in transcribing the Persian script in Refers to
peoples,
the Roman script, you will find some alternative spellings in
languages,
parentheses here and there. For instance, ‘Khalji’ or ‘Khilji’ and cultures
arethe same. Similarly, we use here the now standard spelling historically
associated
of ‘Mughal’ spelling, but alternatives such as ‘Mughul’ or with a vast
‘Moghul’ are still sometimes used. region
stretching
A new era in India’s journey began in the early 11" century. across
Central Asia,
Invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains reshaped all the wayto
Turkey and
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

India’s political map. No doubt, India had seen much warfare in

Siberia.
earlier periods, but the spate of invasions by people from outside
the Indian subcontinent during this period was unprecedented.
Many of these invaders were Central Asian — Turkic or Afghan.
Tapestry of the Past

They were drawn to India not only for her reputed riches and
for territorial ambitions, but also often to spread, by force of
violence if necessary, their own versions of their religion.
Let us now explore in this chapter the ever-changing landscape
of India from the 13 century onward.

56
 shawar 2
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

LEGEND
Eastern Ganga Territory
under Narasimhadeva (1264)
[ Hoysala Territories (1300)
[II1] Extent of Tughlaq Dynasty (1335)
[ Extent of Lodi Dynasty (1479)
@ Important cities

70°E 80°E 90°E

Fig. 2.3. A comparison of the territories under the Tughlaqs and the Lodis
(13" to 15" centuries), and regional powers in the south and east.

57
 ¥
<8
e.

"

Fig. 2.4. The Qutub Minar. Fig. 2.5. A section of the Quwwat-ul-Islam (‘Might of Islam’) mosque
in Delhi’s Qutub Minar complex; its construction began in Qutub-ud-din Aibak’s time (early
13" century) and was completed by later sultans. An inscription states that materials from 27
destroyed Hindu and Jain temples were used in the construction, some of which can be seen here.

RISE AND FALL OF THE DELHI SULTANATE

We begin our journey here with the Delhi Sultanate, formed Sultanate:
after the defeat in 1192 of King Prithviraj Chauhan, who ruled Aterritory
ruled by
over parts of northwestern India. This Sultanate saw the rule a’Sultan’
of five successive foreign dynasties of Turkic-Afghan origin — — a title
that some
the Mamluks (or ‘Slave dynasty’), the Khiljis (or Khaljis), the Muslim
Tughlags, the Sayyids, and the Lodis (or Lodhis). While certain rulers
adopted.
parts of northern India came under the control of the Delhi
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Sultanate, neighbouring kingdoms, such as the Eastern Gangas

in the east and the Hoysalas in the south resisted its advance
(Fig. 2.3) and also emerged as thriving centres of art, culture,
Tapestry of the Past

and administration. The city of Delhi also assumed a bigger role

in the political landscape of northern India.
The Sultanate period was marked by political instability
combined with efforts at territorial expansion. This resulted in
military campaigns thatraided villages and cities, and plundered

58
 Ala-ud-din Ag - 10.7 gms and destroyed temples and
Khilji seats oflearning. Successions
(the appointments of new
sultans) were often violent:
almost two sultans out of
three seized power by
eliminating their pre-
Fig. 2.6. A coin minted by Ala-ud-din Khilji, which decessor, so that a sultan’s
bears the inscription ‘Sikander Sani’ or ‘the average reign was hardly
second Alexander’ in Persian.
more than nine years!
LET'S EXPLORE
Looking at Fig. 2.6, why do you think Ala-ud-din Khilji called
himself ‘the second Alexander’?

At the turn of the 14" century, Ala-ud-din Khilji conducted

military campaigns over large areas of north and central India,
sacking and plundering many cities; at the same time, he also
repelled several invasions by Mongol forces, who were trying to
add India to the vast Mongol Empire (it covered most of Asia at
the time).
His slave-general Malik Kafur expanded the Sultanate’s reach
southward, conquering several kingdoms on the way; their
plundered wealth helped finance the Sultanate’s enormous
military apparatus. He also attacked a number of Hindu centres
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

such as Srirangam, Madurai, Chidambaram, and possibly

Rameswaram.

LET US EXPLORE
What kind of resources do you think were needed to maintain
an army and wage war in those days? Discuss in groups the
various types of expenditure involved, from weapons or food
for soldiers to animals used in warfare, road construction, etc.

A few decades later, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (or ‘Tughluq’)

ruled Delhi and expanded the Delhi Sultanate’s territories
further. For the first time since the Mauryan Empire, most of

59
the Subcontinent was now
under one ruler. Although
this dominance was
significant, it proved to be
short-lived. =~ Muhammad
bin Tughlaq had ambitious
schemes, but they were
often poorly executed. One
such was moving his capital
from Delhi to Daulatabad
(then called ‘Devagiri,
near present-day Sambhaji
Nagar); perhaps he thought
its more central location
would offer better control
of the empire. The people
were forced to travel over
1,000 km, and a few years
later, as his plan misfired,
he shifted the capital back
to Delhi; both transfers
resulted in great loss of
life according to some
sources. Another instance
was the introduction of
Fig. 2.7. A 19"-century painting depicting
‘token currency’, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq in his court
cheap copper coins were
declared to be tokens and have the value of silver or gold coins
— although this was a progressive idea (most of our currency
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

today is actually ‘token’), at the time this created confusion in

the trade and encouraged people to counterfeit copper coins, all
of which caused the economy to decline.
Tapestry of the Past

The sultans and their court elite lived in luxurious palaces,

enjoying elaborate clothing, jewelled ornaments and fine food.
Thiswealth waslargely derived from plunder from their military
campaigns, taxes levied on common people and conquered
regions, and engagement in slave trade (as enslaved people

60
 Iconoclasm: provided free labour or were sent away to distant Central Asia
The rejection to be sold). But plunder, in turn, affected trade networks and
or destruction
of icons or agricultural production. This period also witnessed numerous
religious images attacks on sacred or revered images in Buddhist, Jain and Hindu
considered
idolatrous. temples; such destruction was motivated not just by plunder but
also by iconoclasm.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Why do we use the term ‘image’ rather than common terms
like ‘idol’ or ‘icon’? The latter two terms are considered
pejorative in the context of Judaism, Christianity and Islam,
whose orthodox sects condemn ‘idolatry’ or the worship of
‘idols’ or ‘icons’.
India’s classical texts used words like murti, vigraha, pratima,
ripa, etc., to designate images, often statues, used for worship
in temples or homes. In English, ‘image’ is a neutral term.

Infidel:
Some of the sultans also imposed the jizya, a tax on non-
Literally,
someone Muslim subjects to grant them protection and exemption
who does from military service. In practice, depending on the ruler, this
not share
the faith discriminatory tax would be a source of economic burden and
(of a given public humiliation, and formed a financial and social incentive
religion). For
medieval
for subjects to convert to Islam. At the end of the 14" century,
Christianity, Timur, a brutal Turkic-Mongol conqueror from central Asia,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

infidels were invaded northwest India and launched a devastating attack

Muslims or
Pagans; for on Delhi, then a thriving city. As he wrote in his memoirs, his
medieval two-fold objective was to wage “war with the infidels and to
Islam,
infidels were gain something by plundering the wealth of the infidels.”
Christians Large numbers were killed or enslaved, and the city was left
or, in the
in ruins. Timur soon withdrew from India with huge plunder,
context
of India, leaving chaos behind. In the aftermath, the Lodis emerged and
Hindus, established the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. By then,
Buddhists or
Jains. however, its territory had shrunk considerably in the face of
increasing resistance from other states and kingdoms from
within India (see Fig. 2.3).

61
 Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
Throughout its rule, the Delhi
Sultanate faced resistance
from many quarters. While
many kingdoms fell into its
net, it failed to subdue the
Eastern Ganga kingdom (see
Fig. 2.3) of Kalinga, which
included present-day Odisha
and parts of Bengal and
Andhra Pradesh. One of its
rulers in the mid-13® century,
Narasimhadeva I (also spelt
Narasingha Deva I), was noted
for the military strength and
cultural brilliance he brought
to the kingdom. Apart from
repelling multiple inroads of
the Sultanate, he defeated the
Delhi Sultanate’s governor of
Bengal. Partlytocommemorate
these victories, he built the
famed Strya temple at Konark Fig. 2.8. A statue depicting Narasimhadeva I seated
(present-day Odisha). on his throne, surrounded by attendants and
musicians.

' THINK ABOUT IT

During the time of the Tughlags, the Musunuri Nayakas,
Telugu chieftains, rallied over 75 more chieftains of the region,
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

formed a confederacy that defeated smaller provinces, formed

a confederacy that defeated the Delhi Sultanate forces, and
expelled Muhammad bin Tughlagq’s army from Warangal
Tapestry of the Past

(present-day Telangana) around 1330-1336. Do you think it

would have been an easy task to bring together 75 leaders in
those days?

62
 We mentioned earlier Ala-
ud-din’s push to the South,
attracted by its renowned
wealth. At the time, the
Hoysalas ruled parts of
southern India (mostly
present-day Karnataka,
see Fig. 2.3) and fended off
several attacks from the
Delhi Sultanate, remaining
the only independent
kingdom in the south.
However, weakened by
these attacks and internal
conflicts, the Hoysala
kingdom declined and,
in the mid-14™ century,
was absorbed into the
Fig. 2.9 The Hoysalas built magnificent temples, for Vijayanagara Empire
instance those of Belur (this picture) and Halebidu.
further south (see below).

ON'T MISS O
The sculpture in Fig. 2.9 narrates the story behind the
Hoysalas’ emblem. Kannada folklore recounts the story of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Sala, a young man who fought a lion to save his guru, giving
the dynasty its name — ‘Hoy (strike)! Sala’.

The Delhi Sultanate also faced rebellions from the emergence

of several independent regional Sultanates. The Bahmani
Sultanate, for instance, rose in the mid-14" century and
controlled much of the Deccan for a while. Powerful Sultanates
Rana: also emerged in Gujarat, Bengal and other regions, leading to
Atitle a complex interplay of alliances — and frequent wars. Parts
often |
used for
of Rajasthan also remained beyond the reach of the Delhi
Rajput Sultanate; in the 15 century, it faced stiff resistance from Rana
kings Kumbha, the ruler of the Mewar kingdom, who also successfully
repelled invasions from these later sultanates.

63
 Fig. 2.10. A view of the Kumbhalgarh Fort in the Aravalli hills

(o) MISS O [
Kumbhalgarh Fort (Fig. 2.10) was built by Rana Kumbha in the
15t century in the Aravalli hills and served as a stronghold for
therulers of Mewar, a prominent Rajput kingdom (in the central
and southern parts of today’s Rajasthan). Surrounded by forests
and steep slopes, it is famous for its massive 36-kilometre-long
wall, one of the longest continuous walls in the world.

LET'S EXPLORE
Why do you think such locations were chosen for many of 1
the medieval forts? Discuss pros and cons. (Hint: think of H
issues of strategy, security, vulnerability, etc.)
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

While the Delhi Sultanate grew politically more unstable, a
new centre of power emerged in the south. In the 14® century,
Tapestry of the Past

two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who had initially served as

governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, eventually rejected
Delhi’s authority, and established an independent kingdom that
became a significant force in southern India and grew into the
Vijayanagara Empire.

64
 Fig. 2.11. A section of the ruins of Vijayanagara city (present-day Hampi).
The large building is the Virupaksha temple.

DON'T MISS OUT

According to popular folklore, Harihara and Bukka witnessed
a remarkable sight at Hampi (in present-day Karnataka) — a
hare turning around and chasing a pack of hounds, symbolising
unexpected strength and courage. When they recounted this
incident to their guru, Vidyaranya, he interpreted it as a symbol
of resilience and bravery, and advised them to establish their
capital at that very spot.

To the north of the Vijayanagara Empire (see Fig. 2.12), the Bahmani
Sultanate was a major rival; it eventually fragmented into five
independent states called the ‘Deccan Sultanates’ — Bijapur,
Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar — each ruled by former
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

governors or tarafdars who declared autonomy. The Vijayanagara

rulers battled with the first two, as well as with the Gajapati rulers
of Odisha in the east.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Have you noticed the term pati in titles like ‘Gajapati’? Pati
means ‘lord’ or ‘master’ and was commonly used by many
ruling dynasties of this period to signify power and stature. The
Vijayanagarakingswere called ‘Narapati’,theBahmaniSultanate
rulers ‘Ashwapati’, and the Maratha rulers ‘Chhatrapati’ — each
title reflecting different aspects of kingship and power. Can you
guess what these three terms might mean?

65
 NoST
25°N

Berar
(Achalpur)

N.0Z
20°N

Ahmednagar

Bidar
Bijapur Golconda
(Vijayapura)

Vijayanagara

NoSL
15°N

(Hampi)

calicut
(Kozhikode)
LEGEND
[[11) Gajapati Kingdom (1458)
N-OL
10°N

[ Bahmani Sultanate (1477)

2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

ijayanagara Empire (1509)

Vijayanagara Empire under
Krishnadevaraya (1529)
@ Important cities
Tapestry of the Past

75°E 80°E 85°E

Fig. 2.12. Kingdoms in the Deccan and the Vijayanagara Empire

66
 Krishnadevaraya
In the 16™ century, the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak
under its celebrated ruler, Krishnadevaraya, who expanded
and secured the empire’s dominance over the Deccan. Under
his rule, the empire achieved both military power and cultural
renaissance. He patronised poets and scholars in Sanskrit,
Telugu and Kannada; he himself composed an epic poem in
Telugu, Amuktamalyada, on the story of the Tamil poet-saint
Andal; one section of the work is a Rajaniti (‘royal policy’) where
he expounded his ideas of good governance. Krishnadevaraya
provided grants to many temples, including Tirupati in Andhra
Pradesh and the Vitthala temple in his own capital Vijayanagara,
which displayed many grand temples, palaces and other
buildings.

o
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 2.13. The mahamandapa (great hall) of the Vitthala temple; note the
grandeur and intricacy of the architecture, in particular the finely sculpted
monolithic pillars; when struck, their smaller columns give out different
musical notes — hence their name ‘musical pillars’!

67
 DON'T MISS OUT
Foreign travellers visited Vijayanagara for trade. Portuguese
travellers, in particular, were very well treated, as they came to
sell horses and the king did not want them to go and sell those
precious horses to enemy kingdoms!
One of them, Domingo Paes, left a long and detailed record of his
stay in the Vijayanagara capital. An excerpt: “This city ... seemed
to me as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight; there
are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses,
and many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and
in places there are lakes... The people in this city are countless
in number... This is the best provided city in the world... The
streets and markets are full of laden oxen ... you could find in
great abundance everything that you wanted.”

2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

& g % o T o ] TEE s o

e s ol . {4 . A
4\Hu‘;"/‘{ Vi
HYELL 1":«3’7/’,'.’ Fal Tl
Fig. 2.14. A panel from the Vitthala temple
Tapestry of the Past

LET'S EXPLORE
In Fig. 2.14, what elements do you observe? What do they tell ‘@
you about life then? (Hint: observe the weapons, the animals, &
the activities.) ‘
 After winning many wars against his neighbours,
Krishnadevaraya died of illness in 1529. In 1565, the Deccan
Sultanates formed a coalition and defeated the Vijayanagara
forces led by Ramaraya, Krishnadevaraya’s son-in-law, at the
Battle of Talikota. The city was sacked over several months;
houses, shops, buildings, palaces and most of its temples were
destroyed, and much of its civilian population massacred; it was
left in ruins. After this, the empire got fragmented into smaller
regions ruled by Nayakas, who were former military governors;
the empire came to an end in the mid-17" century.

THE MUGHALS
While the Delhi Sultanate
weakened, Babur, a Turkic-
Mongol ruler and military
strategist who, having been
thrown out of Samarkand
(modern-day Uzbekistan),
turned his sights to India. A
descendant of Timur, Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodi at
Panipat in 1526, which will
later be called the ‘First
Battle of Panipat’; it relied
heavily on gunpowder, field
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

artillery, and matchlock

guns, which had recently
been introduced in warfare
in India. That defeat put
a final end to the Delhi
Sultanate and laid the
foundation of the Mughal
Empire, as Babur assumed
control of the Delhi throne.
Fig. 2.15. The battle of Panipat
as depicted in a copy of the
Baburnama. Note the use of
cannons.

69
 Babur and India
Babur left a candid autobiography of great historical value, Baburnama
(‘Babur’s Memoirs’). In it, he comes out as cultured and intellectually
curious, with a keen appreciation for architecture, poetry, animals (birds
in particular, many of which he lists in some detail) and flora (fruit trees
especially). But he was also a brutal and ruthless conqueror, slaughtering
entire populations of cities, enslaving women and children, and taking
pride in erecting ‘towers of skulls’ made from the slaughtered people of
plundered cities.
Babur was nostalgic about Central Asia and found India to be a ‘country
of few charms’; at the same time, he acknowledged, “Hindustan is a large
country and has masses of gold and silver. ... Through the rainy season,
the air isremarkably fine, not to be surpassed for healthiness and charm.
... There are countless artisans and workmen of every sort in Hindustan.”
Perhaps for the last reasons, especially India’s wealth, he decided to stay
and build his empire in India rather than return to Central Asia.

THINK ABOUT IT
What strikes you in Babur’s impressions of India? Discuss in
groups.

After Babur’s death in 1530, his son Humayun struggled to hold

the empire together. Taking advantage of this, Sher Shah Suri, a
powerful Afghan leader, established the Sur Empire over large
parts of north India and introduced many lasting reforms; the
empire was short-lived, however, as Humayun soon reconquered
the lost ground.
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Before this happened, Himu (or Hemu), a skilled military

commander and chief minister (‘wazir’) under one of the last
Suri rulers, captured Delhi and ruled it briefly under the royal
Tapestry of the Past

name of Hemchandra Vikramaditya. Though enjoying some

military successes, he was injured on the battlefield (the Second
Battle of Panipat) when confronted by Babur’s grandson, Akbar.
Captured, Himu was brought to Akbar, who had him beheaded.
Akbar soon reclaimed Delhi for the Mughals.

70
 Akbar
Declared emperor at the age of 13 upon his father Humayun’s
accidental death, Akbar set out to bring the entire Subcontinent
under Mughal control; his reign was a blend of brutality and
tolerance, shaped by ambition and strategy.
In early conquests, following many of his predecessors’
examples, he showed no mercy at the fort Chittor (or Chittorgarh,
in Rajasthan), which he besieged for more than five months in
the face of determined resistance from the Rajput soldiers. They
inflicted heavy losses on the Mughal army, but, the fort finally
breached, died fighting in large numbers, while hundreds of
women committed jauhar (see box). Akbar ordered the massacre
of some 30,000 civilians, and the surviving women and children
were enslaved. Akbar was 25 at the time, and he sent a message
of victory which read, “We have succeeded in occupying a
number of forts and towns belonging to the infidels and have
established Islam there. With the help of our bloodthirsty sword,
we have erased the signs of infidelity from their minds and have
destroyed temples in those places and also all over Hindustan.”
Akbar followed his predecessors
What is jauhar? in this thought of his:
“A monarch should be ever
When invading Turkic or Mughal
intent on conquest, otherwise
armies conquered a territory, they
his enemies rise in arms against
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

often took the women as slaves or

him.” As his empire grew (Fig.
abused them. There are historical
2.16), he increasingly used
examples of Rajput women
political strategies to stabilise it;
jumping into mass fires to avoid
he entered into marriage alliances
being captured and enslaved; this
with princesses of neighbouring
jauhar was considered a heroic
kingdoms, welcomed Rajput
act of final resistance and a means
and regional leaders into his
of preserving one’s honour. Thus,
court, abolished the jizya, and
when Akbar finally broke into the
promoted the doctrine of sulh-i-
Chittorgarh Fort, hundreds of Rajput
kul — literally, ‘peace with all’ or
women, led by their queens and
tolerance of all faiths. Through
noblewomen, committed jauhar.
interfaith dialogues, appointment

71
 - =
TRIBES m
30°N

BAY OF
BENGAL

LEGEND
Mughal Empire under
| *N hs
Akbar (1605)
Kanchipuram
[IT1) Mughal expansion under
Aurangzeb (1700)
[ Raiput Territories (1751)
10°N

[I7] Ahom Kingdom (1826)

[ sikh Empire (1839)
@ Important cities
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Fig. 2.16. The Mughals and the rise of regional powers at different periods.
Tapestry of the Past

of Hindu officials in high positions and other bold reforms, Akbar

expanded and stabilised his empire, even gaining the support
of many Rajput rulers. His court historian and biographer
Abul Fazl recorded him as stating, “Formerly I persecuted
men into conformity with my faith and deemed it Islam.

72
 As I grew in knowledge,
I was overwhelmed with
[Link]
myself, it was unmeet [i.e.,
inappropriate] to force
others to become such.
What constancy is to be
expected from proselytes
[i.e., converted people] on
compulsion?”
His long reign lasted
almost 50 years (1556 to
his death in 1605); while
its middle period was
relatively peaceful, the
final 15 years involved
fresh military campaigns
in Kashmir, Sindh, the
Deccan, and Afghanistan.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 2.17. Painting showing

Akbar in his court receiving
scholars, including two
Jesuits (dressed in black).

@ THINK ABOUT IT
Why do you think Akbar employed different strategies to
expand his empire, while the earlier rulers of Delhi relied
mostly on military might?

73
 LET'S EXPLORE
Compare the maps in Figs. 2.3,2.12 and 2.16. What differences
do you notice? What is the ‘reshaping’ that has occurred?

Fig. 2.18. The five-storied ‘Panch Mahal’ at Fatehpur Sikri, a city built by
Akbar near present-day Agra

Despite being illiterate, Akbar became keen to explore Persian

and Indian texts, and showed great interest in classical Indian
thought and often invited scholars to his court (Fig. 2.17). He
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

established a ‘house of translation’ at Fatehpur Sikri where

he had major Sanskrit texts translated into Persian, including
the Mahabharata (Razmnama in Persian, or the ‘Book of War’),
Tapestry of the Past

the Ramayana (with 176 beautiful miniature paintings), the

Bhagavad Gita, and the Pafichatantra.
Akbar’s son Jahangir shared with his father a love for art and
architecture and tried to expand the empire into the Deccan. His
son Shah Jahan foughtseveralrebellions and is bestremembered

74
 as the builder of the
Taj Mahal at Agra.
The Taj Mahal is even
today recognized
as one of the great
architectural marvels
v ‘..W’n,_v,
i oIl
S|
mn ] of the world. This
period formed the
st(A eltpin i peak of an immense
Wiy flowering of art and
Pl (PSR architecture, which
573 /:Y?J_lr"" &—_,W,r., included the building
Wi Sy
> 1
of Humayun’s tomb
z
. in Delhi and the Red
/i
Forts in Delhi and
Agra. Other classical
arts and music of
India also flourished
during this period,
as also remarkable
works of calligraphy
and miniature
painting.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 2.19. A miniature

painting illustrating the
Persian translation of the
Ramayana and depicting
the well-known episode
of Rama chasing the
golden deer:

Aurangzeb
We mentioned earlier the frequent violent successions during
the Sultanate period; this was repeated during the succession
of Shah Jahan, who fell ill in 1657. He wished the throne to
go to Dara Shikoh, his eldest son, but Dara’s younger brother

75
 Aurangzeb defeated him in a series of battles and eventually
executed him, presenting his severed head to their father.
Aurangzeb also removed his two other brothers — he had one
arrested and executed, and drove the second into exile. To
prevent further challenge to his rule, Aurangzeb imprisoned his
father Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort, where he remained until his
death. Aurangzeb crowned himself emperor in 1658 and named
himself ‘Alamgir’ or ‘conqueror of the world’; he ruled for almost
49 years.

' THINK ABOUT IT

We saw above that Delhi sultans’ average reign lasted about
nine years. This figure becomes 27 years in the case of Mughal
emperors up to Aurangzeb; and 16 years if we consider all
Mughal rulers, up to the end of the empire in the 19 century.
‘What do you make of these numbers of years of reign?

Aurangzeb, skilled in military matters, conducted many

campaigns, conquering parts of the South in particular. Under
his reign the Mughal empire reached its greatest expansion (see
Fig. 2.16), though constantly faced with significant rebellions,
some of which we will turn to in the next section. Aurangzeb
had to spend the last 25 years of his life fighting war after war
in the Deccan. Maintaining large armies for those campaigns
depleted the empire’s treasury and put a great strain on the
administration; indeed, this is often considered one of key
factors in the rapid decline of Mughal power after Aurangzeb’s
death in 1707.
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Aurangzeb, who belonged to Islam’s Sunni sect, was deeply

religious; he led an austere life, and, unlike Akbar, observed all
religious rituals and occasions. He gradually banned practices
Tapestry of the Past

he regarded as un-Islamic, such as music and dance in his

court, and reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims as well as a
pilgrimage tax on Hindus travelling to their sacred places (both
of which had been abolished by Akbar).

76
 Fig. 2.20. Aurangzeb in court, holding a hawk, with one of his sons standing in front of
him (17*-century painting).

Some scholars argue that Aurangzeb’s motives were primarily

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

political, that is, to establish and strengthen his empire’s

dominance; they also give examples of grants and assurances
of protection he gave to some temples. While politics did play
a part in his decisions, Aurangzeb’s own farmans (or firmans,
ie., edicts) make his personal religious motive clear too. In
1669, for instance, he ordered governors of all provinces “to
demolish schools and temples of the infidels and put down
their teachings and religious practices.” Temples at Banaras
(present-day Varanasi), Mathura, Somnath, among many others,
were destroyed, as well as Jain temples and Sikh gurudwaras.
This aspect of Aurangzeb was also visible in his persecution of
Muslims of other sects, including Sufis, and of Zoroastrians (the
religion of Parsis in India, originally from Persia).
e

77
 LET'S EXPLORE
In his last letters to two of his sons, Aurangzeb wrote, “I came

ol
alone and am going away alone. I know not whoIam and what
Thave been doing. ... have not done well for the country and
the people, and of the future there is no hope. I was helpless
[in life] and I am departing helpless.” What do these words
tell us about Aurangzeb? How do you feel about them?

' THINK ABOUT IT

Some of the invaders and rulers mentioned above committed
terrible deeds and atrocities. Many more could have been
mentioned. As the ‘Note on History’s Darker Chapters’ on page
20 makes clear, we must keep in mind that this is about people
in the past, not people of today. We need to know the facts of
the past, and the victims of these atrocities deserve our respect
and remembrance. But it is important to keep in mind that we,
today, bear no responsibility for actions of individuals hundreds
of years ago.

RESISTANCE TO THE MUGHALS

Let us survey some of the major rebellions that ended up eroding
the Mughal power (keeping the special case of the Marathas for
the next chapter).
Over the centuries, many peasant communities rebelled against
harsh exploitation. One such case, in the 17" century, involves the
Jat peasantry (in present-day western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

and eastern Rajasthan), who managed to kill an oppressive

officer of the Mughal administration. In a subsequent battle,
20,000 men confronted the Mughal army and fought valiantly,
Tapestry of the Past

but their Jat leader was killed and the rebellion suppressed.
Many tribal groups — the Bhils, the Gonds, the Santhals, the
Kochs, for instance — also fought back against attempts to
annex their territory or impose taxes on them. While some of
these groups were subdued or gradually integrated into the

78
 Delhi Sultanate or the Mughal Empire, others — especially those
inhabiting forested, hilly, or remote regions — managed to
maintain some degree of independence.

Rani Durgavati is remembered as a

valiant queen of the Garha kingdom
(one of the Gond kingdoms in central
India). From all accounts, she ruled
wisely and made her kingdom
prosperous. She kept an army of
20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants,
with which she repelled several
attempted invasions. When a general
sent by Akbar attacked her kingdom in
1564, despite being outnumbered and
outmatched in weaponry, she led her
troops and fought bravely. Wounded,
she took her own life on the battlefield
to avoid capture. She was only 40. Her
sacrifice became a symbol of regional
pride and resistance, and she is still
revered as a heroic figure in Indian
history.
Fig. 2.21. An artist’s impression of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Rani Durgavati.

Surge of the Rajputs

Because of their location in northwest India and the proud
traditions they inherited from earlier dynasties (such as the
Pratiharas, who had resisted the Arab invasions of Sindh a few
centuries earlier), the Rajputs were often battling the invading
forces from beyond the Subcontinent. They had rebuilt their
kingdoms after the Khiljis’ conquest, two major clans emerged
in this process, in the Mewar and Marwar regions. Inspirational
stories of their heroic deeds are still told today, in particular
through popular ballads. Among the valorous rulers those clans
produced, we met Rana Kumbha earlier. Rana Sanga (early 16"

79
 (from Udaipur palace)

century) unified several Rajput clans, won many battles against fv:‘::a"rlg
sultans, ultimately meeting defeat against Babur at the Battle of Astyle of
fighting where
Khanwa.
small groups
Although he inherited a wounded kingdom from his with knowledge
of the terrain
predecessors, Mewar’s ruler Maharana Pratap refusedto accept carry out
Mughal suzerainty and became the face of Rajput resistance. A surprise attacks
and ambushes
confrontation took place at the Haldighati pass in the Aravallis
to defeat bigger
in 1576 (Fig. 2.23), and although the Mughal army had the armies.
upper hand, Maharana Pratap escaped
and pursued for years guerrilla warfare NG

against the Mughals from the Aravalli

hills, living in harsh conditions but firm
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

on his independence. It is noteworthy that

Maharana Pratap received strong support
from the Bhils, who not only joined his
Tapestry of the Past

troops as archers but also contributed their

knowledge of the terrain; their service (on
otheroccasionstoo) earnedthemarespected
place in Mewar’s military tradition, as the
Fig. 2.22. The Mewar emblem, with a
Mewar emblem shows (Fig. 2.22). Bhil warrior on the left

80
 While some Rajput states eventually allied with the Mughals —
through diplomacy and marriage alliances — some, especially
Mewar, did not accept Mughal dominance. During Aurangzeb’s
reign, several Rajput nobles rebelled, including Durga Das
Rathore of Marwar, who fought to protect the independence of
Jodhpur. Mughal authority thus remained limited in Rajasthan.

The Ahoms
In the 13" century, the Ahom ethnic group migrated from
present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra Valley and formed
the Ahom kingdom there.
During both the Sultanate and the Mughal periods, the Ahom
rulers offered stiff resistance to attempts at expansion into the
Northeast. Their unique paik system called on every able-bodied
man to provide service to the state through labour or military
duty in exchange for land rights. This allowed the rulers to
create public infrastructure and maintain a large standing force
without a permanent army.
Over time, the Ahoms assimilated the local culture, promoted
agriculture, encouraged diverse faiths, and contributed to the
rich traditions of Assam.

Discuss in class how the paik system affected the daily lives
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

of the people in the Ahom kingdom, both in terms of challenges

and benefits, and helped the king manage both the army and
the economy.

In the 17% century, when Aurangzeb sent Mughal forces, briefly

capturing the Ahom capital Garhgaon, the Ahoms used their
knowledge of the terrain — dense forests, hills and rivers — and
persistent guerrilla tactics to repulse the attack, although the
latter had more men and a larger fleet of river boats. Notably, in
the Battle of Saraighat (1671), fought on the Brahmaputra River
near present-day Guwahati, the Ahom military commander
Lachit Borphukan and his 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force

81
 of 30,000 soldiers. Ultimately, the Ahom were able to preserve
their independence.

A<« DON'T MISS OUT

Ram Singh, the general of the Mughal army, praised the Ahom
warriors in these terms: “Every Assamese soldier is expert in
rowing boats, in shooting arrows, in digging trenches, and in
wielding guns and cannons. I have not seen such specimens of
versatility in any other part of India.”

LET'S EXPLORE
How did the Ahoms use the rivers, hills and forests of Assam
to their advantage? Can you think of ways in which the
geography helped them build defences and fight wars?

Fig. 2.24. A plaque

commemorating the
Battle of Saraighat,
with an Ahom boat
in the foreground
. (Saraighat War
Memorial Park).

2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Fig. 2.25. Statues depicting

Tapestry of the Past

Ahom warriors during the

Battle of Saraighat.

82
 The Rise of the Sikhs
In 15% century Punjab, Guru Nanak spread the message of
equality, compassion, and the oneness of God (Ik Onkar); his
followers came to be known as Sikhs. Although Sikhism began
purely as a spiritual movement, the later Sikh Gurus had to
respond to the growing intolerance and persecution under some
Mughal rulers. When Emperor Jahangir found out that Guru
Arjan had supported his rebellious son, he had Guru Arjan
tortured to death. This prompted Guru Arjan’s son and successor,
Guru Hargobind, to introduce martial training and form a Sikh
army, which fought several battles against the Mughal forces.

q DON'T MISS OUT

In the context of this chapter, ‘Punjab’ refers to the vast
region now split across India and Pakistan.
The Sikhs’ sacred text, Guru Granth Sahib, was first compiled
by Guru Arjan; Guru Tegh Bahadur’s hymns were added later.
It stresses that there is one God for all (who “established the
earth as a home for Dharma”) and enjoins Sikhs to practise
truthfulness, compassion, humility and self-control, among
other values. An example: “Truth is high but higher still is
truthful living.”
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

In 1675, a group of Kashmiri Pandits approached Guru Tegh

Bahadur seeking protection from religious persecution. The
Guru decided to stand with them and court martyrdom; arrested,
Aurangzeb ordered him to convert to Islam. Despite torture,
and despite witnessing two of his disciples being tortured to
death, the Guru refused; on Aurangzeb’s orders, he was publicly
‘ beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi. In response, his son Guru
Gobind Singh — the 10" and last Guru — established the Khalsa
— a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality and
defence of the faith, which frequently clashed with the Mughal
forces, at great cost of life.

83
 Fig. 2.26. Miniature painting of Guru Gobind Singh

<., DON'T MISS OUT

Do you know what the Gurudwara Sis Gunj Sahib in Chandni
Chowk — the famous shopping area in Delhi — signifies? In
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

Sikhism, a gurudwara is a place of worship. This one marks

the site where Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was
beheaded by Aurangzeb in 1675. This historic Gurdwara is
Tapestry of the Past

uniquely honoured by the Sikh Regiment, which has saluted it

before the President in the Republic Day parade each year since
1979. It stands as a powerful symbol of faith and sacrifice in
Indian history.

84
 ' THINK ABOUT
- Why do you think Guru Tegh Bahadur endured torture
rather than convert? Why did he think his sacrifice
would make a difference?
- Whatvalues did the Sikh Gurus and the Khalsa embody?
- How are they relevant in today’s world?

As the Mughal Empire declined, especially under the onslaughts

of the Marathas (see next chapter), several Sikh confederacies
emerged in the Punjab region; they were ultimately unified
through the efforts of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the turn of the
19 century. Ranjit Singh’s military acumen, diplomatic skill and
religious tolerance allowed him to establish a strong, centralised
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Eastern Ganga
Rajputs Kingdom

Fig. 2.27. This graphic sums up the chief dynasties involved in this chapter, with a
rough indication of their geographical locations.

85
Sikh Empire which spanned much of the Northwest, including
parts of Kashmir. Till the mid-19* century, this empire resisted
both Mughal remnants and later British expansion.

ADMINISTERING INDIA

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate introduced a political system centred on the
sultan, who possessed absolute authority as the political and
military head, and whose duties, according to contemporary
chronicles, included “defending the territories of Islam against
possible aggression,” “collecting fees and taxes” and “keeping
in touch with public affairs and the condition of the people by
personal contact.” The sultan was however assisted by a council
of ministers who were in charge of the various departments of
the Sultanate.
One instrument of the administration was the iqta system, in
which territories were assigned to nobles (igtadars) to collect
taxes which, minus expenses, were supposed to go to the Sultan’s
treasury; they were needed, in particular, to maintain the army.
The system created a network of local administrators loyal to
the central authority, but their posts were not hereditary. While
taxes were levied on trade at every stage, the burden fell most
heavily on the peasantry, and some contemporary accounts
report considerable cruelty in extracting revenue from the land.

The Mughal administrative framework

Aiming at greater control and efficiency, Akbar reorganised his
administrative machinery. The Diwan took care of the finances,
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

while the Mir Bakhshi looked after military matters and the
Khan-i-Saman was in charge of public works, trade, industry
and agriculture, besides the royal household. The Sadr was
Tapestry of the Past

responsible for justice, religious and educational matters. Such

ministers were assigned to each of the empire’s twelve provinces
(subahs), which were further subdivided, with effective checks
and balances enforced between the government officials. At the
village level, traditional structures of self-governance continued
more or less undisturbed.

86
 Akbar also instituted
the mansabdari system.
As Abul Fazl recorded
in his Ain-i-Akbari,
which describes
Akbar’s administration,
mansabdars (officers)
according to their mansab
(rank) were expected to
maintain a precise number
of elephants, horses,
camels as well as troops
for the state. This made
it possible to assemble
an army at a short notice
without having to maintain
a permanent centralised
army. Regular inspections
were carried out to ensure
compliance. Mansabdars
were generally paid
by being assigned land
(jagirs) and were therefore
also known as jagirdars.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Despite Akbar’s growing

tolerance for different
faiths, non-Muslims were
kept in a minority in
the higher echelons
of the administration;
for instance, the total
B AT
percentage of non-
Fig. 2.28. Manuscript painting of Abul Fazl, seated on a
terrace with his completed chronicles before him Muslim officials in his
administration rarely
exceeded one-third of the total and was often much less. Even
among Muslim officials, those of foreign origin were generally
favoured over those of Indian origin.

87
Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister, introduced an efficient
revenue system. He made detailed surveys for crop yields and
prices, and determined prices for each crop on the basis of that
information. He also initiated a systematic survey of the land
in the entire empire which boosted revenue collection and
strengthened the state apparatus.
We will see a different kind of administration, that of the
Marathas, in the next chapter.

PEOPLE’S LIVES
Despite shifting political powers between the 13" and 17%
centuries, India witnessed vibrant economic activity, thanks
to its agrarian foundations, thriving artisanal industries,
community-based and temple-based economies, and extensive
trade networks. Building on decentralised economic and social
systems — such as shrenis (guilds), jatis (professionally defined
communities), and systems
for credit — the Subcontinent
remained one of the
wealthiest regions in the
world.
The Sultanate period
saw some progress in
infrastructural works,
especially roads in north
India, bridges, a few canals
and other irrigation works,
apart from the creation
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

of new cities, all of which

expanded considerably
during the Mughal period.
Coins in several metals
Tapestry of the Past

and denominations were

introduced as currency. The
Mughals will use a different
system, with a rupaya of Fig. 2.29. A Persian wheel used to draw water
silver and a dam of copper. from wells or tanks to irrigate fields.

88
 Agriculture was the mainstay of the Indian
economy; we have already seen
how rulers relied on agrarian
revenue to maintain their
administration and military,
typically extracting land
revenue at one-fifth of the
produce, though some of the
sultans raised it as high as one-
half. The expansion of irrigation
systems increased agricultural
productivity, allowing for the production
of multiple crops, including
Fig. 2.30. A Vijayanagara land grant, inscribed on a copper
plate, the equivalent of modern-day property deeds. both food (rice, wheat, barley,
pulses, sugarcane, spices,
etc.) and non-food items (cotton, which fed a thriving textile
production, silk, wool, dyes, timber, jute, etc.). Let us note that
agriculture output varied from region to region and period
to period; the peasantry suffered several severe famines in
this period, with relief depending upon the particular ruler’s
benevolence.
Apart from textiles, craftspeople made a wide range of products,
from weapons to utensils to ornaments and jewellery items.
Ship-building, essential to river and overseas trade, developed
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

considerably in those centuries. Indian goods were exported

through coastal and riverside towns such as Calicut, Mangalore,
Surat, Masulipatnam or Hooghly. India imported much less than
it exported; import products included silk, horses, metals, and
all kinds of luxury goods. Merchants from Arabia, Persia (now
Iran), and Central Asia settled in Indian ports, contributing to
the bustling trade activity.
The hundisystem also enabled merchants to transfer funds across
political boundaries without physically transporting currency,
making them less vulnerable to plunder. Trader communities,
such as the Marwaris, became adept at operating across different
political regimes, developing parallel systems of credit and trust
that functioned independently of official structures.
 DON'T MISS OUT
A hundi was a written instruction to make payment to an
individual. It could be carried across political borders and
enabled financial transactions without the need to carry
currency — a precursor to modern banking. These systems
worked across trade networks without the participation of the
ruling classes.

Temples as centres of economic activity

Many temples were more than centres for worship, learning,
social interaction or performing arts. They also created
ecosystems with bustling markets; ruling classes donated land
and wealth (dana) to temple deities, held in trust by temple
managers who developed community infrastructure (irrigation
systems, tanks, etc.) and pilgrim accommodations (dharmashalas
and chhatrams). Temples provided merchants with credit and
funded internal as well as maritime trade.

While early periods saw prosperity, the late 1600s witnessed

economic stress. Peasants were often left with a small share
of their produce after taxes and payments to intermediary
parties. This caused many to lose their land and become bonded
labourers.
Historians suggest that craftspeople and labourers, too, often
faced harsh economic conditions. India was still a land of
abundance, as testified by many Arab and European travellers,
but the wealth was largely concentrated in the hands of the
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map

rulers, courtiers, high officials and the merchant class. Frequent

warfare, in addition, caused forced displacement of population.
At the level of the common people, there were instances of
Tapestry of the Past

clashes, especially over sacred sites that had been desecrated or

destroyed under the rulers’ sanction. But by and large, people of
different faiths and communities lived peacefully side by side,
economically dependent on each other.

90
 Evenasmostrulers acrossIndiapatronisedthearts,communities,
too, strove to maintain or revive their traditions, many of which
adapted to changing circumstances. Among those cultural
traditions, a fair degree of interaction resulted in the creation of
a shared heritage.
Through it all, India endured, economically prosperous on
the whole but often politically unstable. During this period of
frequent reshaping of the political map, India faced serious
challenges, but survived. It is a tale not only of hardship but also
of resilience — through the sword when the occasion demanded,
but also through fresh creation in art, literature, spirituality, and
timeless values.

Before we move on ...

- This period witnessed many foreign invasions led
by Turkic, Afghan, and Mughal forces, which caused
widespread destruction, the fall of old dynasties, and
the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires. Continuous
warfare, alliances and conquests reshaped India’s political
boundaries.
-~ The period had many instances of religious intolerance.
Buddhists, Jains, Hindus, Sikhs, Zoroastrians, and tribals
suffered severe persecution at times, though some rulers
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

were more broad-minded than others.

-~ Agriculture and trade expanded, enhancing India’s wealth
and connectivity with the wider world. Yet the economic
condition of the common subjects generally remained
harsh.
- Indian society showed adaptability and resilience in
rebuilding towns, cities, temples, and other aspects of
the economy. At the same time, it found ways to preserve
cultural traditions and blend indigenous and foreign
elements to create new cultural expressions. Many forms
of art and culture, including architecture, music and
painting, flourished.

91
Questions and activities
il, Compare the political strategies of the Delhi Sultanate and
the Mughals. What similarities and differences existed
between them?

. Why did kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire and the

Ahom Kingdom manage to resist conquest for a longer time
compared to others? What geographical, military, and social
factors contributed to their success?

Imagine you are a scholar in the court of Akbar or

Krishnadevaraya. Write a letter to a friend describing the
politics, trade, culture, and society you are witnessing.

How come Akbar, a ruthless conqueror in his young days,

grew tolerant and benevolent after some years? What could
have led to such a change?

. What might have happened if the Vijayanagara Empire

had won the Battle of Talikota? Imagine and describe how
it could have changed the political and cultural history of
south India.

Many values promoted by early Sikhism, including equality,

seva, and justice, remain relevant today. Select one of these
values and discuss how it remains relevant in contemporary
society.

Imagine you are a trader in a port city (Surat, Calicut or

Hooghly). Describe the scenes you see as regards goods,
people you trade with, movement of ships, etc.
2 - Reshaping India’s Political Map
Tapestry of the Past

92
 Noodles
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

*Noodles’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles'!

93
The Rise of the Marathas

Among the merchants, the hat-wearers like the Portuguese, the

English, the Dutch, the French and the Danes also conduct trade.
But they are not like other merchants.... They are fully intent on
entering this land, increasing their territory and propagating their
religion. They are obstinate people, and Navy and gunpowder are
their chief weapons. Their traffic should be controlled, and they
shouldn’t be allowed to build strong buildings.
— Ramachandrapant Amatya, Adnyapatra (1715)

d Fort, Maharashtra, with the grand entrance to the palace where

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was crowned in 1674, marking the formal beginning of
the Maratha Empire.

QRickit

os81cHo3

94
 1674 Chhatrapati
Shivaji's coronation
at Raigad

9 8 1680:
1657: Founding Death of
1630: Birth of of the Maratha Shivaji
Shivaji navy

inniing
1646: 3 Beginn 1677:i
of Shivaji's rule Dakshina
digvijaya
(conquest of
the South)

1666: 1682-1707:
Imprisonmentat, Mughal-Maratha
and escape from, wars

Literary history: WHO ARE THE MARATHAS?

The historical
development The Marathas are a group of people native to the Deccan
prgsfe‘”g;tg;g;;; plateau, more specifically present-day Maharashtra.
in a particular They are identified with the language they speak —
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

language. Marathi — which has had a rich and continuous literary

history since the 12%
century. In this chapter,
we will see them rise as a
powerful political entity
that will alter the course
of India’s history.
During the 13™ century,
most of Maharashtra
was ruled by the Yadava
dynasty with Devagiri
(present-day Daulatabad)
Fig. 3.3. Sant Ramdas ~ Fig 3.4 Postal stamp as its capital. In the early
showing Sant Tukaram

95
1754: Beginning
of Maratha
control over 1775-1782:
Delhi First Anglo-
Maratha War;
Maratha victory

f
1761: Battle 1818: Third Anglo-
of Panipat Maratha war; end of
(Maratha Maratha power
defeat)

14 century, the Yadava dynasty was overcome by the Khilji

Sultanate from Delhi.
Amidst such political changes, the cultural traditions continued,
particularly those related to bhakti (devotion to the divine or
a particular deity). Between the 7™ and the 17® centuries, for
spiritual upliftment, saints and seekers from several parts of
India preferred the path of bhakti to merely external ritualism.
These saints, coming from diverse sections of society, composed
devotional songs and poetry in the languages of the masses,
which allowed their messages to travel far and wide.
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

LET'S EXPLORE l
Tapestry of the Past

Have you ever heard the term ‘bhakti’? What does it mean (
to you? Choose a bhakti saint from any part of India and i
learn about their life, their teachings, and the message they
shared. You can also find one of their poems or bhajans and
share it with your classmates.

96
 In Maharashtra, many saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev,
Tukaram, Ramdas, etc., gained popularity at this time. They
helped translate important texts like the Upanishads and the
Bhagavad Gita into Marathi, making their philosophy accessible
to the people. Some also focused on social organisation and
political awareness, similar to the Sikh gurus. As a result, the
society acquired a solid cultural foundation, which later helped
Jagir:
A jagir was a the Marathas to organise themselves into a political power.
piece of land
given by a By the 17" century, some Maratha chiefs made early attempts at
king or ruler establishing sovereignty, but they proved unsuccessful — until
to someone
Shivaji rose to power and brought the Marathas together. But
(usually a
noble or who was Shivaji?
soldier) as a
reward for FOUNDATION OF MARATHA POWER AND THE
their service.
The person RISE OF SHIVAJI
who got the
Jjagir could In 1630, Shivaji was born in
collect taxes the Bhonsle clan to Shahji and
from the land
and use the Jijabai. At the time, Shahji
money to served the Deccan sultanates
take care of
their needs and was often away from his
or help the family. Meanwhile, in his jagir
king when
at Pune, Shivaji grew up under
needed.
the watchful eyes of Jijabai and
some trusted officials, receiving
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

values and a good education.

At this time, the Pune region
was deeply affected by constant
infighting between the Deccan
sultans whom the Marathas
served, which caused much Fig 3.5. A painting
of Shivaji made
hardship forthe common people. 1 the 1680s (British Museum)
When he was just 16, Shivaji launched military campaigns,
first consolidating his hold over the Pune region by capturing
neglected and unoccupied forts and strengthening their
defences. His vision of a sovereign kingdom or ‘Swarajya’ grew
over the years, extending to political, economic and cultural
aspects, which we will explore in this chapter.

97
 Fig. 3.6. The Sindhudurg Fort near the Maharashtra-Goa border is one of the several naval
fortifications built by the Marathas.

Shivaji’s kingdom soon expanded to India’s west coast, and to

secure access to the resources of coastal regions, he felt the need
to establish a navy. This was a truly revolutionary step at the time.
By comparison, the Bijapur Sultanate (ruled by the Adil Shahi
dynasty), maintained merchant ships but did not possess a full-
time naval force which could protect the coast; even the Mughal
Empire’s use of a navy was very limited. Thus, the Maratha Navy
was born, whose exploits became legendary.
To protect his people from powerful enemies, Shivaji had
recourse to the tactic of guerrilla warfare, which uses small groups
of people in a focused way, with speed, surprise, and knowledge
of the terrain to defeat bigger armies. His successes soon invited
the wrath of the Bijapur Sultanate, which sent the veteran general
Afzal Khan to confront him. Shivaji and his advisers managed to
convince Afzal Khan to meet him for a one-on-one meeting at the
foot of the Pratapgad fort amid thick forests. There, Shivaji killed
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

Afzal Khan, and the Marathas, hidden in the mountains, routed the
Tapestry of the Past

Khan’s army with guerrilla attacks.

' THINK ABOUT IT

If you could time-travel and meet Shivaji, what three questions
would you ask him and why?

98
 DON'T MISS OUT
The wagh nakh is a small
weapon shaped like a
tiger’s claw, which Shivaji
used to kill Afzal Khan in
close combat. Fig. 3.7. Wagh nakh or the ‘tiger’s claw’.

LET'S EXPLORE
Try to find out more about guerrilla warfare. Which
other countries in the world adopted this method? What
geographical advantages did they utilise for this? Discuss
your findings in groups.
Surgical
strike:
A military Soon afterwards, the Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan invaded
attack
intended to
Shivaji’s territories with a big army for three years. Finally, with
damage only only a few soldiers, Shivaji raided Shaista Khan’s camp at night.
a specific The Khan barely escaped from the raid, losing a few fingers,
target, with
no or minimal and promptly left Maharashtra. This daring raid resembles the
damage modern-day surgical strike.
to other
people or As a retaliatory action for the three-year-long wave of attacks,
infrastructure. Shivaji sacked Surat, a wealthy port city of the Mughal Empire
(in present-day Gujarat). There, he obtained enormous treasure
worth almost one crore of rupees, an extremely large sum for
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

the time. However, he was careful not to attack religious places

and even spared the house of Mohandas Parekh, a charitable
man. He sacked Surat again after a few years. These events
became so famous that they appeared in the London Gazette,
an English newspaper of the time, which conveyed how Shivaji
wrote to all European diplomatic agents in Surat, demanding
‘immediate presents of money’, failing which he would ‘return
and ruin that city’.
The sacking of Surat was a great insult to the might and prestige
of the Mughal Empire. Therefore, Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, a
distinguished Rajput general, to defeat Shivaji. Against him,
Shivaji had to concede defeat at Purandar Fort (near Pune)
and enter into a treaty. He had to give up a sizeable part of his
kingdom, and his son Sambhaji had to enter Mughal service.

99
Shivaji was persuaded by Jai Singh to visit the Mughal court
at Agra, where he was made to stand before Aurangzeb, and
a Mughal general whom he had defeated earlier. Incensed at
this insult, Shivaji stormed out of the court, following which
Aurangzeb put him under house arrest. To escape this, Shivaji
devised a strategy — he started distributing gifts to holy men
and Mughal generals. The gifts often contained fruits and
sweets, packed in big baskets. The guards initially checked them,
but soon stopped doing so; expecting this, Shivaji and his son
Sambhaji hid themselves in the baskets and made their escape.
Aurangzeb could never capture Shivaji again.

Fig. 3.8. A court scene with Shivaji on his throne receiving visitors
(panel in Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Park, Mumbai)

A few years later, in 1674, Shivaji was coronated with full Vedic
rites at the strong mountain fortress of Raigad. His formal title
after the coronation was ‘Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati’, and like
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

some past rulers, he started his own era, the Rajyabhisheka

shaka.
Tapestry of the Past

After this, Shivaji embarked upon a conquest of the South,

also referred to as the dakshina-digvijaya, which included the
important and then ill-defended region of present-day northern
Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka (see map in Fig. 3.9). This
southern extension later gave the Marathas great strategic depth
against the Mughal invasion.

100
 ON'T MISS OUT
While in the South, Shivaji forbade the Dutch from trading
slaves. At the time, most Europeans were capturing and
selling Indians as slaves and encountered no opposition from
Indian powers, until Shivaji intervened. His stance on this
abuse showed his deep concern for his subjects.
72°E 76°E 80°F

Fig. 3.9. Shivaji’s

Kingdom about
1680 (Ekoji’s role is
explained later in
the chapter).
20°N

N0z
16N

NoL
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

LEGEND
= Territory under
Shivaji Maharaj
= Territory under
Ekoji
[Link]
12°N

= Foreign power
* Hill fort
#* Coastal fort
#* Land fort
o City
A Port
— River

0 100 200 km
[A
N.g

101
A fever claimed Shivaji’s life when he was fifty. He was a master
strategistand a true visionary, and within his lifetime, his exploits
had become legendary across India and beyond. The Europeans
compared him with ancient generals like Alexander, and the
Bundela prince Chhatrasal was so inspired by Shivaji’s struggle
against the Mughals that he managed to create an independent
kingdom of Bundelkhand (divided between present-day Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh). The famous Hindi poet Bhushan
specifically came to Maharashtra to meet Shivaji and composed
poems in his praise, some of which remain famous to this day.

LET'S EXPLORE
Pick an event from Shivaji’s life and, with your classmates,
stage it as a play.

THE MARATHAS AFTER SHIVAJI

Shivaji had two sons — Sambhaji and Rajaram. After Shivaji’s
death, Sambhaji became the Chhatrapati. The Marathas were
then the only obstacle to total Mughal control of the Deccan.
Aurangzeb invaded the Deccan and conquered the Bijapur (or
Adil Shahi) and Golconda (or Qutb Shahi) Sultanates. He then
captured Sambhaji and, after torturing him brutally, executed
him. After this, he captured Raigad, the Maratha capital.
After Sambhaji, Rajaram became the Chhatrapati and fled
to Gingee (in present-day Tamil Nadu). The Mughal-Maratha
conflict thus spread to south India. The Marathas staunchly
defended their fortresses and often had the upper hand over
the Mughals in battles and skirmishes. Aurangzeb was thus
unable to leave the Deccan and died without having succeeded
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

in subduing the Marathas, who emerged as a strong contender

to the Mughals. No longer on the defensive, the Marathas led by
Tapestry of the Past

Tarabai, Rajaram’s queen, made large-scale inroads into Mughal

territories, eventually conquering large parts of India.
During this rapid expansion, the Marathas themselves under-
went a structural transformation. The centralised state from
Shivaji’s time gave way to a more decentralised structure,
(2]

102
 still nominally centred around the
Chhatrapati, but with the chiefs
wielding more power. In particular,
the Peshwa (a Persian term for ‘prime
minister’) wielded great influence,
even over the Chhatrapati himself.
In particular, Peshwa Bajirao I and
his son Nanasaheb Peshwa were
instrumental in the pan-Indian
expansion of the Marathas.
The Marathas brought large parts of
India (Fig. 3.11) under their control
and generally ruled them well. But
with the regional chiefs acquiring
more power and autonomy, this also
resulted in occasional indiscipline
and abuse, in stark contrast with
Shivaji’s values. For instance, the
Marathas’ ten-year campaign in
Fig. 3.10. Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj Bengal inflicted much cruelty and
(Sambhaji’s son), seated right and sporting devastation on the common people.
a falcon, in counsel with Nanasaheb Peshwa
In their northward expansion, the
Marathas briefly controlled the areas of Lahore, Attock and
even Peshawar (in modern-day Pakistan). They fought with the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Afghans, and despite suffering a disastrous defeat at Panipat

in 1761, they quickly recovered during the time of Peshwa
Madhavrao I. Under the leadership of Mahadji Shinde (also
known as Mahadji Scindia), they went on to recapture Delhi
in 1771, which remained under their control till the British
captured it three decades later.
In the latter half of the 18" century, the chief rivals of the British
in India were the Marathas. Three Anglo-Maratha wars (as
| they are called) were fought between 1775 and 1818. Owing
to the Marathas’ increased internal disunity and the superior
organisational and technological abilities of the British, they
succeeded in ending the Maratha power. In effect, the British
took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or
any other power.

103
 Delhi

Jaipur®
Gwalior®

‘Kolha| P
oa®. ‘2« ¥ 5
\, f LEGEND
Maratha Empire
(including tributary states)
® (Cityruled by Marathas
and allies
Cities under other rulers:
Other Indian rulers
British ]
£
French ®
Portuguese o s
— River £g
25
58&
70°E 80°F 90°E a2
oF
|
Fig. 3.11. The extent of the Maratha empire in 1759. Een

104
 L<4, DON'T MISS
Did you know that Nana Phadnavis, a powerful official under
the Peshwas, is credited with organising the first pan-Indian
anti-British alliance? He even united with old adversaries
like Hyder Ali of Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad in this
endeavour.

Fig. 3.12. A mural of a British officer surrendering before Nana

Phadnavis and Mahadji Shinde after the first Anglo-Maratha war:

MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
Civilian administration
Shivaji instituted a relatively centralised administration for his
kingdom. He abolished the hereditary posts (generally practised
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

under the Sultans or the Mughals) and land assignments and

paid a salary to every government official out of the state
treasury. Many officials were periodically transferred as well,
ensuring that they would not
have enough power to dictate
terms to the king.
Shivaji also gave pensions to
widows of soldiers who died in
battles, even offering military
Fig. 3.13. Shivaji minted gold and copper posts to their sons, thus
coins in his
sovereignty. The own
use ofname, signifying hisscript
the Devanagari demonstrating his care for the
was also an assertion of his cultural identity. ~ soldiers and their families.

105
THINK ABOUTIT
Shivaji issued strict instructions to his officials not to mistreat
the subjects or to forcefully grab even a blade of grass from
them. In one of the letters issued to his officials, Shivaji says:
“Wood from big trees like teak is required for the Navy. If needed,
secure permission for cutting the trees from the forest and then
proceed. Other trees like the mango and jackfruit are also useful,
but do not touch them. Because such trees take many years to
mature, and the people look after them like their children. If you
cut them, will their sorrow ever end? If you accomplish something
by oppressing others, it perishes soon, along with the oppressor.
There is harm in the absence of such trees as well. Therefore, do
not use force in any circumstances.”
Based on Shivaji’s letter, what can you tell about his values as a
ruler?

Shivaji also had an ashta pradhana mandala, or council of eight

ministers (Fig. 3.14), to assist him with administration.

Pradhé

Finance Prime Minister Land Revenue

Minister Minister

Intelligence Chief Justice

Minister

n8
k-]
2
e 29
Minister for Head of 9
Foreign Affairs Religious Affairs 59
Commander-in-chief SE

e
Fig. 3.14.

106
 The Marathas often levied taxes called chauth (25 per cent)
and sardeshmukhi (an additional 10 per cent to chauth) from
provinces that were not directly under them, including places in
the Deccan and north India. In return, the Marathas protected
those provinces and did not intervene in their internal
administration. The Mughals also approved of this arrangement
through various treaties, and over time, some of these provinces
became a part of the Maratha Empire.

q DON'T MISS OUT

In the 18™ century, the Marathas often adopted the Mughal
style of coinage owing to its popularity, but added their
own cultural symbols to it. For instance, this rare Maratha
coin known as the ‘Ganapati-Pantapradhan rupee’, minted
in the early 19" century by the Patwardhans (generals
under the Peshwa), features inscriptions in two scripts —
Devanagari and Persian. One
side is an invocation to
Ganapati (Ganesha) while the
other declares loyalty to the
Peshwa (often referred to as
‘Pantapradhan’ in Marathi).

Military administration
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

The Maratha armed forces were divided into three parts —

infantry, cavalry and navy. The cavalry was made up of two
types of soldiers — the bargirs, whose horses and equipment
were paid for by the state, and the shiledars, whose horses and
equipment were paid for by the soldiers themselves. In the 18%
century, the Marathas also noticed the superiority of European-
style disciplined troops and artillery, and they tried to raise and
recruit such troops. In particular, Mahadji Shinde had a large
European-style army.
Swords and lances were the preferred weapons of the Marathas
(Fig. 3.16). However, they also used guns in sizable numbers.
Rockets were used in military campaigns from the days of
Shivaji himself, and by 1770, metal tube rockets were also
being used.

107
As we saw earlier, forts were
initially the mainstay of Maratha
power. Shivaji controlled and built
a considerable number of forts, as
they were essential to strategically
control important routes and
shelter the army when engaging in \
guerrilla warfare. QK
Ramachandrapant Amatya, the
finance minister of Shivaji, in his
work K Adnyapatra (‘The Royal Edict’) Fig. 3.16. Some of the weapons
explains, used by the Marathas.

“Forts arethe core ofthestate. Intheir absence,theland

gets devastated in the face of an invasion. Therefore,
all the former kings secured the country by building
forts. This kingdom (Maratha kingdom) was created
by the late great master [Shivaji] from forts alone ... A
great enemy like Aurangzeb invaded [this kingdom],
conquered great empires like Bijapur and Bhaganagar
[... but] it was due to forts that the [Maratha] state
survived despite decades of onslaught.”

Maritime supremacy
As we saw, Shivaji created a navy to secure the west coast. In
the 18" century, Kanhoji Angre guided the Marathas to victory
in many naval battles, thanks to a clever use of geography and
battle tactics, despite the Maratha ships not being as techno-
logically advanced as the European ones.
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

At the time, the main strength of Europeans in India was their

navies. They forced Indians to purchase their naval trade
Tapestry of the Past

passes (cartaz in Portuguese) at a price; any ship without a

pass was confiscated. The Marathas challenged this practice
and started demanding passes from the Europeans themselves
— who showed their frustration by labelling Kanhoji Angre
a ‘pirate’!

108
 MANRATEA GRABS AND GALLIVATS ATIACKING AN ENGLISH Sk, [Eroutispicer.
(From a picture in the possession of Sér Ernest Kobinsm,)

Fig. 3.17. Maratha ships attacking English ships

In 1665, four ships from Shivaji’s fleet reached Muscat, the

capital of Oman. The ruler there captured them and arrested
the men onboard. He also prepared a few ships to attack
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Shivaji’s coastal possessions. But, on hearing that Shivaji’s

Navy contained more than a hundred ships, he retreated
inside the harbour with his ships.

Judicial system
The Marathas had an efficient judicial system, remarkable
for its moderation in using capital punishment (the death
penalty). The panchayat (not to be confused with the current-
day Panchayat, a governmental body) was a local gathering of
officials and prominent men, and the main body that delivered
justice. An appeal could be made to a Maratha chief in case of
an unsatisfactory verdict. Additionally, in various prominent

109
towns such as Pune, Indore, etc., the kotwal or the police was
also deployed to ensure law and order within the city.

Trade networks
Shivaji encouraged trade and actively participated in maritime
foreign trade himself. He and his officials had their own ships,
which theyregularly sent to ports as far away as Mocha in Yemen,
Muscat in Oman, and Malacca in Malaysia. Some of these ships
carried cargo like gold, textiles, etc.
Roads were constructed and maintained. In places such as
Odisha in the 18" century, a network of ferries was maintained
for riverine transport. Bridges were built over rivers and
small streams.

CULTURAL REVIVAL
The Marathas contributed substantially to India’s
cultural developments. Shivaji’s vision of Swarajya
is evident in his seal, which carried a Sanskrit
inscription, a notable departure from the prevalent
Persian seals — “This seal (i.e. authority) of Shivaji,
the son of Shahji, waxing like the new moon,
revered by the world, reigns for the welfare (of the
people).” Fig. 3.18. Shivaji’s seal

Shivaji also commissioned a treatise called Rajya-Vyavahara-

Kosha with the aim of promoting the Marathi language; it
provided Sanskrit equivalents for the prevalent Persian words
usedin diplomatic exchanges, as aresult of which, the percentage
of foreign loanwords in Maratha diplomacy decreased
considerably. Shivaji was a devout Hindu who respected other
religions while upholding his own. His saffron-coloured flag
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

was adopted by all Marathas. He rebuilt desecrated temples,

promoted Sanskrit and Marathi literature, religious institutions,
Tapestry of the Past

and traditional arts.

But perhaps he contributed most to the revival of ancient Indian
culture and values by giving people a demonstration that mighty
kingdoms and empires could be defeated, and the Marathas
could maintain, expand and administer an empire of their own.

110
 The mighty Maratha women
Tarabai was a fearless Maratha
warrior queen who ruled in the early
18" century after the death of her
husband Rajaram. Realising that with
the presence of Aurangzeb and the
Mughal army in the Deccan, north
India was unprotected, she organised
large Maratha armies and sent them to
invade Mughal territories in the north.
In that sense, she was the architect of
the northward Maratha expansion.
Her sense of military strategy and
her tenacity outsmarted the Mughal
Fig. 3.19. Tarabai in battle
Empire
=
and preserved
. .
Maratha
N
(painting by M.V. Dhurandhar) independence during a critical period.

Ahilyabai Holkar was a scion of the Holkar

dynasty, one of the chief families instrumental
for the Maratha expansion in north India;
during the 18" century, this dynasty ruled a
kingdom of considerable
extentin centralIndia,
around present-day Indore. Even after losing
her husband and son, she bravely governed
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

the state for thirty years, administering it

wisely while caring for the common people. & EYF AHILYABA| HOLKAR
Ahilyabai was a devout person who built and
restored hundreds of temples, ghats, wells, and Fig. 3.20. A postage
roads throughout India, from Kedarnath inthe ~ stamp commemorating
N Ahilyabai Holkar
north to Rameswaram in the south.
Most famously, she rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi that
had been destroyed by Aurangzeb and the Somnath temple in Gujarat
that had been destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ahilyabai Holkar is
also credited with promoting the Maheshwar weaving industry in
Madhya Pradesh, revitalising traditional handloom crafts that continue
to thrive today.
 The Modi script
(a cursive form of
Devanagari) was the
main script used by
Marathas for their
Fig. 3.21. A sample of Chhatrapati Shahu
correspondence. Maharaj’s handwriting in the Modt script

Shivaji’s example continued to inspire his successors. For

instance, the Bhonsles of Nagpur emerged as the enthusiastic
supporters of local culture and tradition, and the worship of the
deity Jagannath at Puri (in Odisha), which was often interrupted
during the Mughal rule, was revived with the support of the
Marathas. But perhaps the most impressive contribution came
from a few remarkable Maratha women. Let us hear about two
of them (see facing page).

In focus: Thanjavur
Let us turn southward
to witness another
example of cultural
contribution. Ekoji,
the half-brother of
Shivaji, conquered
the Thanjavur region
(in present-day Tamil
Nadu) in the late 17%
century, marking the
beginning of Maratha
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

rule in the area. The

Thanjavur Marathas
Tapestry of the Past

especiall helped Fig. 3.22. A traditional Thanjavur style painting, featuring

P Yy P R delicate gold foil work that lends it a rich, radiant appearance;
create a syncretic this style flourished under the patronage of the Marathas
culture that was rich
and full of innovation. They were great patrons of the arts, and
many of the rulers themselves were poets and dramatists.
 LET'S EXPLORE
Have you heard of the dance form ‘Bharatnatyam’? Did you
know that this dance form has a deep connection with the
Marathas? Can you find out what this connection was?

Of all the Thanjavur Maratha rulers, the contributions of

Serfoji II are the most notable. He was well-versed in many
Indian and European languages and wrote a Marathi play named
Devendra Kuravanji, where he describes world geography in
detail as was known at the time. Serfoji patronised many talented
musicians, and it was during his time that modern Carnatic
music took shape, as did the early stages of the famous classical
dance form of Bharatanatyam.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 3.23. Marathi inscription on a wall of the Brihadishwara temple wall

recording the history of the Bhonsle family.

Serfoji was quite interested in medicine and established the

Dhanwantari Mahal, a centre of medicine that offered free
treatment of diseases using both Indian and Western medicine. He
also started a printing press, the first such example in India by a
native ruler. He got the history of the Bhonsle family inscribed on
the walls of the Brihadishwara temple at Thanjavur, which is one
of the largest single inscriptions in India, a record for posterity.

113
The cultural environment of Thanjavur was multilingual, with
a mix of many influences. The local Tamil culture, the Telugu
culture of the former rulers, and the current rulers’ Marathi
culture interacted with each other freely.

The Maratha legacy

The Maratha rule challenged Mughal dominance and
established the largest Indian empire before the British took
over the Subcontinent, controlling much of central and northern
India. They set up a new way of governing with an efficient
administration, and also revived the local Hindu traditions
without religious discrimination. Their brave fight against
oppressive rule and foreign power was driven by the fiery ideal
of Swarajya. Later it inspired many Indians to believe they
could govern themselves, planting the early seeds for India’s
freedom movement.

Before we move on ...

-~ Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj founded the Maratha kingdom
in the 17" century. Its decades-long resistance to Mughal
power, and the experience gained from this, helped in its
pan-Indian expansion in the 18" century.
-~ The British captured India effectively from the Marathas
more than from any other Indian power.
- Fortswerethe core of Maratha state; the Marathas controlled
hundreds of forts, thus strategically strengthening their
control over the region.
-~ Their formidable navy resisted European naval supremacy
for quite some time despite lack of access to the latest
technology of the time.
3 - The Rise of the Marathas

-~ The Marathas inspired a new cultural confidence amongst

Tapestry of the Past

Indians in various regions, thus contributing to the cultural

revival and innovation.

114
 Questions and activities
il, Analyse how geography (particularly mountains and
coastlines) guided Maratha military strategy and
state formation.
Imagine you are creating a short biography of a Maratha
leader for younger students. Choose one personality
(Kanhoji Angre, Bajirao I, Mahadji Shinde, Ahilyabai Holkar
or Tarabai) and write 3-4 paragraphs highlighting what
makes them inspirational. Include at least one challenge
they overcame.
If you could visit one Maratha fort today (such as Raigad,
Sindhudurg, Gingee, or Pratapgad), which would you
choose and why? Research its history, architecture, and
strategic importance. Present your findings as a digital
presentation or a poster in class.
The chapter states, “The British took India from the
Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.”
What do you think this means? What evidence from the
chapter supports this idea?
Compare how Shivaji and later Marathas treated religious
places and people of different faiths. What evidence from
the chapter shows their approach to religious diversity?
The chapter describes how forts were ‘the core of the state’
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

for Marathas. Why were they so important? How did they

help the Marathas survive against larger enemies?
You have been appointed as the chief designer for Maratha
coins. Design a coin that represents Maratha achievements
and values. Explain the symbols you chose.
After this introduction to the Maratha period, what do you
think was their most important contribution to Indian
history? Write a paragraph supporting your opinion with
examples from the chapter. Then share and discuss your
ideas with classmates.

115
 The Colonial Era in India

Nearly two centuries ago the early Britons in Bengal and the sister
Presidencies regarded the land and the people as fair game for
plunder. ... Under the later Britons, as administrators ... the plunder
is proceeding far more outrageously today than at any preceding
period. ... Modern England has been made great by Indian wealth, ...
wealth always taken by the might and skill of the stronger.
— William Digby (1901)

Fig. 4.1. A painting entitled ‘The East offering its riches

to Britannia’, by a Greek painter, Spiridione Roma, 1778.
(The painting is discussed later in the chapter.)

0s81CHo4

116
 1498: Vasco da
Gama's arrival at
Calicut (Kozhikode)

1560: Establishment
of the Inquisition
atGoa

1612-1690: The
English East India
Company establishes
trading posts at Surat,
Madras, Bombay and
Calcutta

In the previous chapter, we saw the Marathas considerably

weaken the Mughal Empire, before they themselves succumbed
to the British forces early in the 19% century. And yet, military
campaigns were only one factor in India becoming the ‘jewel in
the Crown’ of the British Empire — indeed, the empire’s largest
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

colony.

THE AGE OF COLONIALISM

Before we get there, we must step back a little in time and
consider the phenomenon of colonialism. Its usual definition
is the practice where one country takes control of another
region, establishing settlements there, and imposing its political,
economic, and cultural systems. This is not a recent occurrence:
colonialism can be traced to the time of the great empires in
the 1% millennium BCE; in the 1% millennium CE, the spread
of Christianity and Islam also involved the colonisation of the
territories converted to the new faiths.
e

17
 1674: The French East India 1757: British 1835: Macaulay’s
Company sets up a trading victory in the Minute on
post at Pondicherry Battle of Plassey Indian Education

1741: Defeat 1818: Third 1858: The British

of the Dutch Anglo-Maratha Crown ends the rule
at the Battle war ends of the East India
of Colachel Maratha power Company; start
of the British Raj

1770-1772: First 1848-49: Fall of the Sikh

great famine in Empire; the East India
Bengal Company annexes Punjab

1746-1763: 1829-1833: The ——

The Carnatic Khasi Uprising 1857: The Great
Wars between (in present-day Indian Rebellion
the British and Meghalaya)
the French

But the ‘Age of Colonialism’ usually refers to Europe’s expansion

from the 15" century onward, which, within a few centuries,
extended to large parts of the world. As you will discover in
higher grades, European powers —in particular, Spain, Portugal,
Britain, France, and Netherlands — established colonies across
Africa, Asia, the Americas, Australia and many Pacific islands, Enslavement:
after conquering large parts of those regions of the world. Igmér;%e into
Often, the conquests were achieved through military campaigns aslave.
thatinvolved the massacre or enslavement ofnative populations.
What impelled those nations to undertake such campaigns?
4 - The Colonial Erain India

Political competition between European powers created a

race for territorial expansion and global influence. Territorial
Tapestry of the Past

expansion had obvious economic advantages: access to new

natural resources, new markets and new trade routes — and,
often, plunder, as we will see. Converting indigenous popu-
lations to Christianity was another powerful motivation. A lesser
one, but significant nonetheless, was scientific inquiry — the
o
 Demonise: desire to explore unknown lands so as to accumulate knowledge
To falsely of the planet’s geography and natural history.
portray an
individual While colonisers often claimed they had the ‘civilising mission’
oragroup
of people of bringing ‘progress’ to the colonised peoples, who were often
ina very demonised as ‘savage’, ‘primitive’ or ‘barbaric’, the reality was
negative
very different: loss of independence, exploitation of resources
light.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 4.3. A cartoon depictinga British business magnate straddling

Africa while he holds a telegraph wire (Edward Linley Sambourne in
Punch magazine, London, 1892).

by the colonisers, the destruction of traditional ways of life,

and the imposition of foreign cultural values. It is true that the
colonial age brought the world together, saw a rapid growth of
economies and technologies, but the benefits were mostly for
the colonisers; many historical studies have documented the
immense hardships that the colonised people had to endure.
(5]

119
 LET'S EXPLORE
What do you think the cartoon (Fig. 4.3) is trying to express?
(Keep in mind that the telegraph, which permitted instant
communications for the first time, was then a recent
invention.) Analyse different elements of the drawing.

In many of the colonised regions, resistance built up against

the colonisers. The phenomenon of colonialism declined in the
mid-20" century, especially after World War II; many factors
contributed to rapid worldwide decolonisation, with most
colonised countries attaining independence. Here, however, we
will focus on the special case of India.

EUROPEANS IN INDIA
India traded with the Greeks and the Romans over two
millennia ago. Indian goods — spices, cotton, ivory, gems,
sandalwood, teakwood, wootz steel, among other commodities
— were highly sought after in the Mediterranean world. Until
the 16" century CE, when European powers began sailing
to the Indian Subcontinent, India was a vibrant economic GDP:
Abbreviation
and cultural powerhouse. Historical estimates (by economist of‘gross
Angus Maddison, in particular) suggest that India contributed domestic
product, a
at least one-fourth of the world GDP during this whole period, measure of
making it one of the two largest economies globally alongside the value of
goods and
China (whose contribution was of the same order). It is
services a
remarkable that from the 16% century onward, many European country (or
travellers to India described her as ‘flourishing’ and noted her the world,
in this case)
manufacturing capabilities, diverse agricultural output, and produces in
extensiveinternalas wellas external trading networks. However, oneyear.
this economic prosperity also made India an attractive target for
4 - The Colonial Erain India

European colonial ambitions.

Tapestry of the Past

Let us survey Europe’s first colonial powers in India.

The Portuguese: commerce and atrocities

The Portuguese explorer and navigator Vasco da Gama’s arrival
at Kappad (near Kozhikode in Kerala) in May 1498 paved the
way for the beginning of European colonisation in India.

120
 Though he was well received,
A few centuries ago, his aggressive ways failed to
the port town of establish friendly relations
Ullal (in present-day with the local rulers. During
southern Karnataka) his second voyage four years
was an important later, he seized, tortured and
trading point control- killed Indian merchants, and
led by Rani Abbakkal. bombarded Calicut from the
In the latter half of sea. The Portuguese captured
the 16™ century, the strategic ports, including Goa
Portuguese repeatedly attempted to take it (in 1510), which became the
over, but Rani Abbakka I formed strategic capital of their colonyinIndia,
alliances with neighbouring kingdoms as well as several trading
and thwarted their attempts. She was posts along the Malabar and
eventually captured and died fighting in Coromandel coasts.
prison. Her successor Rani Abbakka II is
The Portuguese implemented
reported to have created fireballs out of
a system known as cartaz
coconut shells and set several ships of the
(pass), requiring all ships in
Portuguese navy on fire. Their inspirational
the Arabian Sea to purchase
stories are remembered even today
Portuguese permits for
through the Yakshagana, a traditional form
navigation. Ships without
of dance-drama.
these permits were seized.
This naval dominance
| allowed them to monopolise the spice trade between
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Inquisition: India and Europe for nearly a century.

A tribunal set up : s
by the Roman Alonggde} commercial
Catholic Church exploitation, the Portuguese
o J(‘i‘ggghhriz'fi;';: | presence in western
suspected of India was characterised
thdifgg UPitniE;RS by religious persecution. KAPPKADAVU
contrary to the | : , :
Church's doctrine). In Goa, they established IN'THE YEAR
Over some 600 the Inquisition in 1560, 1498
years, across
Europe many
which
N
severely . persecuted
thousands of Hindus, Muslims, Jews,
supposed heretics and Christian converts ’ i
were tortured and d £ . Fig. 4.4. Aplaque in
executed. suspecte o practising Kozhikode marking Vasco
their original faith. Such da Gama’s arrival in 1498
-]
[

121
persecution was accompanied by forced conversions and the
destruction of many Hindu temples, among other forms of
abuse of the native population. (The Goa Inquisition was only
abolished in 1812.)

The Dutch: commerce and competition

The Dutch arrived in India in the early 17* century and, unlike
the Portuguese, focused primarily on commercial dominance,
particularly in the spice trade. They established a Dutch East
India Company, with trading posts in various parts of India,
including, on the west coast, Surat, Bharuch, Cochin (Kochi), and
on the east coast Nagapattinam and Masulipatnam (present-
day Machilipatnam). Their most significant presence was in the
Malabar region of Kerala, where they displaced the Portuguese
from several trading centres.

4 - The Colonial Erain India

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 4.5. A depiction of the surrender of Dutch forces to King Marthanda Varma of
Travancore after the Battle of Colachel, 1741 CE (Padmanabhapuram Palace).
(2]

122
 The Dutch presence in India was ultimately limited; it declined
significantly after their defeat at the Battle of Colachel in
1741, where the forces of Travancore under King Marthanda
Varma decisively defeated the Dutch both on land and at sea
(the Travancore kingdom was in the southern part of present-
day Kerala). This battle was a rare instance of an Asian power
successfully repelling a European colonial force.

The French: colonial ambitions

The French entered India later, establishing their first trading
post at Surat in 1668 and subsequently at Pondicherry (present-
day Puducherry) in 1674, where they established their East
India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) and developed
ambitious plans to establish a French empire in India.
Dupleix, who served as Governor-General of French India from
1742 to 1754, pioneered several colonial strategies that would
later be adopted by the British. In particular, he trained Indian
soldiers in European military techniques, creating disciplined
infantry soldiers known as sepoys. Dupleix also developed
the strategy of indirect rule through puppet Indian rulers,
who were installed through interventions in local succession
disputes.
The French colonial ambitions in India were ultimately checked
during the Carnatic Wars (1746-1763), a series of conflicts
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

between Britain and France. Despite initial successes under

Dupleix, who captured Madras (present-day Chennai) in 1746,
the French ultimately lost ground to the British and their colony
was reduced to Pondicherry and a few smaller enclaves.
Like the Dutch, and unlike the Portuguese, the French colonial
powers did not much intervene in Indians’ social and religious
life. A rare exception was the destructionin 1748 of Pondicherry’s
large Vedapurishwaran temple, ordered by Dupleix on the
persistent request of Pondicherry’s Jesuit priests and Dupleix’s
own wife, with a view to asserting the dominance of Christianity.
Generally, however, the French had to be content with a modest
amount of trade with India.
(2]

123
 AdeFort P Baction de la Reine [Link]ére des Hilabares
N [Link] a Corne Q Bastion de [ Hopital 2. Cometizre der T
Bastumde S Laurent R Bastion Goudelowr B Grand Warché '\
N . Bastion de S Lowis . Petite Batterie 14 Prison des Malabir
W = Bastion 'y . L Eglis 5. Ouvrgger newfi, fits wn
L [Link] 1o etipgr.
Bstion dela Porte de Madras3. Jardins de la Compagnee 16 Ouvrages desrgo
n. Bastion du Nord Ouest . 4. Jardins das Jesuites 7 archede 5 Laurent
1. Bastion de S*Joseph & Jardins dar Caprucins 48, Batterie de Toiller
X Lorte de Valledaur Hopit Place du s
1. Bastion Valledao: -Anctén Jardin de la Compag* 20 Les Missionatres
2 Bastion vans peur 8L Hotelde la Compagnie’ . La grande Pagode
N Lorte Villenowr 9-Maison du Gowverneur
0 Bastion de Villenour 0. Hotel de la Momngye

Fehelle de (’z}x(:z‘m/ Zoises.

w0 200 oo oo Joo

L4 MEeER DES INDE S

O

Fig. 4.6. A 1764 plan of Pondicherry showing the city enclosed in

fortifications and grid planning. The large structure facing the sea (at
the bottom) was the fort. (The top of the plan points to the west.)
4 - The Colonial Erain India

ENTER THE BRITISH

Tapestry of the Past

Britain dominated the Indian subcontinent for nearly two

centuries. How did this happen? Many books have dissected
the methods of the British rulers; we will not attempt to tell
a complete story, but will focus on the main aspects of their
colonial presence in India.

124
 From traders to rulers
The British conquest of India is one of history’s most remarkable
examples of how a trading company could transform into an
imperial power. Unlike classic conquests, the British takeover of
India was gradual, calculated, and often disguised as commercial
enterprise rather than military invasion.
The English East India Company was established as a trading
company and was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I,
which gave it special powers — to raise a private army, for
instance. Nevertheless, its agents initially kept up a pretence of
being mere traders, which allowed them, in the 17% century, to
establish footholds along India’s coast with minimal resistance:
Surat, Madras, Bombay and Calcutta among the first. Local rulers
did not mind these trading posts, as they generally welcomed
foreign trade (which, let us recall, was a longstanding practice in
India). These modest beginnings concealed the Company’s long-
term ambitions.

LET US EXPLORE
Before you read further, have a good look at the painting on
the first page of this chapter. It was specially ordered for the
London headquarters of the East India Company and is over
three metres long. Observe every aspect of it — the people in
it, the objects, the symbols and the attitudes. Form groups of
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

four or five students and let each group present its conclusions
as regards the messages the painting conveys.
(You will find our answers a few pages down, when we return
to the painting, but avoid looking at them right now!)

The strategy of ‘divide and rule’

While maintaining an appearance of traders, the Company’s
agents cultivated political relationships with local rulers,
offering military support to some against their rivals, thus
inserting themselves into Indian political conflicts and emerging
as power brokers rather than foreign invaders. They would also

125
play on rivalries between
regional rulers orsuccession <
disputes within ruling =~ =
houses, so as to benefit from ¥
these conflicts — the ‘divide !
and rule’ policy. The
British were equally skilled
at exploiting existing
divisions within Indian
society: they identified
and often encouraged
tensions between religious
communities, for instance.
The Battle of Plassey (1757)
exemplifies this approach.
When tensions arose
between Siraj-ud-daulah,
the Nawab of Bengal, and
the East India Company
officials led by Robert
Clive, the latter identified
disgruntled elements within Fig. 4.7. Clive leading the East India Company’s troops
the Nawab’s court. Clive at Plassey, 1757 (paintingby William Heath, 1821)
hatched a conspiracy with
Mir Jafar, the Nawab’s military commander, promising to install
him as the new Nawab in exchange for his betrayal. The battle
took place at Palashi (Plassey as the British spelt it), some 150
kilometres north of present-day Kolkata. Some French forces
assisted the Nawab, but Mir Jafar’s forces — constituting the
majority of the Nawab’s army — stood aside, ensuring a British
4 - The Colonial Erain India

victory despite their smaller number. Even today, ‘Mir Jafar’ in

India remains a synonym for ‘traitor’!
Tapestry of the Past

By positioning themselves as a kingmaker, the East India

Company gradually established control over increasingly
large territories. In the 19™ century, it went a step further
and introduced the infamous Doctrine of Lapse, according
to which any princely state would be annexed if its ruler died

126
 without a natural male heir. This deliberately disregarded the
Hindu tradition of adoption, which was a legitimate means of
succession in Indian royal houses.

- DON'T MISS O
In the Indian context, a princely state was a region that
remained under the rule of an Indian prince, maharaja
or nawab, but which had accepted British protection and
guidance in exchange for maintaining internal autonomy.
There were hundreds of them, from large ones (such as
Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore or Jammu & Kashmir) to
smaller ones. At the time of India’s Independence, there were
over 500 princely states, covering about 40 per cent of the
Subcontinent.

The Doctrine of Lapse led to the annexation of numerous states,

contributing to the expansion of the territorial control of the
British. This created much resentment in sections of Indian
society and contributed to the 1857 Rebellion (to which we
return below).
Another stratagem (known as ‘subsidiary alliance’) was to
install a British ‘Resident’ in the courts of Indian rulers to
protect them against internal or external threats; in exchange,
they would have to maintain British troops at their own expense
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

and conduct foreign relations only through the British. While

appearing to preserve the sovereignty of princely states, the
system effectively transferred real power to the British while
burdening Indian rulers with the costs of their own subjugation!
The ruler of Hyderabad was among the first to enter such an
alliance in 1798; several others soon followed. These so-called
alliances allowed the British to control vast territories without
the administrative costs of direct rule, creating what was called
‘an empire on the cheap’. Once a state entered the system, exiting
it was virtually impossible, as any attempt to break free would
face overwhelming British military response.

127
FROM PARADISE TO HELL?

Devastating famines
A few years after its victory at Plassey, the East India Company
secured the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha
— some of India’s richest regions. Clive described Bengal in
particular as ‘the paradise of the earth’. The Company’s agents Paradise:
extracted maximum revenue while investing minimally in Icr; ra]t;i',lg“’“s
governance or development, with devastating consequences for heaven. Here,
the population. anideal,
wealthy or
In 1770-1772, coming on top of two years of crop failure, the perfectly
harsh revenue collection targets imposed by the East India happy place.
Company in Bengal — requiring farmers to pay a high rate of
cash taxes on the produce of their lands, regardless of harvest
conditions — caused a catastrophic famine which killed nearly
one-third of its population or an estimated 10 million people. In
fact, the Company maintained harsh revenue collection targets,
even increasing the land tax during the famine. Such cruelty
was denounced later not only by Indian personalities but by
some British officials and public intellectuals (such as William
Digby whom we quoted at the start of this chapter). For instance,
a century later, WW. Hunter, an official, wrote:

“While the country every year became a total waste, the

English government constantly demanded an increased
land-tax. ... All through the stifling summer of 1770 the
people went on dying. The husbandmen [farmers] sold
their cattle; they sold their implements of agriculture;
they devoured their seed-grain; they sold their sons and
daughters, till at length no buyer of children could be
4 - The Colonial Erain India

found; they ate the leaves of trees and the grass of the
field. ... Day and night a torrent of famished and disease-
Tapestry of the Past

stricken wretches poured into the great cities.”

Such tragic famines were going to recur throughout the British

rule in India. During the Great Famine 0f1876-1878, for instance,
up to 8 million Indians perished, mostly in the Deccan plateau.

128
 réin Tyt x = ! 3 alaR

Fig. 4.8. Grain bags on Madras beach, ready for export,

‘ while people were dying of hunger in large numbers.

Disregardingtheseverity ofthecrisis,
some Indian traders would hold on to
their stocks in the hope of price rise,
causing an artificial scarcity, and the
British administration continued to
export grain to Britain — about one
million tonnes of rice alone per year
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

during the three years of the famine

(Fig. 4.8).
Apart from the factors mentioned
above, the British economic policy
of ‘free market’, which left prices
of commodities free to fluctuate,
contributed to the severity of the
Fig. 4.9. People waiting for famine relief in famines. Thus Lord Lytton, Viceroy of
Bangalore (today Bengaluru) during the 1877 India during the 1876-1878 famine,
famine (Illustrated London News)
issued an order that “there is to be no
interference of any kind on the part of the Government with the
object of reducing the price of food.” At the same time, in 1876, at
(2]

129
 the height of the Great Famine, Lytton organised an extravagant durbar
in Delhi which involved ‘a week-long feast for 68,000 officials, satraps
and maharajas’.
Precise numbers of severe famines during the entire British rule vary
from a dozen to over 20. According to several Famine Commissions and
other reports, it has been estimated that the total number of human
victims (‘human’ since millions of cattle and other animals also died) is
anywhere between 50 and 100 million — nearly the number of deaths
caused by World War II.
The British administration did open famine relief camps in some cities
(Fig. 4.9), but far too few and with inadequate supplies. Some officials
argued that famine relief should be deliberately kept very low; the
Famine Commission of 1878-80, for example, stated: “The doctrine
that in time of famine the poor are entitled to demand relief ... would
probably lead to the doctrine that they are entitled to such relief at all
times.”
‘We should note that famines in India had occurred throughout history,
caused by droughts, floods, military campaigns and other factors, but
never on such a scale. During the colonial era, India, especially rural
India, sank into deep poverty and never recovered.

The drain of India’s wealth

As we saw earlier, economic exploitation of India formed the
foundation of British colonial policy. In 1895, the U.S. historian and
political scientist Brooks Adams noted:

‘ ‘ “Very soon after [the Battle of] Plassey, the Bengal plunder
began to arrive in London, and the effect appears to have been
instantaneous, for all authorities agree that the ‘industrial
revolution’ ... began with the year 1760. ... Possibly since the
4 - The Colonial Erain India

world began no investment has ever yielded the profit reaped

from the Indian plunder.”
Tapestry of the Past

In other words, according to Adams, the Industrial Revolution in

Britain, which required much investment, was made possible at least
partly by the ‘stolen wealth from India’ (this phrase is by the U.S.
historian Will Durant).

130
 Taking his cue from scholars such as Adams and Digby, Dadabhai
Naoroji, a respected political figure, authored in 1901 Poverty
and Un-British Rule in India, in which he compiled from British
reports the wealth estimated to have been drained out of India.
House of
About the same time, Romesh Chunder Dutt, a historian, did
Commons
is the name a similar exercise in his Economic History of India. All these
for the studies showed that the colonisers had extracted many billions
elected lower
house of the of pounds from India. A more recent estimate (by Utsa Patnaik)
bicameral for the period 1765 to 1938 comes to 45 trillion U.S. dollars (in
parliament
of the United today’s value), or about 13 times Britain’s GDP in 2023! This was
Kingdom. extracted not just through taxes, but by charging Indians for
Dadabhai
the colonial power’s expenditures on building the railways, the
Naoroji was
the first telegraph network, and even on wars!
Indian to be
elected to the Had this wealth remained invested in India, it would have been
British House a very different country when it attained Independence.
of Commons.
LET'S EXPLORE
Why do you think Dadabhai Naoroji means by ‘un-British rule
in India’? (Hint: he was an MP in the House of Commons in
1892.)
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 4.10. Brooks Fig. 4.11. William Fig. 4.12. Dadabhai ~ Fig. 4.13. R.C. Dutt
Adams Digby Naoroji

THINKABO T
Let us return to this painting (Fig. 4.14), but now with some
clues to its symbolism. Note how Britannia (a symbolic

131
Britannia, with the God Mercury,
lion symbolising \ symbolising
W commerce and
travel

‘old Father ‘ o Two dark figures

Thames', (Indians?) offering
symbolising London bales of cotton

Fig. 4.14. ‘The East offering its riches to Britannia’

— making sense of the painting’s symbolism

figure for Britain) sits higher than the colonies, pointing to

her superior power; contrast with the lower position and bent
posture of the colonies. Did they really ‘offer’ their wealth? Or
did Britain seize it by force or ruse? Note also the Indians’ dark
complexion (in contrast with that of Britannia), reflecting the
belief in the superiority of white people over the dark-skinned
‘natives’.

CHANGING LANDSCAPES E%
The expanding colonial rule impacted nearly every aspect of f;é
Indian life, as the rulers were convinced that India should be *EE
reshaped according to their ‘superior’ conceptions. Let us briefly 2
T
look at a few of those impacts.
o

132
 Decline of India’s indigenous industries
Embossed: Before the 18" century, India was renowned for its
Witha
design manufacturing capabilities, particularly in textiles — cotton, silk,
stamped wool, jute, hemp and coir being the chief ones. Indian cotton
on the
clothin textiles, in particular, with rich and intricate designs, bright
sucha colours, and textures ranging from ultra-thin muslins to richly
way thatit
embossed fabrics were in high demand in many parts of the
stands out
in relief. world.

Do you understand all the terms used above to list and

describe Indian textiles? If not, form groups of four or five
and try to find out more, then compare your findings with
the help of your teacher.

British policy imposed heavy duties on Indian textiles imported

into Britain while forcing India to accept British manufactured
goods with minimal tariffs. Moreover, Britain now controlled
most of the sea trade as well as exchange rates, so Indian traders
found it difficult to export as earlier. The result was the ruin of
Indian textile industry. In the 19* century, India’s textile exports
fell sharply, while Britain’s imports into India grew even more
sharply. Communities of skilled artisans who had practised their
craft for generations were reduced to poverty and forced to
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

returnto subsistence agriculture on increasingly overtaxed land.

As William Bentinck, then Governor-General of India, observed
in 1834, “The bones of the cotton weavers are bleaching the
plains of India.”
Similar scenarios unfolded for India’s manufactures of iron,
steel, paper and other goods. India’s share of the world GDP kept
declining throughout the colonial rule, reaching hardly 5 per
cent at the time of Independence. In less than two centuries, one
of the richest lands of the world had become one of the poorest.

Dismantling traditional governance structures

Before British colonisation, India possessed well-organised
systems of local self-governance. Village councils managed
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133
community affairs, resolved disputes, and organised public
works such as irrigation, roads, etc. Regional kingdoms
maintained complex administrative structures that had evolved
over centuries to address local needs and conditions. Charles
Metcalfe, an acting Governor-General in the 1830s, described
the system and its efficiency in this important statement:

“The village communities are little republics, having

nearly everything they want within themselves. They
seemtolastwhere nothing elselasts. Dynastyafter dynasty
tumbles down; revolution succeeds to revolution; but the
village community remains the same. ... This union of the
village communities, each one forming a separate little
state in itself, has contributed more than any other cause
to the preservation of the people of India.”

The British systematically dismantled these indigenous

governance systems, replacing them with a centralised
bureaucracy designed primarily to facilitate tax collection
and maintain order, rather than promote public welfare.
This transformation destroyed centuries-old mechanisms of
community decision-making.
The introduction of British codes of law disregarded customary
laws and practices that had governed Indian communities for
generations. While presented as modernisation, this imposition
of a foreign system unsuited to India alienated ordinary Indians
from the judicial system, creating courts that were expensive,
time-consuming, and conducted in a foreign language.

Transforming Indian education: ©

creating ‘brown Englishmen’ E
<
Education became a powerful tool for the creation of a class of Z‘;fi
Indians who would serve British interests. In earlier centuries, %Tg"
India had diverse educational traditions — pathashalas, :;g
madrasas, viharas, and many forms of apprenticeship learning. g.&l
These institutions transmitted not only practical knowledge but T
also cultural values and traditions. Even in the early 19*"century,
(2]

134
 Britishreports reported hundreds of thousands of village schools
across India (for instance, 100,000 to 150,000 of them in Bengal
and Bihar up to 1830!) “where young natives are taught reading,
writing and arithmetic, upon a system so economical, ... and at
the same time so simple and effectual...”
Orientalist: A sharp turning point in India’s educational history was marked
Alargely obsolete
by the notorious 1835 ‘Minute on Indian Education’ of British
term to designate
ascholar of the historian and politician, Thomas B. Macaulay. In it, although
‘Orient’, that is, he admitted that he had “no knowledge of either Sanskrit or
regions from
West Asia to Arabic,” he expressed his conviction that European knowledge
the Far East. In was vastly superior to India’s: “I have never found one among
India, Orientalists
(now called
them [Orientalists] who could deny that a single shelf of a good
‘Indologists’) were European library was worth the whole native literature of India
oftenscholars and Arabia.” Indians, therefore needed British education, whose
of Sanskrit, Pali,
Persian and other objective would be to create a class of Indians who would be
languages. “Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in
morals, and in intellect.”
Although a few prominent British Orientalists argued that
Indian students should be left to study in their own languages,
Macaulay’s policy gained the upper hand and India’s traditional
schools slowly disappeared, while English became a language of
prestige associated with the colonial masters, resulting in lasting
divisions in Indian society between English-educated elites and
the masses.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

The new education system served multiple colonial objectives.

It created a pool of Indian clerks and minor officials who could
staff the lower ranks of the colonial administration at a fraction
of the cost of British personnel. It also sidelined traditional
sources of knowledge and authority, creating generations of
Indians disconnected from their own cultural heritage.

' THINK ABOUT IT

What exactly did Macaulay mean when he wrote that
“a single shelf of a good European library was worth
the whole native literature of India and Arabia”? And
why should he want to make Indians “English in taste, in
(<]

135
 opinions, in morals, and in intellect”? How does this relate to
the ‘civilising mission’ mentioned at the start of the chapter?
Ask your teacher to guide a class debate on these questions.

Reshaping economicstructures to serveimperial

needs
The British transformed India’s economy from a self-sufficient
agricultural system supplemented by craft and manufacture
production into a supplier of raw materials for British industry
and a market forced to buy British goods. Without going into
the technical details of this economic transformation, let us take
the example of the construction of India’s vast railway network,
often cited as a colonial blessing. While the railways did bring |
people closer together and integrated India’s internal market, it |
was designed primarily to move raw materials from the interior
to ports for export and to distribute British manufactured goods
throughout India. Railway routes largely ignored existing trade

i [| e AV

4 - The Colonial Erain India

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 4.15. A steam locomotive of the Madras Railway (one of the companies
operating the rail network in British India) in 1860
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136
 patterns to serve colonial economic interests. Another purpose
was to move armies quickly from their cantonments if they had
to fight a distant rebellion or war.
Besides, the construction of India’s railways was not a gift from
the colonial rulers to India. Most of it was paid for by Indian tax
revenue, which means that Indian funded infrastructure that
primarily served British strategic and commercial interests,
instead ofbeing focused on serving the people’s needs. The same
can be said of the telegraph network.
Even the administrative costs of colonialism were borne by
Indian subjects. The colonial administrative apparatus, military
installations, and the lavish lifestyles of British officials in India
were all financed by Indian taxation. In short, Indians funded
their own subjugation.

EARLY RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS:

CHALLENGING COLONIAL AUTHORITY
India was such an enormous source of wealth, natural and
human resources for the British that they nicknamed her ‘the
jewel in the crown of the British Empire’. And they asserted
that India would forever remain part of the British Empire, “on
which the sun never sets.”

' THINK ABOUT IT

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

What is meant by “the sun never sets on the British Empire”?

Do you think this was a correct statement?

However, almost from the beginning of the British conquest of

India, resistance movements manifested to try and repel this
self-imposed ‘guest’. We will briefly survey a few such
movements, but before we do so, let us have a good look at the
map of the British Indian Empire (Fig. 4.16). The red and pink
territories are those directly under British administration, while
the yellow ones are the princely states we discussed earlier. (The
black lines stand for the railway lines.)
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137
 Imperial Gazotteor Atles of Inda. Flate 20.
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Fig. 4.16. A map ofthe British Indian Empire in 1909

LET'S EXPLORE
Examine the map. What are the main differences with the |
map of today’s India, in terms both of borders and of names? ' -'-;n

The ‘Sannyasi-Fakir rebellion’ i%

One of the earliest organised resistance movements, often :;:8)
called the ‘the Sannyasi (or Sannyasi-Fakir) Rebellion’, g2
began in Bengal after the terrible famine of 1770. Groups of &q
sannyasis (Hindu ascetics) and fakirs (Muslim ascetics), who
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138
 traditionally travelled freely for pilgrimage and charity, found
their movements restricted by the British East India Company
policies, especially by the new land and taxation policies. The
precise motivations of the sannyasis and fakirs have been
debated, but over the next three decades they attacked British
treasuries and tax collectors. The British called them ‘bandits’,
executed some of them and used their superior forces to
eventually defeat them. This rebellion later inspired the Bengali
writer Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel Anandamath
(1882); it contained the song ‘Vande Mataram’, which would
inspire Indians during the struggle for freedom in the early 20
century and, after Independence, became India’s national song.

Tribal uprisings
India’s tribal communities faced unique threats as the British
expanded into forests and hills, disrupting their traditional way
oflife. The British described tribals as ‘primitive’, restricted their
access to forests and forest produce, sometimes acquiring tribal
land or turning it into private property, imposing cash taxes,
catching tribals in debt traps, replacing traditional tribal councils
with the British legal system and encouraging missionaries to
‘civilise’ and convert tribals to Christianity. Besides, a colonial
law categorised hundreds of tribal communities as ‘criminal
tribes’, causing them to be unjustly harassed for decades.
Some of the above abuse led some tribes to rise in rebellion
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

against the colonial power. Among the first such events, the
Kol Uprising (1831-1832) in Chota Nagpur (in present-day
Jharkhand) started when the British introduced land policies
that favoured outsiders over the original tribal inhabitants.
The Kol tribes (which included the Mundas and Oraons, among
others) temporarily established their control over significant
territory before being defeated by the British forces. The Santhal
Rebellion of 1855-1856, a widespread uprising of the Santhal
people across parts of present-day Jharkhand, Bihar and West
Bengal, was led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, and
rebelled against moneylenders and landlords who were taking
away their ancestral lands with British support. The Santhals
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139
declared their own government and vowed to ‘fight to the last
drop of blood’. The British response was brutal; after some
initial losses, they burned entire villages and killed thousands
of Santhals, including, eventually, the rebel leaders. However,
the daring Santhal rebellion inspired other tribal communities
to resist colonial rule.

Fig. 4.17. An 1856 sketch in the Illustrated London News depicting an unequal
confrontation between Santhal rebels and gun-wielding sepoys

LET'S EXPLORE
Note how the Santhals are depicted in the 1856 sketch
(Fig. 4.17) drawn from an artist’s imagination: observe their
complexion, dress, weapons and draw your conclusions as
regards the image this depiction would create in the popular ©
mind in Britain. E
o
Peasant uprisings against economic exploitation £
Even without famines, peasants suffered under the unfair 553
British revenue collections, often losing their lands to gi
moneylenders or new landlords. The Indigo Revolt (1859-1862)
o

140
 illustrates this exploitation. European planters forced peasants
in the northern parts of Bengal to abandon food crops and,
instead, grow indigo plants, as the indigo dye was then in great
demand in Europe. From planters to traders, everyone earned
huge profits — except the peasants, who were so poorly paid
that they got trapped in debt slavery. When they refused to
grow indigo, they faced imprisonment, torture, and destruction
of their property. Their uprising was directed mostly at the
planters, who retaliated by hiring mercenaries to attack the
peasants. Their cause was supported by educated Bengalis and
the Bengali press; the British authorities were eventually forced
to restrict some of the worst abuses.

LET'S EXPLORE
Indigo is a natural deep blue pigment used in dyeing. Can you
think of other natural substances that have been traditionally
used in India to dye cloth?

There are several more notable examples of uprisings across the

Subcontinent, which, along with the other aspects of the British
Mutiny: rule that we saw earlier, built up to the largest uprising of the
In this 19% century. Let us turn to it.
context,
mutiny
refers to a
THE GREAT REBELLION OF 1857
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

rebellion The British called it the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’. ‘Sepoys’, let us recall,
by soldiers,
or sailors were the Indian soldiers enrolled in the East India company’s
in the case British Army; its officers, of course, were almost all British.
of a navy,
against
After India’s Independence, historians rejected the term ‘Sepoy
their Mutiny’, proposing a few others instead; following many
officers. scholars, we will call the event the ‘Great Rebellion of 1857°. But
what exactly happened?

LET'S EXPLORE
Why do you think was the term ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ rejected after
Indian Independence? Write one paragraph explaining your
reasons.
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141
 Fig. 4.18. Imaginary depiction of the sepoys’ rebellion at Meerut
(Illustrated London News, 1857)

Even earlier, there were several signs of severe discontent

among the sepoys, beginning with the so-called ‘Vellore Mutiny’
of 1806, which erupted when the British introduced new
uniform regulations that violated the religious practices of both
Hindu and Muslim sepoys. For example, they were forbidden
from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and were
required to shave their beards. The sepoys seized the Vellore
fort (in present-day Tamil Nadu) and killed many British officers
and troops; the British however crushed the revolt, killing or
executing hundreds of sepoys.
We should also keep in mind that most sepoys were from
agricultural families, which had been suffering great hardship
4 - The Colonial Erain India

owing to the British policies on land revenue. After decades of

increasing frustration, in 1857 rumours spread across northern
Tapestry of the Past

and central India that rifle cartridges were greased with cow
and pig fat, offending the Hindu and Muslim sepoys’ religious
sensibilities. At Barrackpore (in present-day West Bengal), the
sepoy Mangal Pandey attacked British officers. His execution
spread further discontent among the sepoys. In Meerut (in
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142
 present-day Uttar Pradesh), some of them killed their British
officers and marched to nearby Delhi, where they proclaimed
the elderly but politically powerless Mughal emperor Bahadur
Shah Zafar as their leader (his ‘empire’ was limited to a small
area in Delhi). The military decisions were, however, taken by
the commanders. The revolt quickly spread across northern
and central India, with sepoys capturing key cities like Kanpur,
Lucknow and Jhansi. At Kanpur, rebel forces under Nana Saheb
initially agreed to give safe passage to British civilians, but then
massacred over 200 men, women and children for reasons that
are still debated.
The British response was systematic and extremely brutal,
beginning with the recapture of Delhi in September 1857,
where the British forces conducted house-to-house massacres.
At Kanpur, they conducted mass executions designed to strike
terrorin the population. Inalong punitive campaign they burned
villages and destroyed crops, causing countless deaths — vastly
more than those inflicted by the rebels.
According to some historians, the Great Rebellion failed because
the sepoys lacked a unified command and a consistent strategy,
despite some heroic leaders.
The uprising failed, but it marked a turning point, especially
in sowing a seed for the idea that foreign domination was
unacceptable. The seed would grow early in the 20® century
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

into a full-fledged struggle for freedom, though with different

methods. Meantime, in 1858, the British Crown took direct control
of India from the East India Company, initiating the period of the
British Raj. British policies shifted from aggressive territorial
expansion to consolidation of control. The Indian Army was
reorganised so as to prevent unified resistance in the future.

THE LEGACY OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM

IN INDIA
The European (mostly British) conquest and rule of India
was not a ‘civilising mission’ — India’s own civilisation was
much older than Europe’s. It was a process of subjugation and
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143
 Two heroines
~ RaniLakshmibai ofJhansi fought bravely tosave
- herkingdom from British annexation; assisted
by the Maratha Tatia (or Tantia) Tope, Nana
Saheb’s military adviser, Rani Lakshmibai
managed to escape a besieged Jhansi and
to conquer the Gwalior fort, seizing the
treasury and the arsenal. She was killed on
18 June 1858 on the battlefield. The British
army officer who commanded the attack on N
3 - Fig. 4.19. A miniature
Jhansi noted that the Rani was “remarkable ,ortrait of Rani Lakshmib:
for her beauty, cleverness, perseverance (1853 or earller)
[and] generosity to her subordinates. These S
qualities, combined with her rank, rendered her most dangerdus of
all the rebel leaders. ... [She was the] best and bravest of the rebels.”
Tatia Tope continued fighting until early 1859 but was betrayed and
handed over to the British, who hanged him.
e Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh (north-
Tam

central portion of Uttar Pradesh) also

resisted the British-led resistance after
herkingdomwas annexed and joined the
rebels during the 1857 uprising, leading .
the defence of Lucknow when the British
attempted to recapture the city. She
rejected British offers of safe passage
if she surrendered and ultimately
had to take refuge in nearby Nepal. In
i/ November 1858, Queen Victoria issued
of;ifa' fi'ifihm‘gl}‘]’g “mt a proclamation marking the end of the
4 - The Colonial Era in India

g i Zi 3 » P
4 Mflhfllinetilé 1850s East India Company’s rule in India;
3 promised non-interference in religious
Tapestry of the Past

§ matters and greater inclusion of Indians in the administration. Begurg K,

zrat Mahal issued a counter-proclamation, warning Indians nstt
st such assurances, as “it is the unvarying custom of the Eng
er to forgive a fault be it great or small.” PO

144
 exploitation executed systematically, with brutal repression if
necessary. Except for a small Indian elite who accepted British
rule as inevitable, the Indians suffered the fate of many of the
world’s colonised populations: abuse, exploitation, violence and
uprooting.
At the same time, the colonial rule had some largely unintended
consequences. It opened (or re-opened) India to the world and
the world to India. The British (and the French to a much smaller
extent) were systematic in documenting every aspect of their
conquest, fromits geography (they conducted meticulous surveys
of the Subcontinent). They created impressive lists of all ethnic
groups, although the lists were flawed because of the unscientific
but prevalent notions of ‘race’ (as genetics has shown, ‘races’ do
not exist). They also documented India’s monuments, studying
their art and architecture, restoring some of the ruined ones,
and initiating the discipline of archaeology. But in the process,
they (and other colonial powers) stole thousands of statues,
paintings, jewels, manuscripts and other cultural artefacts from
India and sent them to European museums or private collections.
While this represented a profound cultural loss and violation of
India’s heritage, it also promoted some appreciation of Indian
art in the European public. Such massive theft took place over
much of the colonised world; today, there are ongoing debates
and efforts to repatriate some of these cultural treasures to their
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

countries of origin.

LE EXPLORE
- In the sentence “It opened (or re-opened) India to the
world and the world to India”, why do you think we
added ‘re-opened’?
- Some argue that stolen cultural heritage has been better
preserved abroad than it would have been in India.
‘What is your view on its repatriation? Discuss in groups.

Finally, although British scholars were not the first Europeans to

master the Sanskrit language, they started publishing some of the
e

145
 THE

BHAGVAT-GEETA,

DIALOGUTES

KREESHNA axp ARFOON;

IN EIGHTEEN LECTURES;

wiTu

N o T E 8.
Fig. 4.21. The
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL, IN THE Sinfbri2, OR ANCIENT title pagevaf the
LANGUAGE oF Tuz Brabmias, first English
oo translation
CHARLES WILKINS, (in 1785)
of a
COMPANY, ON THEIR BENGAL KSTABLIHMINT. The Bhagavad
Gita or Dialogues
of Krishna and
LONDON: Arjuna’ (using
PRINTED FOR C. NOURSE, modern spelling).
OPFOSITE CATHARINE-STREET, IN THE STRAND. The translator
TMDCCLINRY. was Charles
Wilkins.

first translations of Sanskrit texts into a European language; the

French, the Germans and others soon followed. The motivations
were mixed: some scholars were genuine students or admirers
of India’s ancient culture, while others were convinced that
by studying Indian languages and texts, it would be easier to
demonstrate the superiority of Christianity.
The spread of Sanskrit studies and texts in Europe (followed
later by other Indian languages) was like the ‘discovery of
a new continent’, in the words of the German philosopher
4 - The Colonial Erain India

Georg Hegel. Indian texts had a great impact on European

Tapestry of the Past

philosophers, writers, poets, artists, and sometimes statesmen;

this influence extended to the United States of America in the 19
century. This is a reminder that although political domination
may flow in one direction, cultural influence sometimes flows in
the opposite direction.
e

146
 Before we move on ...
> The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British were
attracted to India primarily because of her great wealth.
They fought among themselves for dominance of the
Subcontinent, with the British gaining the upper hand.
The British ruthless taxation policy inflicted great misery
on the people, causing severe famines in particular and
millions of deaths. The deliberate deindustrialization of
India devastated her once-thriving manufacturing sector.
Gradually, the British imposed their administrative
structures, legal systems and educational institutions to
ensure total colonial control over the Indian society.
The Portuguese focused onreligious conversion and cultural
transformation in Goa created long-lasting social divisions.
The French policy of assimilation created a small elite of
culturally French Indians in Pondicherry.
Several uprisings took place from the late 18" century
onward, with the Great Rebellion of 1857 threatening the
colonial rule for a while. Most of these uprisings were
brutally repressed.
In the 19" century, India’s classical culture (in particular
through translated Sanskrit texts) flowed back to the West,
creating a lasting influence.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Questions and activities

il, What is colonialism? Give three different definitions based
on the chapter or on your knowledge.
. Colonial rulers often claimed that their mission was to
‘civilise’ the people they ruled. Based on the evidence in
this chapter, do you think this was true in the case of India?
Why or why not?
How was the British approach to colonising India different
from earlier European powers like the Portuguese or the
French?
e

147
4. “Indians funded their own subjugation.” What does this
mean in the context of British infrastructure projects in
India like the railway and telegraph networks?
5. What does the phrase ‘divide and rule’ mean? Give
examples of how this was used by the British in India?
6. Choose one area of Indian life, such as agriculture,
education, trade, or village life. How was it affected by
colonial rule? Can you find any signs of those changes still
with us today? Express your ideas through a short essay, a
poem, a drawing, or a painting.
7. Imagine you are a reporter in 1857. Write a brief news
report on Rani Lakshmibai’s resistance at Jhansi. Include a
timeline or storyboard showing how the rebellion began,
spread, and ended, highlighting key events and leaders.
8. Imagine an alternate history where India was never
colonised by European powers. Write a short story of about
300 words exploring how India might have developed on its
own path.
9. Role-play: Enact a historical discussion between a British
official and an Indian personality like Dadabhai Naoroji on
the British colonial rule in India.
10. Explore a local resistance movement (tribal, peasant, or
princely) from your state or region during the colonial
period. Prepare a report or poster describing:
* What was the specific trigger, if any?
¢ Who led the movement?
* What were their demands?
* How did the British respond?
4 - The Colonial Erain India

* How is this event remembered today (e.g., local festivals,

Tapestry of the Past

songs, monuments)?
e

148
 Noodles
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

*Noodles’ is our abbreviation for ‘Notes and Doodles’!

e

149
 Universal Franchise and
India’s Electoral System
[India] adopted the principle of adult franchise with an
abundant faith in the common man and the ultimate
success of democratic rule...never before in the history
of the world has such an experiment been so boldly
undertaken.”
— Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
November 1949, Constituent Assembly Debates

From Gir forest for lone voter to village on Indo- 66% women electors voted in
Bangla border: How EC conducts polls at remotest, th;
inaccessible places
the gender £3p in voring
Meanwhit, tho© epre cloges * *1°°t1”0n. How did
sentatve shar
— 2.4 4000 i poiiti
€ of wome n cs has barey grown,
S o s 1 y

1o share evidence’ otalle

Kumar o asied Oppostion
54

oss1cHos

150
 It's just
voting!

Justvoting? It's the

biggest celebration of
=i = our democracy —
the general elections!

UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE

F'a'::h_isfift The Constitution makers decided that universal adult franchise
r E .
granted by ?he would be a feature of Indian democracy right from the outset.
constitution or This means that every adult citizen gets one vote, and all votes
Jovernment | have equal value. Hence, every Indian citizen aged 18 and
thatis used above has the right to vote — irrespective of caste, creed, race,
iS‘SUff"age'af religion, gender, education, income, etc. The word ‘universal’
Syfr}[;fifim;;_ connotes this.

LET'S EXPLORE
India changed the minimum age for voting from 21 to 18 in
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

1988. Discuss whether this was a good move.

Universal franchise is a cornerstone of Indian democracy.

Elections to the Lok Sabha, the legislative assembly of every
state and union territory, and all the local elections in villages
and cities are based on universal franchise (Article 326 of the
Constitution). Remember that no one can vote on another’s
behalf.
| > Canyou calculate how long you have to wait before you
can vote?
To be able to exercise your right, you need to be registered as a
voter in your constituency. However, one is barred from voting
if found guilty of committing certain serious crimes.
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151
 Do you remember India had a general election in the summer Constituency:
of 2024? About 980 million voters were eligible to exercise their C:tg:ae I";’E‘t"ase
franchise for the 543 constituencies of the Lok Sabha. representative
to a legislative

%, DON'T MISS poa

India has 3.1 million elected representatives (1.3 million of them
women) in more than 250,000 local government bodies across
India. All these are democratically elected through universal
adult franchise.

We need an elaborate and well-organised system to manage this System:

massive exercise and ensure that the elections take place fairly Agroup of
. . . interconnected
and freely. In this chaptelf, we will briefly explore who can vote, | orinterdependent
a few of the types of elections we have, the electoral system, and elements that
how it is organised. | work together
to achieve a
common purpose
DON'T MISS OUT or function.

- Before Independence, only 13 per cent of Indians were

allowed to vote, and franchise was not universal. We will
delve more into this in another part of the textbook.
- India was among
the early nations
to grant women

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

the right to vote,
ahead of many
others around
the world. For
example, women
=, .
were given the
Governance and Democracy

Fig. 5.3. Women’s suffrage parade, USA, 1913

right to vote in
Switzerland only in 1971. Women fought long and hard in
many countries to win this fundamental democratic right.
In India, on the other hand, a progressive constitutional
vision and deep democratic values rooted in India’s
ancient traditions ensured women had voting rights from
the very beginning.
e

152
 LET'S EXPLORE
In 1947, our literacy rate was about 14 per cent, only about
8 per cent among women. Some argued that the right to vote
should be given only to literate people. Discuss in your group
why the Constitution makers may have decided on universal
franchise from the time of Independence itself.

There are several reasons why universal franchise is so

important. A few are illustrated in the mindmap below. Can you
add some more?

No
discrimination
based on caste,
People creed, sex,
participate in education,
solving problems wealth etc.
intheir area Everyoneis
ANl Fosters civic equal
engagement
All can
/I Everyone's participate
Why voice matters in deciding
de;gz%:’ehat N REm (o el the nation's
determine EL T future.
type of future . " Elected
they want and ones WIS representatives
who can best future answerable to
represent electorate
Ehem People
vote
them outin
elections
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 5.4. Importance of universal franchise in a democracy. Add two reasons

of your own in the empty boxes.

BRIDGING BARRIERS, ENABLING

| PARTICIPATION: ENSURING UNIVERSAL
| FRANCHISE
Democracy thrives when every eligible citizen can freely and
fairly participate in the electoral process. Voting in elections is
a powerful way for people to express their will. How does this
take place in India?
(5]

153
India is a large, diverse, and complex country. To illustrate,
the population of eligible voters in India is fifteen times the
population of the United Kingdom, and in terms of area, India is
six times larger than France. Geographic diversity is a challenge,
too. Thus, elections in India need to be organised taking this
complexity into account.
The Election Commission of India organises elections in India.
(We will learn more about ECI later in the chapter.) The ECI
has taken several innovative accessibility measures to remove
barriers to exercising the franchise and ensure no voter is left
behind.
Electoral officials travel to remote locations to ensure every
citizen can exercise their democratic right. In 2024, for the first
time, the elderly and people with disabilities could cast their
votes from home, and the postal voting option was available for
a specific category of voters. Assistive technologies like braille-
enabled voter cards and app-based requests for assistance,
including wheelchairs and ramps, were also made possible.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Discuss in groups — What role do such measures play in a
democracy? Do you know of anyone who benefited from
these improved accessibility measures? How might they
increase voter participation in your neighbourhood? How

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

can technology assist?
- If you have access to the
internet, visit the ECI
website ([Link]
[Link]/persons-with-
Governance and Democracy

disabilities). Read and

identify the various
interventions that the
ECI has taken to facilitate
voting by people with
disabilities.
(<)

154
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 5.6. India’s electoral system endeavours to enable every citizen to exercise
their franchise. This includes measures such as organising a polling station for a
single woman voter; postal voting and providing wheelchair assistance.
0

155
 LET'S EXPLORE
About 34 per cent of eligible voters did not exercise their |
right to vote in the 2024 elections. Why do you think this is
so? What are some challenges people face in exercising their
rights? Design and conduct a short survey among adults in
your family and neighbourhood to answer these questions.
Analyse the data and write a report with suggestions on how
it may be possible to ensure everyone votes.

DON'T MISS OUT

The Uttaramerur inscriptions from the 10™ century describe a
transparent process for the selection of representatives. Eligible
candidates’ names were written on fragments of palm leaves
and placed in a pot, which was then sealed. On the selectionday, |
it was opened publicly and a young boy drew the palm leaves
randomly one by one; a respected individual, after showing his
empty hands to the public, would read out each name of the
selected candidates.

Election for class representative — Grade 8,

Suryodaya School
It was time for the annual election

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

of the Class Representative
(Class Rep). The Class Rep would
represent the class in meetings
with teachers, organise events,
and act as a bridge between the
students and school authorities.
Governance and Democracy

Three students — Ahmed, Gurmat,

and Ravi — decided to contest for
the position. The class teacher,
Fig. 5.7.
Ms. Usha, was appointed as the Election Officer to ensure the
election process was fair, transparent, and followed all the
necessary rules.
(5]

156
 Here’s a brief introduction of each of the candidates:
Ahmed promised to improve the cleanliness of the classrooms and the
playground.
Gurmat was interested in helping all her classmates learn better. She
proposed creating a system of peer coaching and mutual support.
Ravi wanted to make more space in their class timetable for the arts
curriculum — music, theatre, and visual art — in line with the new
curriculum.

Campaigning:
Ahmed put up posters, Gurmat used the noticeboard and spoke to
classmates, while Ravi held a lunchtime music performance to promote
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

his idea. As the Election Officer; Ms. Usha had to organise the elections
and ensure it was conducted fairly. She explained the rules to the class,
ensuring everyone understood how the secret ballot voting process would
work; no one would know who voted for whom, ensuring the process was
private and fair. She set up the voting booths in the corner of the classroom.

Voting day:
On election day, each student was given a ballot paper with the names of
the three candidates. The students were asked to mark an ‘X’ next to the
name of the candidate they wished to vote for. Ms. Usha also ensured that
there was a ballot paper in braille for Neha. After all the students voted,
Ms. Usha collected the ballots in a box and sealed it until the counting
session.
e

157
 The results:
After all the 33 votes were cast, Ms. Usha called Ms Sheeba from
the next class to witness the counting process. One of the ballot
papers was not marked, so it was declared invalid. The results
were announced: Ahmed received 8 votes, Gurmat 12 and Ravi
10. Gurmat, with the most votes, was declared the new Class
Representative. She thanked her classmates and promised to fulfil
her commitments. Ahmed and Ravi congratulated her and offered
to support her.

LET'S EXPLORE
> What are the most important aspects of the election process
in this caselet?
> Why was it important to have a secret ballot?
What considerations might the students have had while
exercising their choice?
Do you think the students have any responsibility after
Gurmat was elected as the class rep? If yes, what are they?
What was the role that Ms. Usha played? Why was it
important?
Why was it important for Ms. Usha to organise a braille ballot
paper for Neha?
What would happen if many students in the class chose not

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

to mark a preference?

%, DON'T MISS OU
Imagine if a student did not want to vote for any of the candidates
Governance and Democracy

— Ahmed, Gurmat, or Ravi. What option would they have? Some

countries, including India, offer an additional option, NOTA—None
Of The Above. This option allows voters to reject all candidates if
they are not satisfied with any of them. It doesn’t change the result
but sends a message — voters want better choices. NOTA is a quiet
but powerful toolin a democracy.
(5]

158
 THE ROLE OF THE ELECTION COMMISSION
OF INDIA (ECD
We have seen the size and diversity that needs to be kept in
mind in the organisation of the election process in India. In this
section, we will look at the different types of elections that the
ECI organises and oversees.

LET'S REMEMBER
India is a parliamentary democracy where, at the national
level, citizens choose representatives for the Lok Sabha (the
lower house of the Parliament). They focus on issues affecting
the entire country. In addition, voters elect representatives
from their constituencies to the legislative assemblies in the
state and union territories where they are registered. These
members focus primarily on regional issues.

These are just two of the elections that the ECI manages; we will
see more in the later sections. However, before we get a glimpse
of the election process, let us get introduced to the Election
Commission of India, the institution that oversees it.

‘ LET'S REMEMBER
In Grade 6, youreadabout direct elections to gram panchayats
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

and urban local bodies. The State Election Commissions

manage these.

Election Commission of India —

A brief introduction
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an independent
constitutional body responsible for conducting free and fair
elections. It was established in 1950 and conducts elections to
the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies in
India, and the offices of the President and Vice President. The
first general elections in independent India were held in 1951-
1952.
(5]

159
The ECI performs crucial tasks like:

Setting Registering
election dates political
parties

Enforcing the Overseeing the

Model Code entire electoral
of Conduct process

Fig. 5.9. Tasks performed by the Election Fig. 5.10. Office of the the Election
Commission of India Commission of India in Delhi

Election Commission of India

LALELLE] At State/UT level At District level

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

level

Chief Election Chief Electoral District Election

Commissioner Officer Officer
Governance and Democracy

Two Election
Commissioners Returning Officer (RO) f F
Electoral Registration
(conducts elections) @I (EL2)
(manages voter list)

Fig. 5.11. Structure of the Election Commission of India

o

160
 Managing the electoral process
Managing elections in India is amammoth task. The ECl has been
upgrading its capacities to keep pace with the needs of modern
India in conducting free and fair elections. The electoral system
is massive and needs to work efficiently. We take the example of
the Lok Sabha elections to illustrate this. Note that the elections
to the state assemblies follow a similar process. All elections take
place at different times but with some periodicity; so every year,
several polls are conducted in various parts of the country based
on when they are due.

e
g o

G @
EEERERE

G
B
B

R
i
B
About 543 Over
980 million parliamentary 1 million
voters constituencies polling stations
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 5.12. A few numbers showing the scale of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

As you can see, the numbers are very large. Many people are
deployed to assist the whole process, including teachers.

LET'S EXPLORE
Identify teachers in your school or vicinity who may have
performed election duty. Invite them to your class to share
their experiences.
(5]

161
 DON'T MISS OUT
84 of the Lok Sabha constituencies are
reserved for persons from the scheduled
castes, while 47 are reserved for scheduled
A general
tribes.

Process of voting for the Lok Sabha

and State assemblies

It polling officer: SLD V#\ :\i

Checks name on voter
list and ID proof. Fig. 5.14. Managing the elections —
extensive use of technology

et polling officer:
Inks finger, gives
chitand takes your
signature.

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

3rd polling officer:
Takes chit and checks
your finger. NOTA
(None Of The Above)
optionis also available.
Governance and Democracy

4™ press button to
vote on the electronic
voting machine (EVM);
you hear a beep Fig. 5.15. Shyam Saran Negi, a school
sound. Also check the teacher in Himachal Pradesh, was the
printed slip in VVPAT. first voter in India’s general elections of
1951. Here, in 2017, he cast his vote at
Fig. 5.13. the age of 100.
(3]

162
 LET'S EXPLORE
> India’s electronic
voting machines
(EVMs) and Voter
Verifiable Paper Audit
Trail (VVPAT) systems
have been wused in
countries like Namibia
and Bhutan with
support from the
ECI. Other countries
have also studied this Fig. 5.16. Electronic voting machines
technology and have received training from India to
adopt it in their countries.
VVPAT is a system that produces a physical paper record,
allowing voters to verify that their electronic votes were
cast correctly. This paper trail provides a backup for
verification and recounting purposes in case of disputes
or failures of the electronic system.

Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

The code is followed to ensure free and fair elections, listing the
dos and don’ts for leaders, political parties, and candidates that
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

must be adhered to.

A few elements of the code:
i There are rules that the party in government must follow;
this ensures that the resources available to the government
are not used for the purpose of the elections. For example,
no new schemes and projects are to be announced that may
influence voters.
All candidates are expected to exercise discretion and
restraint to ensure that the elections take place peacefully.
Influencing voters through gifts in return for votes is
punishable.
(&)

163
LET'S EXPLORE
- Here are a few types of complaints that the ECI handles.

Fig. 5.17. A candidate distributed Fig. 5.18. Abusive language used by

sarees and household appliances the candidate of one party against the
to women voters. candidate from an opposing party.

Fig. 5.19. Officials of the Fig. 5.20. Bundles of ¥500/- notes

government campaigning for found in the car of a candidate
the ruling party. during inspections.

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

- Why do you think these might be violations of the code of
conduct?

N'T MISS
Governance and Democracy

The Model Code of Conduct was adopted in Kerala in 1960,

voluntarily approved by representatives of the major
political parties of the time. The ECI circulated it to political
parties during the 1962 general elections, and from 1991,
the ECI became proactive in ensuring the observance
of the MCC.
e

164
 ‘.,\ DON'T MISS OUT
T.N. Seshan became the Chief Election
Commissioner in 1990. He brought in
reforms to ensure free and fair elections,
among them: campaigning to follow
precise rules, voter IDs to eliminate proxy
voting, and strict vigilance on spending
by candidates. T.N. Seshan worked hard
to protect the rights of voters and is often
remembered as the officer who made Indian
elections fairer, transparent and fearless! Fig 5.21. TN, Seshan

LET'S EXPLORE
When is the next election in the region where you are
located? Is it to the state, urban local body or panchayat?

UNDERSTANDING ELECTIONS IN INDIA —

A VERY BRIEF OVERVIEW
Election to the Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assemblies
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Elections in India are often referred to as the ‘Festival of

Democracy’ — a time when citizens exercise their right to choose
representatives freely, fairly, and responsibly.
We know that India follows a parliamentary system of
government where citizens participate in various levels
of elections — Lok Sabha (national level), state legislative
assemblies (state level) and local bodies (city and village level).
The country is divided into 543 constituencies for the Lok Sabha
elections. The elected candidates to the Lok Sabha are known
as Members of Parliament (MPs), whereas candidates elected
to state assemblies are known as Members of Legislative
Assembly (MLAs). India uses the ‘First-Past-the-Post’ electoral
system, wherein the candidate receiving the most votes in a
(&)

165
constituency wins. This means that a candidate can win without
securing even 50 per cent of the total votes (like Gurmat won
despite getting only 12 out of the 33 votes).

DON'T MISS OUT

The legislative assembly is called by several names in regional
languages, for example, Vidhan Sabha and Niyama Sabha.
What is it called in your state?

After the voting process is completed, the process of government ;";rgfl;n:

formation begins. The political party or coalition winning of two
a majority of the seats in the Lok Sabha forms the national g;:"fi‘;ge
government. The leader of this majority typically becomes the working
prime minister. Similarly, at the state level, the leader of the | together
majority party becomes the chief minister. |

%% .
What's the difference between an b, m
MP and an MLA? ’L“\ i wl e M }’

MPs represent us in the - - =7 y

national parliament, while =
MLAs represent us in our state
assembly. Both are chosen
through similar electoral
processes but work at
different levels of governance.
R 7 Ifa party or coalition wins a majority of the seats
. in the Lok Sabha, it forms the national government
p and its leader becomes the prime minister.

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

Governance and Democracy

In states, if a party or coalition wins a majority

of seats in the State Assembly, it forms the
governmentand its leader becomes the state’s
chief minister.
Fig. 5.22

As we saw in Fig. 5.11, the State Election Commission is a part

of the election apparatus. It plays an important role not only in
general and state elections but also in conducting elections to
0

166
 local bodies at the grassroots level. It works in consultation with
the ECI in these matters, and universal adult franchise, and all
other Constitutional provisions applicable in the case of direct
elections by the people are pertinent here too.

I - Who are the MP and MLA / MLAs of the constituency you

) are located in? (A Lok Sabha constituency may have two

L,
or more assembly constituencies.)
Which party does each of them belong to?
- What are the concerns of the MP and MLA, respectively?

Election to the Rajya Sabha

The candidates elected to the Rajya Sabha are also known as
Members of Parliament (MPs), but they are chosen through
indirect elections.
Dissolution: Let us revisit the example of Suryodaya School. Imagine that the
Expiry or
termination school is setting up a special council at the school level. If the
due to the members of this council are elected by the class representatives, it
end of its
term or other would be an indirect election.
Constitutional
Of the 245 members of the Rajya Sabha, 233 are elected by the
reason
elected members of the state legislative assemblies (MLAs),
while the President of India nominates 12. Each state is allotted
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

a different number of Rajya Sabha seats based on population.

For example, more populous states like Uttar Pradesh have more
seats than less populous states like Arunachal Pradesh.
The Rajya Sabha is also called the Permanent House — it is never
dissolved. A member of the Rajya Sabha has a six-year term. One-
third of its members retire every two years, and new members
are elected.
Thereis a difference, however, in the voting process. It uses what
iscalled a ‘single transferable vote system’. Thisis a special way
of ensuring that smaller states also get fair representation in the
Rajya Sabha. You will learn more about the exact mechanism of
how this works in higher classes.
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167
 Rajya Sabha: The Council of States

MLAs President of
India
Vote in
indirect Nominates
elections 12 members

Elect 233
LEIVERENE]
members

Rajya Sabha members are elected Seat allocation is based on state

by MLAs through indirect elections, populations; more populous states
while the President nominates 12 1 like Uttar Pradesh have more
distinguished individuals. seats.

Rajya Sabha is a permanent

MLAs vote using a single
body; one-third of its members
transferable vote system, ranking
retire every two years, ensuring
candidates by preference.
continuity.
 Election of the President of India
The President of India is not directly elected by the common
people. Instead, an electoral college is formed to carry out the
election. This Electoral College consists of:
Members of Parliament (MPs) from both the houses of the
Parliament — Lok Sabha (Lower House) and the Rajya
Sabha (Upper House)
Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) from each
of India’s states and the union territories of Delhi and
Puducherry
The single transferable vote system is followed in this election.
Since the president represents the whole country, this method
ensures the support of both the central and state governments.
The rules for voting and counting are very elaborate; the more
Bicameral populous states have a greater say. (We need not go into the
legislatures: details at this stage.)
Abicameral
legislature The following group of people is not involved in electing the
is a system
where the President of India:
legislative body
Nominated members of Rajya Sabha (12)
is divided into
two separate Nominated members of State Legislative Assemblies
chambers or
houses. Members of Legislative Councils (both elected and
nominated) in bicameral legislatures
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Nominated members of union territories of Delhi and

Puducherry

' THINK ABO

Why do you think the above group of people is notinvolved in
electing the President of India? Why are the common people
not involved in the election of the president?

It is because this ensures that only directly elected

representatives vote to elect the President. This maintains
democratic legitimacy, as the President is meant to represent the
will of the people, indirectly but meaningfully.
(&)

169
Election of the Vice President of India
The Vice President of India is elected by an electoral college
consisting of the elected and nominated members of both
Houses of Parliament; again, the system of single transferable
vote is used.
The vice president is the chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. If there
are situations when the president is not able to discharge their
function, the vice president steps in to play the role.

CHALLENGES AND THE ROAD AHEAD

India’s electoral system is celebrated as the world’s largest
democratic exercise. However, like all systems, it faces its share
of challenges. Issues such as the growing influence of money in
elections, a significant proportion of candidates with criminal
records, and voter apathy, (particularly in urban areas),
raise important questions about the health and future of our
democracy.
The way forward lies in empowering voters with the information
they need to make thoughtful and responsible choices. Media,
education, and awareness campaigns must work together to
help people, especially the youth, understand the importance
of voting wisely. An aware and vigilant voter is the strongest
safeguard of a democratic system. It starts with asking the right
questions — and ends with casting a responsible vote.

5 - Universal Franchise and India’s Electoral System

Before we move on...
- Universal adult franchise is the cornerstone of Indian
democracy.
-~ The right to vote is a responsibility, too. It needs to be
Governance and Democracy

taken seriously by every voter. Voter awareness is an

important aspect of the right to vote.
- Itis important to facilitate the participation of all
eligible voters.
-~ The Election Commission of India is the Constitutional
body that conducts elections in the country.
(&)

170
 The ECI oversees all the elections in the country, including
those of the president and vice president.
Indian democracy faces challenges that call for the voters’
vigilance and awareness.

Questions and activities

il, Why is universal adult franchise important for a healthy
democracy?
What is the meaning of ‘secret ballot’? Why is this important
in a democracy?
Give examples of direct and indirect elections.
4. How is the election of members to the Lok Sabha different
from that to the Rajya Sabha?
. What, in your view, are the advantages of the EVM over
paper ballots?
Voter turnout has been declining in some urban areas of
India. What could be the reasons for this trend, and what
steps can be taken to encourage more people to vote?
Why do you think a proportion of seats in the Lok Sabha is
reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes? Write a
short note.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Social media is changing the way we experience elections

— from catchy campaign reels and live speeches to political
debates on Instagram and Twitter. But is this strengthening
democracy or confusing it? Discuss in pairs: What are the
benefits, what are the challenges, and what might the future
of elections be in a digital age?
Visit the website [Link] and choose
a parliamentary constituency election from any year
and explore its results. Do the same for an assembly
election in your state.
(&)

171
 The Parliamentary System:
Legislature and Executive
The Constitution is not a mere lawyer’s document; it is a
vehicle of life, and its spirit is always the spirit of the age.
— Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
November 1949, Constituent Assembly Debates

Fig. 6.1. Features of the new Parliament building E

«
2

172
 The Grade 8 students from Nalanda Vidyalaya were on a school
trip to Delhi. Usha, Sukhwinder, Anjali, John, and Farida were
especially excited to visit the new Parliament building.

It's not The three-sided It also uses green

square or design reflects balance, construction, cutting
round — it's inclusivity, and purpose. electricity use by 30 per cent.
like a soft
triangle!

Inside, they saw

walls decorated
with carvings
— peacocks,
lotuses, tribal art,
temple patterns,
and freedom
fighters.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

This Exactly, democracy must

new look ahead — but never
building forget its roots.
houses
so many
ancient
symbols!
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173
INTRODUCTION
India’s independence was achieved
through great sacrifices by many
people of the country after years of
struggle against colonial rule. The
citizens of a free country could now
make decisions about their own
governance. The first important
step in this new epoch in the life of
our nation was the drafting of the
Constitution of independent India.
This comprehensive document laid
foundational principles for the
nation, including that of Universal
Fig. 6.2. Our old Parliament (now called
Adult Franchise which guarantees Samvidhan Sadan) building was constructed in
all adult citizens of the country the the 1920s. The Constituent Assembly met there
for its deliberations, and it served as Parliament
right to vote irrespective of their House for over seven decades.
social or economic background,
gender, race, or religion.
The people of India directly elect
their representatives who become
members of the Lok Sabha. A
majority group from among these

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

elected representatives forms the
government. The Parliament is the
supreme legislative body of the
government (it makes laws for the
country). It comprises all elected
representatives of the people and
controls and guides the work of the
Governance and Democracy

government. The government can

therefore be seen as functioning
with the people’s consent. There Fig. 6.3. The Parliament Building (Sansad
have been 17 Lok Sabhas since the Bhavan) in New Delhi was constructed
to accommodate the growing needs
first one in 1952. The 18% Lok Sabha including capacity, technology,
was constituted in June 2024. sustainability and safety.
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174
 COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENT
OF INDIA
The Indian Parliament is composed of the President and two
houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People / Lower House) and
the Rajya Sabha (Council of States / Upper House). This structure
with two houses is called a ‘bicameral’ system (‘bi’ means two,
‘cameral’ means chamber / house).

g G -
Fig. 6.4. Lok Sabha Chambers in Fig. 6.5. A view of the Chamber of the
the new Parliament building Rajya Sabha taken from the Press Gallery
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

. LET'S REMEMBER
The people of India choose their representatives for the
Lok Sabha through a direct election (based on universal
adult suffrage). The maximum number of members of this
House envisaged by the Constitution is 550. The Members of
Parliament (MPs) in the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly
by the electoral college that you read about in the previous
chapter. Both, the number of Rajya Sabha seats allocated and
the number of MPs represented in the Lok Sabha, are based
on the population of each state.
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175
 DON'T MISS OUT
We are aware that several aspects
of the Indian Constitution were
drawn from the constitutions of
other countries. Britain’s system
inspired our system of Parliamentary
democracy. However, there were
also experiences that our freedom
fighters and Constitution makers
had —the practical experience gained
through participation in British
colonial governance structures, even Fig. 6.6. Constitution
if in a very limited way, that provided Cindic
familiarity with Parliamentary procedures; the memory of
the ancient republics (mahdajanapadas); the village panchayats
where elders made collective decisions, as we learnt in a
previous chapter.

Extensive discussions took place during the making of the

Constitution regarding whether India should have a bicameral
system. It was felt that a single directly elected House would be
inadequate to meet the challengesindependent India would face.
In the spirit of ‘federalism’, it was felt that a Council of States,

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

the Rajya Sabha, was needed. The composition and process of
election to the Rajya Sabha were also designed to be different.
India practices federalism, which is a form of government where
power is distributed between the centre, states, as well as local
governments. This system helps to keep the balance between
national unity and local interests.
Governance and Democracy

FUNCTION
Each House of the Parliament has a presiding officer to ensure
thatdebates and discussions are conducted in an orderly manner.
In the Lok Sabha, the members elect a speaker, who conducts
the sessions, allows members to speak, maintains discipline,
and ensures that rules are followed. The Rajya Sabha is presided
over by the Vice President of India, who acts as its chairperson.
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176
 ON'T MISS OUT
The Sengol, a gold-plated, silver sceptre was Y
Sceptre: symbolically handed over to Pt. Jawaharlal
A decorated
Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India,
rod carried
by a king on 14 August 1947 on the occasion of Indian
or queen at Independence as a powerful symbolto mark
ceremonies
as a symbol the transfer of power. It is now placed near
of their the Speaker’s chair in the new Lok Sabha,
power
and served as a symbol of righteous and
just rule. Dating back to the Chola period,
the Sengol was handed to new rulers as a
reminder that power must be guided by
dharma and righteousness. At its top sits
Fig. 6.7. The Sengol
Nandi, symbolising justice.

To help make Parliamentary discussions accessible to all,

translation services are provided in multiple Indian
languages. Previously, simultaneous interpretation was
available in 12 languages, namely, Hindi, English, Assamese,
Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Tamil,
Punjabi and Telugu. Recently, six more languages were
added: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Manipuri, Urdu, and Sanskrit.
More languages are expected to be added in the future.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

The ‘executive’ responsibility of the Parliament (i.e., ensuring

that laws are implemented and enforced) is as important as
its ‘legislative’ function (i.e., the making of laws). The Union
Executive gives life to the legislative functions and power of
the Parliament. The Union Executive consists of the following
members:
®= The President,
= The Vice President, and
® The Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers is chosen from among the MPs of
both houses of Parliament. These ministers are collectively
responsible to the Lok Sabha.
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177
Let us now discuss the Legislative and Executive functions of the
Parliament.

LEGISLATIVE FUNCTIONS OF
THE PARLIAMENT
The Constitution lays down the key functions that the Parliament
needs to fulfil. They can be broadly classified under the following
heads:
1. Constitutional functions
2. Lawmaking
3. Executive accountability
4. Financial accountability
We explore them briefly in the sections below.

1) Constitutional function

‘© LET'S REMEMBER
From your previous lessons on the theme of Democracy and
Governance, name a few Constitutional functions of the
Parliament. Did you list the election of President and Vice
President? What about amendments to the Constitution?
Indeed, these are vital constitutional functions of the

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

Parliament. There are other important functions that we will
explore in higher grades.

The Parliament is directly entrusted with upholding the core

values of the Indian Constitution, including:
a. Enabling parliamentary democracy through universal adult
Governance and Democracy

suffrage,
b. Following the separation of powers between the legislature,
executive, and judiciary,
c. Ensuring federalism, and
d. Upholding Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of
State Policy by framing laws and policies.
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178
 Bill: 2) Lawmaking
Abillisa
draft ofa Among the primary responsibilities of the legislature is to make
proposed laws. The Constitution has laid out an elaborate and rigorous
law that
needs to be process for lawmaking. A law is generally brought into force
approved through an instrument called an act. A bill, which is a draft of
by the
a proposed law, is introduced in Parliament and goes through a
parliament
before long and effortful journey before it becomes an act. Given below
it can be is the journey of how a bill becomes an act, and ultimately a
enacted
into law. law, in the case of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009 (RTE).

49 “Most people call me RTE. I came into existence in August 2009,

though the idea began almost a century before.
My roots lie in the Directive Principles of State Policy of the
Indian Constitution. Though the Constitution makers wanted me
implemented within a decade after Independence, this didn’t
happen, leaving countless children without access to education.
In the early 1990s, someone argued in court that I was inherently
part of the Fundamental Rights in the Constitution, namely, the
Right to Life — as education is important to lead a meaningful
life. Parliamentary action began some years later with the
introduction of the 86" Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002,
which mandated — as Article 21A of the Constitution — that the
state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

between the ages of 6 and 14 years.

Six years later, I was tabled as a bill in the Rajya Sabha. A
committee studied me thoroughly and suggested modifications.
The major debate concerned funding — new schools, infra-
structure, and teachers for millions of children would be costly.
By 2008, the MPs determined it was time.
After the 2009 elections, the new government pursued the
matter, and in August 2009, I was passed in the Lok Sabha and
received the President’s assent, becoming an Act.
Today, I've enabled the creation of legal pathways for children to
attend school, facilitated new school construction, and ensured
free books and uniforms for children.”
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179
 From bill to act - the process of lawmaking
in the Parliament
-
Standing
Committee:
Introduction in 5 Referred to Itisa
. Reading of ;
either House of the bill Standing permanent
the Parliament Committee committee
consisting of
MPs (the MPs
may change,
but the
committee as
astructure
remains) that
scrutinises
Vote on the Bill consideration government
amendments and passin activities,
voted P 9 makes
recommenda-
tions and asks
questions
on actions
taken by the
government.

Process repeated Presidential Gazette

in other House assent notification

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

Note: All bills may not be referred to Committees.
.
Fig. 6.8. Process of lawmaking — a simplified diagram to illustrate key steps.

Reading: The origins are in the British Parliament. Many MPs

were illiterate, so a clerk would read out the contents of the
bill for the MPs to discuss. Today MPs read the bill before the
Governance and Democracy

discussions take place.

Clause: These are parts of a bill that explain the specific details
of the bill; eg. RTE defines the age group to which it applies (6
to 14 years).
Gazette: This is an official government publication that
announces legal documents and official information.

180
 LET'S EXPLORE
Draw a small chart to show the process of how RTE became an
act. What do you think the process would be if RTE had been
tabled in the Lok Sabha?

DON'T MISS OUT

Some types of bills have to be tabled only in the Lok Sabha.
One example is a ‘Money Bill’ that is concerned with
financial matters (including taxation, government
borrowing, etc.). It is essentially a draft law that can be
introduced only in the Lok Sabha; however, the introduction
of the bill requires the prior recommendation of the
President.

3) Executive accountability
The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are part of the
Union Executive. They are:
= primarily responsible for implementing and enforcing laws
and overseeing the effective running of the government;
= take decisions regarding the day-to-day functioning of
the government based on the principles laid out in the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Constitution and its laws;

® answerable to the Lok Sabha, through mechanisms like
the Question Hour which require ministers to justify their
actions and decisions. The Question Hour in the Lok Sabha
is a select period (typically the first hour of a Parliamentary
session) where MPs can ask the ministers questions about
government policies and activities. It is a process of the
Parliament that holds the Executive ‘accountable’ (i.e., it
must justify all actions and decisions). Special committees
also hold meetings where ministries have to explain and
answer questions about their policies. These committees
may include MPs from different political parties.
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181
The Parliament isn’t always formal and serious. Sometimes, the
atmosphere is set through poetry and humour!
Example 1: Verse in the Parliament
While presenting the Union Budget for the year 2025-26 on
the 1%t of February, 2025, Smt. Nirmala Sitharaman recited the
following verse from Tirukkural (an ancient Indian treatise in
Tamil on ethics and morality):

Vaanokki vaalum ulakellaam

Mannavan koalnokki vaalung kudi.
It means:
Just as living beings live expecting rains,
Citizens live expecting good governance.
On hearing this, there was an enthusiastic thumping of desks
from the Treasury Benches.
*

Example 2: Humour in the Parliament

In 2011, during a spirited debate in the Lok Sabha, Parliamen-
tarian Sushma Swaraj quoted a poetic verse to criticise the
government:

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

“Tu idhar udhar ki na baat kar, yeh bata ki kafila kyun luta,
humein rahjano se gila nahi, teri rahbari ka sawal hai.”
Don’t change the topic, just say why the caravan was looted. We
have no complaint with the robbers, but this is a question on
your leadership.
In response, the then Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh
Governance and Democracy

calmly replied with another poetic line:

“Maana ki teri deed ke qabil nahin hoon main, tu mera shauq
dekh mera intezar dekh.”
I admit that I am not worthy of your sight; you should look at my
zeal and my perseverance.
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182
 1.2 Co-location of Ayush facilities
at Primary Health Centers (PHCs),
Community Health Centers (CHCs)
PARLLAMENT OF INDIA
ATYASABHA and District Hospitals (DHs)
DEPARTMENT RELATED PARLIAMENTARY STANDING Recommendation:
‘COMMITTEE ON HEALTH & FAMILY WELFARE.
1.2.1 The Committee, at this juncture,
ONE HUNDRED SIXTY SECOND REPORT
notices that in some states and UTs,
ox
ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT ON THE a separate Department of Ayush has
'RECOMMENDATIONS OBSERVATIONS CONTAINEDIN THE
156REPORT ON REVIEVY OF NATIONAL AYUSH MISSION not been opened. The Committee, to
reseted o the Ry Savhaon 20% Dcember 2020 boost the Ayush system and for better
(L on th Toieof Lok S on 4 Febrs, 955)
coordination in Ayush Healthcare,
recommends the Ministry of Ayush to
impress upon and persuade the States
and UTs with no separate department of
Ayush to create such a department for
speedy development and implementation
‘Rajya Sabba Secretariat, New Del
December, 2024 Agrabayana, 1946 (Saka) of Ayush sector and schemes respectively.
(Para 2.13 of the Report)
Action Taken:
Fig. 6.9. Extract from a 1.2.2 Public Health is being a state subject,
report of the Standing
creation of separate Department of Ayush
Committee on Health and
in the States/UTs comes under purview
Family Welfare
of respective State/lUT Governments.
However: Ministry of Ayush has requested
State/UT Governments in different
meetings to create separate Directorates,
deployment of manpower in SPMU
& DPMU in the States/UTs for speedy
development and implementation of
NAM scheme As on date, separate Ayush
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Directorate is available in 24 States/UTs.

(SPMUs=state project management unit;
DPMU=district project management unit)
(Para 2.23 of the Report)

LET'S EXPLORE
Given here is an extract from the report of meetings between
the Standing Committee on Health and Family Welfare and
the officers from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Observe the screenshots above and discuss the following
in small groups — Who is reporting to whom? What is the
subject that has been reviewed? Identify the Committee’s
recommendation. What is the government’s reply?
(2]

183
4) Financial accountability
The Parliament approves and monitors government expenditure
through the annual budget, and examining the distribution of
funds to different ministries.

LET'S EXPLORE
Why do you think that Parliament keeps an eye on
government expenditure? (Hint: Whose money does the
government spend?)

The government is expected to provide the necessary

information to Parliament in a timely and accurate manner.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS OF PARLIAMENT

We have uncovered a few points on the role of the executive in
the previous sections. We look at this a little more closely now.

DON'T MISS OUT

Part V of the Indian Constitution begins with Chapter I —
The Executive. It looks at the roles and responsibilities of the
President, Vice President, and Council of Ministers, among
others. It is in Chapter II that the role and functions of
Parliament are listed. Why might this be so?

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

1) The President
The President is the Head of State and the nominal head of the
Executive. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers
are responsible for running the government. The President
appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers, summons the
Governance and Democracy

Parliament, and gives assent to bills, among other functions. The

Council of Ministers aids and advises the President. However, in
specific circumstances, the President can exercise discretionary
powers, particularly during political crises, like when no party
holds a clear majority in a Lok Sabha election.
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184
 2) The Prime Minister and the Council
of Ministers
The Prime Minister is the de facto executive authority in India’s
Parliamentary system. The President appoints the leader of
the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha as the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister serves with the support of the
majority of the MPs in the Lok Sabha.
The Prime Minister’s key functions include:
® Leading the Council of = Coordinating the work of
Ministers different ministries
® Advising the President = Shaping national policies
The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers take decisions
and run the government. They are collectively responsible to
the Lok Sabha. Most of the bills that come to the Parliament for
discussion are initiated by the government. A permanent group
of officials — called ‘civil servants’ — help in implementing
laws and policies. These officers, often called administrators or
bureaucrats, work under the direction of ministers and ensure
that government departments function smoothly.

LET'S EXPLORE
If the Executive is part of the Legislature, how do we say
that there is separation of power? (Hint: revisit the section on
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

legislature above)

§m
In 1956, Railway Minister Lal Bahadur
Shastri resigned after a train accident.
Although he was not blamed for the accident,
he believed that a minister must take moral
responsibility for anything that happens in
their ministry. He offered his resignation to Fig. 6.10. Lal Bahadur
the then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru; Shastri (Minister for
Nehru
N
declined
N N
at first,
N
but Shastri insisted. ~ Railways and later
Prime Minister
Finally, his resignation was accepted. of India)
0

185
 Differences Between the Legislature and the Executive
It is important to understand some key differences between the
Legislature and the Executive. The following table briefly summarises
the distinctions.

Legislature Executive

(0
iE 08 The Parliament of The Executive is composed
India is the supreme of the President, the Vice-
legislative body of the | President, and the Council of
country, composed of | Ministers headed by the Prime
the President, the Lok | Minister.
Sabha and the Rajya
Sabha.

Main Role Making laws and Enforcing the laws made by the
overseeing the work | Legislature
of the Executive

Functions Can introduce some Most of the bills are introduced

bills in the Parliament | by the Executive in the
Parliament

Keeps a check on Provides information and

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

the activities of the explanations to the Legislature
Executive by asking on its decisions and actions.
questions and seeking | Aids and advises the
explanations President on important
matters, including calling
sessions of Parliament.
Governance and Democracy

Sanctions all Prepares and implements

government-related the budget approved by
expenses Parliament.

Consults different Can function independently

Parliamentary in day-to-day matters and
committees may consult committees when
required.
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186
 THE JUDICIARY — ROLE OF CHECKS
AND BALANCES
The Judiciary is the branch of government that is responsible
for interpreting and applying the laws of the land, including
in specific cases of disputes. The Judiciary functions through
a system of courts and plays a pivotal role in maintaining the
democratic nature of society and governance. The Judiciary acts
as the custodian of the Constitution, ensuring that all branches
of the government operate within the principles and parameters
enshrined in the Constitution. It keeps a check on the effective
functioning of society and institutions of the government
by interpreting laws, resolving disputes, and safeguarding
fundamental rights.
The Constitution not only describes how the Legislature and
Executive are given power to govern the country, but it also
lists the specific responsibilities of these organs. To ensure
that the powers of the Legislature are used properly and
responsibilities are followed, the Judiciary is given the unique
and critical responsibility of checking that the laws passed by
Parliament have not violated the Constitutional framework.
Similarly, if a violation of the Constitution occurs when the laws
are implemented by the Executive, the Judiciary again has the
power to step in. Just as the Parliament functions through its
Legislature and the Executive arms, the Judiciary functions
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

through its Courts.

In this chapter, we have explored how the organs within the
Parliament balance making of the law and executing it, and how
the Judiciary checks these actions. These are all examples of the
separation of powers and the system of checks and balances
among the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary, ensuring
that no one organ becomes too powerful.

LET'S EXPLORE
- What might happen if one of the organs — Legislature,
Executive, Judiciary — had all the power? How could it
affect the rights of people? Discuss with your classmates
(2]

187
 how each organ checks the others. For example, how does
the Legislature question the actions of the Executive? How |
does the Judiciary make sure that laws and government | )
actions respect the Constitution? Do you think there might
be ways in which the actions of the Judiciary itself are
reviewed?
> Can you find examples where the Judiciary has asked
lawmakers to review a law? Can you find any instances
when the implementation of a law has been questioned
by the Judiciary?

‘We will learn more about the Judiciary in a later chapter.

LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

AT THE STATE LEVEL
As discussed, the Union Government has a Parliament with
legislative and executive functions. Similarly, each state has its
own legislature and executive, called its ‘State Assembly’. Just
as the Parliament has Members of Parliament (MPs) who make
laws, there are Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) who
formulate laws on subjects that are on the ‘State List’ and on the
‘Concurrent List’.

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

Union List, State List, and Concurrent
List
The Constitution has lists that help to clarify
the areas on which the Union and State
governments can exclusively legislate, called
the Union List and the State List, respectively.
Governance and Democracy

There is also a Concurrent List that has CONCURRENT LIST

subjects on which both the Union and State Specific matters, like
education and environmental
governments can legislate. However, in the policy, require collaboration
case that the Union government legislates between the union and states,
on a subject in the Concurrent List, the state exhibiting the interdependent
nature of federalism.
government is bound to follow it. In the case .
of RTE, for example, the Act is applicable all Fig. 6.11
0

over India even though education is in the Concurrent List.

 Parallel Structure of Union and State Governments in India
The structure at the state-level imitates the one at the union-level. You can
see this structure across both levels in the table:

Constitutional The President of India Governor of the State

Head elected by an electoral appointed
college by the President
Term of 5 years 5 years
Office (Head)

Executive Head The nominal head is the The nominal head is the
President, but the Prime Governor, but the Chief
Minister is the de facto Minister is the de facto
executive authority at the executive authority of the
centre state
Selection of Leader of majority party/ Leader of majority party/
Executive coalition in Lok Sabha coalition in Vidhan Sabha
Council of Selected by Prime Selected by Chief Minister
Ministers Minister
Responsibility Collectively responsible | Collectively responsible to
to Lok Sabha Vidhan Sabha
Legislature Bicameral - Lok Sabha Can be unicameral (Vidhan
Structure and Rajya Sabha Sabha only) or bicameral
(Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan
Parishad)
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Lower House Lok Sabha (House of the | Vidhan Sabha (Legislative

People) Assembly)

Upper House Rajya Sabha (Council of | Vidhan Parishad (Legislative

States) Council) - in some states only

Term of Lower 5 years 5 years

House
Presiding Officer | Speaker Speaker
(Lower House)

Legislative Makes laws on subjects Makes laws on subjects in

Powers in Union List and State List and Concurrent List
Concurrent List
Financial Powers Money bills originate Money bills originate only in
only in Lok Sabha Vidhan Sabha
0

189
Structure of State Legislatures
Unlike the Centre, the State legislatures can be ‘unicameral’
(having only one house) or ‘bicameral’ (having two houses). The
legislative assembly is called the Vidhan Sabha, and thelegislative
council (the upper house) is called the Vidhan Parishad. The
states having a bicameral system are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh, while
the remaining states have a unicameral system.

Fig. 6.12. Vidhana Soudha houses the legislature in Karnataka.

This building was envisioned by Kengal Hanumanthaiah, who
was a freedom fighter and a member of the Constituent Assembly,
Chief Minister of Karnataka, and later a Member of Parliament.

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

LET'S EXPLORE
What type of legislature does your state have?

CHALLENGES TO THE EFFECTIVE

FUNCTIONING OF THE LEGISLATURES
Governance and Democracy

As discussed, the Indian legislature (including the Parliament at

the Centre and the State Assemblies) has the critical and vital
role of enacting laws, overseeing administrative processes, and
approving the budget. It also provides a platform for discussing
national policies, development plans, international relations,
and addressing public grievances. However, the legislature
also faces several challenges in its effective functioning.
o

190
 Some of these can include regular absenteeism of members, non-
cooperative conduct or communication of members, reduced
Productivity: quality of important debates, and disruptions of the Question
Inthe Hour.
Parliamentary
context, The Parliament typically meets three times a year These
productivity is meetings are called ‘sessions’ — Budget Sessions, Monsoon
measured by
the number of Sessions and Winter Sessions. Each of these has ‘sittings’, where
hours either the Parliament meets to deliberate upon proposed laws, discuss
the Lok Sabha
important matters of governance, and seek explanations from
or Rajya
Sabha actually the Executive onits decisions and actions. Usually, the Parliament
functioned sits for 6 hours a day during sessions. This can be extended on
against the
time it was special occasions or when there is a need to complete urgent
scheduled to. business. The State Assemblies too, have similar schedules.

LET'S EXPLORE
-> Study the data given in the following table. What
conclusions can you draw about the functioning of
Parliament over time? Compile data for more recent years.

Period of Lok Sabha Numl?er &

sessions sittings
1 Lok Sabha (1952-1957) 14 677
2" Lok Sabha (1957-1962) 16 567
10™ Lok Sabha (1991-1996) 16 423
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

13™ Lok Sabha (1999-2004) 14 356

- Read the following statement of the former chairman

of the Rajya Sabha, M. Venkaiah Naidu given in 2021:
“..the productivity of Rajya Sabha during 2004-14 has
been about 78% and it declined to about 65% since then.
Of the 11 sessions [that he presided over], four of them
clocked low productivity of 6.80%, 27.30%, 28.90% and
29.55%; during the year 2018, the Rajya Sabha recorded
the lowest ever productivity of 35.75% under the impact
of disruptions.” What conclusions can you draw from this
statement? What implications does this have for the role
that the Rajya Sabha is expected to play?
(2]

191
The Parliament and the State Assemblies have been envisioned
as spaces for thoughtful debates and discussions where laws are
made in the interest of the people. However, when debates are
disrupted, sessions are cut short and some bills take years to be
discussed and passed, it becomes a matter of concern.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Take up a small group project. Compile data regarding ‘l
the functioning of the legislature in your state or union |
territory.
- Seekanappointment with an MLA and gather information
about challenges with respect to the state legislature.

Concerns have been expressed by sections of the society about

the fact that a substantial proportion of their representatives in
the Lok Sabha have criminal cases against them, and that many
sessions are marked by angry or biased debates that do not
seriously address issues affecting the people.
The media also plays an important role in communicating the
concerns of the electorate. These cartoons express them with
humour, a practice common to all healthy democracies.

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

CRIMINRL | ELEcTion T
§ RECORD
oF
(OMMISSIONER
SN

L
= CAND\DRTES

=l
Governance and Democracy

Fig. 6.13.b. Scrutiny of papers filed

thunder, lightning, storms, breaches by candidates
etc. It’s Monsoon Session.
2]

192
 Yet, our democracy grows stronger when citizens stay informed
and engaged. By asking questions, sharing their views, and
participating in public discussions, people help shape better
policies. Therefore, one of the best ways to overcome the
challenges India faces regarding its legislature, is to ensure that
many more citizens stay informed on matters of importance
to society, participate in discussions through public debate
on digital spaces that various government departments offer
during policymaking processes, and constructively engaging
with political representatives on policies.
Many more young leaders and diverse voices are entering public
life, and technology is making it easier to stay connected and
involved with governance. As future voters, your choices, and
participation will play a key role in strengthening our Parliament
and the assembly of the state you belong to, ensuring that they
truly serve all people.

’ > DON'T MISS O

- Atal Bihari Vajpayee, a
former Prime Minister of
India, said during a speech
in the Lok Sabha,
“Sarkaarein aayengi,
Jjaayengi. Paartiyaan
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

banengi, bigadengi.
Lekin yeh desh rehna
chaahiye,
is desh ka loktantra
amar rehna chaahiye.” Fig. 6.14. Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(Governments will come
and go, parties will rise and fall. But the nation must
endure, and its democracy must live on.)
- What message do you think this gives about the role
of Parliament and leaders in a democracy? Why is it
important to protect democratic values even when
political power changes?
(&)

193
Before we move on...
> India’s Parliamentary system ensures that power is shared,
decisions are debated, and leaders are held accountable.
> The Legislature makes laws, the Executive implements
them, and the Judiciary ensures that they follow the
Constitution.
The Parliament represents the voice of the people and
reflects the federal spirit of our democracy.
Both at the Centre and in the states, structures are
designed to balance representation, responsibility, and
unity.
Checks and balances between institutions help protect
citizens’ rights and uphold democratic values.
The functioning of the Parliament needs to become more
efficient and productive so that the country’s progress is
not thwarted.

Questions and activities

il, Find out how many representatives from your state are in
each House of the Parliament.

6 - The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive

What makes the Indian Parliament the “voice of the
people”? How does it ensure that different opinions are
heard?
Why do you think the Constitution made the Executive
responsible to the Legislature?
Why do you think we have chosen the system of bicameral
Governance and Democracy

legislature at the Union level?

. Try to track the journey of a recent bill passed by the
Parliament. Identify in which House it was introduced.
Were there any major debates or disagreements? How long
did it take for the bill to become a law? Use newspaper
archives, government websites, and Lok Sabha debates, or
ask your teacher for help.
=)

194
 . Choose a recent law passed by the Parliament. Divide
into teams to role-play different parts of the process —
MPs debating in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, ministers
answering questions, and the President giving assent.
Present a short skit showing how a bill becomes a law; enact
a ‘model Parliament’.
. The Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023, was passed with wide
support. Why might it have taken over 25 years for this bill
to be passed, despite being discussed for so long?
. Sometimes the Parliament is disrupted and does not
function for the number of days it is supposed to. What
impact do you think this has on the quality of laws and the
trust people place in their representatives?
. Can you create ‘interest’ groups among students and list
questions related to any policy that you may want to ask
your MP and / or your MLA? How would these questions
be different if it is to the MP instead of the MLA, and vice
versa?
[Link] is the role that the Judiciary plays in Indian
democracy? What could happen if we didn’t have an
independent judiciary?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1
0

195
Factors of Production

For a country like India, the largest contribution to growth

and productivity will probably come about from more
efficiently using land, labour and capital, thus they must be
used more efficiently.
— Bibek Debroy,
Chairman, Economic Advisory Council
to the Prime Minister (2017-24)

oss1cHO7

196
 LR

Fig. 7.2. A glimpse at the production of some goods

INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how your clothes, shoes, school bag,
furniture, phone, computer, etc., are made? Every product
around you goes through a production process before it finally
reaches you. This production process involves using resources
or inputs required to produce the final product. The resources
or inputs used in producing goods and services are hence called
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

factors of production.

Meet Ratna, who runs a small restaurant named Pause Point,

on the city outskirts. Popular among highway travellers for its
tasty, high-quality food, Pause Point is growing with a team of
seven people who assist Ratna in managing the business. When
she started five years ago, she had to choose a location, organise
Business:
Afirm, a money for rent and equipment, hire staff, buy ingredients, and
shop, a plan how to make her dream a success.
factory,
etc., which
produces or Businesses combine various inputs or factors of production to
sells goods
or provides create goods and services, which also generate opportunities for
aservice. people to engage in economic activities.
@

197
LET'S EXPLORE
- In small groups, study the economic activities around your
locality. What are the different types of goods and services
being made or provided?
- Here’s a small report that Latha, Asha, Mohan, and Kiran
made. You can make your own report for shops of your choice.

Types of Number | Goods produced i

YIS in the or services Typ:: oufii’x;;t)luts
shops locality provided q
. Packaged goods,
Grocery 13 Fopd grains, perishables,
shops milk, bread
storage space

Raw ingredients
Restaurants/ 3 Cooked meals, | like vegetables and
food stalls snacks, beverages | fruits, gas, utensils;
cook/helper

Ve |y [T uesebles | pagier weiging

Fresh produce,

scale, cart or stall

Tools, spare parts,

. Mobile repair, knowledge and
re l\:i(;bi% S 4 mobile skills of mobile
P P accessories components and
functions

Salons/ Haircut, Scissors, creams,

3 rooming, beaut beauty products,
arlours g 8 y yp
p services water, electricity

Looking at your group’s report, think about the following:

Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

- Where do people get the money that they need for their
business?
> Where did the hairdresser get trained?
> Who taught the food vendors to cook?
- What motivated the business owners to start their business?
2]

198
 In economics, the inputs used in a production process or the
factors of production are classified into four types — land,
labour, capital and entrepreneurship. Technology is a facilitator
and a crucial factor that enables businesses to produce more
goods with the same or fewer inputs. Let’s learn more about
these inputs in the sections ahead!

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Land (natural resources)

The word land’in economics encompasses not only geographical
land but also natural resources like soil, forests, water, air,
sunlight, minerals, oil, and natural gas. Recollect the chapter on
Natural Resources and Their Use, where we discussed different
types of resources that nature gifts to us and how we use them.
Businesses either purchase the required land or pay rent to use
it for a period of time.

LET'S EXPLORE
Revisit the table in your report. Which of the items on your
list can be labelled as ‘land’?

Labour (human resources)

Labour is essential in production, involving physical and mental
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Skill:
The ability effort. Carpenters, farmers, construction workers, teachers,
todoan
activity
and doctors use varying levels of physical strength, knowledge,
or job and skill. Everyone contributes differently through their work,
well with helping create goods and services for society’s needs.
practice
and
training. People as a resource
Human beings play a key role in economic activities and
production processes as they apply their knowledge, skills,
and decision-making abilities to create goods and services. For
example, a police officer maintains law and order, a scientist
invents new technologies, a chef develops new recipes, etc.
They all require a special set of knowledge and skills to perform
well. Of course, they all must be dedicated to their work to do
@

199
 .l
Fig. 7.4. Chemical engineer

Fig. 7.5. Carpenter Fig. 7.6. Software developer

a good job. The word labour refers to the physical and mental
effort used in production. However, human capital refers to the
specialised skills, knowledge, abilities and expertise required to
perform that labour. Thus, human capital is not just the basic
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

efforts of labour but also the quality and efficiency of that labour.

Facilitators of human capital

Education and training

Education helps individuals gain knowledge, starting with basic
literacy and extending to expertise in specific fields. What you
o

200
 Fig. 7.7. Education and training

Training: learn in school enriches your knowledge and prepares you to

Itisthe solve real-world problems. For example, a civil engineering
process of
learning the student learns principles of design and materials, which are
required applied to building infrastructure like roads and bridges. The
skills todo a
particular job challenge lies in creating durable, cost-efficient, and eco-
or activity. friendly solutions. This is achieved through training, such as
Cognitive: observing construction sites, testing materials, understanding
It refers to safety procedures and hands-on application. With education
the process
of learning, and training, individuals are prepared to excel in their careers.
knowing and
understanding. Healthcare
Good health supports cognitive development, allowing children
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

to attend school regularly and learn better. Similarly, workers

are able to give their best, physically and mentally, when they
are of sound body. They are able to do more in shorter time
periods, be creative, and do not have to be away from work due
to ill health.

' THINK ABOUT IT

How do infrastructure and healthcare systems like hospitals,
primary healthcare centres, doctors, pharmacies, diagnostic
labs, etc., contribute to developing human capital?
@

201
Social and cultural influences
A culture of hard work, continuous improvement, and
endeavouring to do things well has helped countries to
move forward. There is a Japanese concept called kaizen,
which means ‘continuous improvement’. This concept has
been applied in Japan since the mid-1940s and has helped
Japan achieve higher standards of living for its people.
Another example could be that of the German work
ethic, which is deeply rooted in their history. Germany is
renowned for its high-quality industrial output. They place
a high value on punctuality, attention to detail and quality.
These qualities of their human capital contributed to their
rise as a global leader in technology and manufacturing.

LET'S EXPLORE
- Let’sdoasmall experiment. Make a list of 10 working
adults in your family and neighbourhood. Ask them
todescribe the culture at their workplace. Share notes
with your classmates. What did you discover? What
are some adjectives that occur more frequently?
- In the Tapestry chapters, you have seen examples
of the art and architecture in India across several
centuries. What do you think are the factors that
enabled their creators to achieve such high levels of Productivity:
Abilityto do
excellence? Discuss in groups and share in class. moreina
particular time
period.
Challenges to human capital
Adult literacy
Our nation has come a long way in various aspects rate: Percentage
of human capital since independence. Literacy is an of people aged
15 and above
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

important characteristic of the population and helps

who can read
enhance the skills and productivity of human capital. The and write with
Adult Literacy Rate in India is 85 per cent for males and understanding
ashort, simple
70 per cent for females as of 2023, as per the World Bank statement about
estimates. Despite progress in many areas, India faces their everyday
life.
challenges in developing human capital.
(2]

202
 ' THINK ABOUT IT
- Shivay, a student at Saraswati Vidyalaya in Grade 8,
had to drop out of school two years back as his father
lost his job. How do you think the loss of schooling
years will affect Shivay when he grows up?
- What problems could businesses face when they do
not find workers with the required skills?

According to the Economic Survey of

India 2024, 65 per cent of people in
India are below the age of 35 years.
This means that India has a young,
productive population, which may
help the country reap the benefits
of a demographic dividend. The
demographic dividend refers to
the benefit a country gets when it
has a large number of young and
s working people. When more people
Fig. 7.8. Students writingan exam are working and earning, and fewer
people depend on them, the country
can grow businesses and improve living standards. To take
advantage of this potential, individuals must have access to
quality education, health, training, and skilling, which would
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

contribute to the nation’s progress. You will learn more about

this in the year ahead in the chapter on Demographics.

' THINK ABOUT IT

Are some jobs more important than others? What would
happen if nobody cleaned the streets, collected the trash,
farmers stopped cultivating the crops, doctors were not
available to treat patients, and so on?

Today, there is a vast variety of jobs requiring different kinds

of skills. However, India has had a rich legacy of skill-based
knowledge systems and workmanship.
@

203
 India’s ancient skill heritage
For ancient Indians, work was a form of expressing their nature
and striving for perfection, an offering to the deity or the
receiver, as the case may be. It had to be created or done with
devotion. The tools (a type of technology) used were worshipped;
this tradition continues as Vishwakarma puaja or Ayudha puja.
So, creating products involved a unique blend of kala (art) and
vidya (knowledge). Knowledge was passed on from generation
to generation, and also built on. The shilpa shastras are ancient
texts that contain detailed design guidelines on sculptures,
paintings, buildings, wooden items, and jewellery. For example,
texts on sculpture prescribe exact specifications regarding
postures, colours, measurements, and proportions of figures.

cic,, DON'T MISS OUT

Generations of families of sculptors have worked on
constructing India’s temples over centuries. They used their
skills without expecting to see the finished outcome. They
pursued excellence, considering work as worship by practising
regularly and learning new techniques.

Stitched shipbuilding
Indians used a unique stitching technique dating back over
2000 years to make ships and boats, which they used to conduct
maritime trade and cultural exchanges across the Indian Ocean.
The technique involved stitching wooden planks together using
cords instead of nails, which made them flexible and helped the
ships navigate the Indian Ocean with ease.
1L i
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

Fig. 7.9. Re-creation of a 5"-century stitched ship

204
 LET'S EXPLORE
- Many of the traditional techniques of production have
either disappeared or are on a decline. For example, the
stitching of ships saw a severe decline after the arrival of
Europeans in the Indian Ocean in the 16" century. This
technique is now used for small fishing boats.
- Why do you think the use of indigenous techniques has
declined? Discuss in the class.
- Find outsome techniques and products from your region
that showcase human effort and skill. Explain briefly
using drawings and text in the class.

Capital
Capital: Businesses also require capital that comprises monetary
In economics, resources and durable assets like machinery, tools, equipment,
any asset,
whether vehicles, vending carts, computers, shops, factories, office
physical or buildings, etc., for their day-to-day operations. Just as Ratna
financial, used
would have required money to take the land on lease, buy
to produce
goods and the furniture and kitchen equipment, etc. These are all called
services. ‘capital’ — money plus human-made resources that are used to
produce goods and services.
Capital is essential to a manufacturing unit or a services sector
enterprise. But where do businesses get the capital? Generally,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 7.10. Machinery Fig. 7.11. Loans

9

205
personal savings, family, and friends are the first source of funds
. P . . Interest:
and support for individuals when they start a business, just as The amount
Ratna did when she started her business. However, the funds of money
were insufficient for Ratna to start the business, so she took a gzfio%etr 2f
loan from the bank to meet the shortfall. She paid interest along aloan to the
with a part of her loan amount over a period of time. Similarly, fsr;:;rt;(:ir
large companies require a lot of money to expand their business; money for a
hence, they raise money from the general public through the specific time.
stock market. The stock market is a special type of market Dividend:
where shares are bought and sold. Large companies raise money An amount
from the public by offering them a share of the profits, called g;i”;o”ey
a dividend. In other words, big businesses can raise money or regularly by
financial capital through such a market and can sell shares of tacf:mpa”y
. . . . . 0 Its
their business. You will learn the exact mechanism of how this | ¢y areholders
works in the higher grades. out of its
| profits.

LET'S EXPLORE
Identify a factoryin your region. Find out how much capital
may have been invested in the construction of the factory
(you may provide an estimate). What kinds of equipment
does the factory use to create its finished products?

Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship means starting your own business or creating
something new to solve a problem. An entrepreneur is a person
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

Fig. 7.12. Bamboo and cane products, Fig. 7.13. Food processing
Arunachal Pradesh
(5]

206
 = : e < 1 A
Fig. 7.14. Pottery products, Delhi Fig. 7.15. Petrochemical plant

who comes up with an idea, takes risks, gathers other factors

Startup of production, and works hard to make their startup idea
Astartupis an successful.
entrepreneurial
venture An entrepreneur’s vision for solving a problem helps bring
with limited . . .
resources that innovative products and services to the market that benefit
aims at rapid society and the nation. At the same time, they also create job
g;?(‘g;:;gg opportunities and support livelihoods. In return, they derive a
while deep sense of satisfaction from seeing their dreams become a
leveraging reality and serving the people.
technology.
Thus, an entrepreneur is one who:
| Grade 8 Part 1

An Entrepreneur

Takes risks Combines

by investing various
money and factors
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

time of production
~ ~

v v v
Identifies a Makes key Contributes to
problem and decisions the welfare of
is resolute to regarding the society with his/
solve it with operation and her innovation
an innovative functioning
solution of his/her
business

Fig. 7.16. Tasks performed by an entrepreneur

9

207
 The man who dreamed big for India
J.R.D. Tata — entrepreneur,
industrialist and philanthropist
Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhoy (J.R.D.)
Tata was one of India’s greatest
entrepreneurs and played a big role in
building modern India. He was born
in 1904 and became the head of the
Tata Group, one of the largest business
groups in the country. He believed
that businesses should not only make
money but also help society. He started Fig. 7.17. JR.D. Tata
India’s first airline, Tata Airlines, in
1932, which later became Air India. Under his leadership, the
Tata Group expanded into many areas like steel, cars, power,
and chemicals. J.R.D. Tata was also known for caring about his
workers and believed in providing them with good working
conditions. He was a man of vision, hard work, and honesty.
In 1992, he received the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian
award, for his great service to the nation.

' THINK ABOUT IT

- What could be the lessons for young entrepreneurs that
you can gather from the above case?
- Does the existing knowledge of the entrepreneur help in
finding solutions to the problem at hand? Or do they need
to seek other sources?
- Is profit the only motivation for an entrepreneur? Why or
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

why not?
- What are the other personality traits required to be a
successful entrepreneur?
(5]

208
 TECHNOLOGY: AN ENABLER
OF PRODUCTION
Technology means the application of scientific knowledge. For
example, a camera converts light into electrical signals to create
a digital image. Any production-related activity uses some form
of technology. Some early forms of technology that have existed
since ancient times are still in use today.
Today, newer and advanced technological developments are
applied in various areas, making our lives easier. For example,
payments can be made at the click of a button through UPI
(Unified Payments Interface); farmers can get advance weather
updates; Global Positioning Systems (GPS) can discover the
shortest routes for transporting goods, and so on.
| Grade 8 Part 1

Fig. 7.18. Drones spraying fertilisers to Fig. 7.19. Robots assisting in

improve crop health surgical processes

Have you noticed how old technology gets replaced by a new,

Exploring Society: India and Beyond

better one?
This process makes it easier for people and businesses to get
things done and improve how they work. For example, instead
of sending letters by post, we now use email to communicate
with people quickly and at a lower cost. However, remember
that technological progress does not always mean replacing
old technologies — some, like pulleys and wheelbarrows, are
still in use.
9

209
 3 R R
Fig. 7.20. A wheelbarrow on a Fig. 7.21. Pulley used in boats
construction site

Now, let’s look at examples of how technology is helping students

learn, build new skills, and find jobs. |

Technology paving the way for accessing knowledge,

skills, and job opportunities
A variety of online courses are avail-
able to students through Government
platforms like SWAYAM (Study
Webs of Active Learning for Young
Aspiring Minds), which offers courses
for Grade 9 onwards and operates
on Massive Open Online Courses -
(MOOCs) through which learners can Fig. 7.22. Online learning
explore subjects like robotics, aquaculture, textile printing, and
so on that are free of cost. Students benefit from learning at their
own pace, from anywhere, while pursuing other jobs or courses.
Online portals, like the Government’s National Career Service,
help people find job opportunities across various sectors, from
plumbing to accounting. This is how technology has eliminated
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

geographical barriers, allowing people access to knowledge,

skill development and jobs in India and abroad. The services to
these online portals can be accessed through the following links:
= [Link]
= [Link]

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 LET'S EXPLO
- Can you think of some technological advancements that
have impacted the lives of people and communities
around you? Talk to elders at home and in the
neighbourhood about it.
- Think of an invention that you would like to make to
solve a problem. Write its related information on a piece
of paper, such as its name, what it does, and how it works,
sketches or drawings of what it would look like, and so
on. Discuss with your classmates.

How ARE THE FACTORS CONNECTED?

The factors — land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship and
technology are combined to produce goods and services, and
the proportion of each factor used depends on the product.
For example, output from the agriculture, construction, and
handicraft sectors relies more on labour and thus is labour-
intensive, while semiconductor chips or satellites require more
capital, specialised machinery, and are capital-intensive.
These factors complement each other and are interconnected;
in case of some missing or misused factors, production can
become inefficient or can be halted. However, in some cases,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

new techniques can change the proportion used and output.

For instance, increased machine use in agriculture can lower
dependence on labour. Similarly, 3-D printing can help revive
the dying art forms in textiles by producing handloom products
at a large scale to serve the market. The production inputs are
available at different geographic locations. Businesses can
procure them from these varied locations and combine the
inputs to produce goods and services. Thus, the geographic
interconnectedness provides businesses with access to varied
inputs. However, production activities sometimes face severe
supply chain challenges. The supply chain is a network of
individuals, organisations, resources, activities and technology
that are involved in the production and sale of goods.
(5]

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When a disruption in the supply chain occurs due to relying
on sources from far-off places, instead of local inputs, it results
in a halt in the production process, as was the case during the
COVID-19 pandemic.

DON'T MISS OUT

India is the world’s second-largest mobile phone manufacturer
after China in 2025! Let’s understand these ideas through a flow
chart depicting mobile phone manufacturing.

The process of mobile phone assembly

R&D team Acquire land Acquire raw Assemble

conceptualises and set up materials components &
new features factory install software

Distribution Mass production Test phone

to retail stores & packaging (functionality, quality
& performance)

Fig. 7.23

Human effort is involved at every stage of production to design,

supervise, and improve products and processes. For example,
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

teams of software, electrical, and mechanical engineers, along

with project managers, use their expertise to develop a product.
The entrepreneur provides guidance on how resources should
be used. Then, procuring resources like land, factory space,
machinery, and skilled workers requires financial resources.
Together, all these inputs are essential, working like puzzle
pieces to create the goods and services we rely on!
e

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 RESPONSIBILITIES TOWARDS
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
When we produce goods, we use natural resources like land,
water, and minerals. However, these resources are limited and
can be harmed if we are not careful. For example, in Tamil Nadu,
many people earn money by working in leather factories. This
helps the local economy, but the waste from these factories can
pollute rivers and soil. In the same way, when old smartphones
are not recycled properly, harmful substances like lead and
mercury can leak into the ground and water. This pollution can
be dangerous for people, animals, and plants. That is why it is
important for producers to use natural resources responsibly —
so that we can meet our needs today without making it harder
for future generations to meet theirs. They should try to reduce
waste, avoid pollution, and protect the environment while
making products.

' THINK ABOUT IT

How are local communities and biodiversity affected by such
activities? Do you also know some places around you that have
seen water and land degradation over time? Discuss in class.

So, it is important for producers to adopt sustainable practices

to replenish natural resources for future use.
| Grade 8 Part 1
Exploring Society: India and Beyond

i
Fig. 7.24. Recycling industrial wastewater Fig. 7.25. Use of recycled products as inputs
before releasing it into water bodies
(&)

213
Apart from land and natural resources, businesses have
responsibilities towards their workers and employees, which
are summarised below.
Fair compensation and working conditions: Employers
need to ensure that workers are paid fairly for their labour
and that they work in a safe environment.
Skill development and training: There is a responsibility
to invest in training and education to ensure that workers
develop the skills necessary to remain competitive in the
labour market.
Workplace rights and protections: Laws and regulations
for workers’ rights relating to fair treatment, preventing
discrimination, and providing benefits like health care or
paid leave should be adhered to.
Businesses are motivated to address social and environmental
concerns in their operations to benefit society and biodiversity
through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). This includes
reducing polluting activities, addressing the well-being of local
communities, treating employees and customers with respect,
and so on.

DON'T MISS OUT

India was the first nation in the world to bring a Corporate
Social Responsibility law in 2014 that mandated companies to
spend 2 per cent of their average profits of the last three years
on CSR activities.

Before we move on ...

> Land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are factors
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

of production that are used in a particular proportion to

produce goods and services. These factors complement
each other and are interconnected.
Human capital is the knowledge, skills, experience, and
ability of individuals that contribute to their ability to
perform work and create economic value. It is influenced

214
 by education, training, health, use of technology, and
social context that make people more productive in the
workforce.
The resources help in the production of goods and services
that serve society and need to be preserved and utilised
judiciously.

Questions and activities

il, How are the factors of production different from each
other? What are the difficulties you faced in classifying the
factors of production in the exercise given in-text?
How does human capital differ from physical capital?
How do you think technology is changing how people
develop their skills and knowledge?
A skill is something you learn and practice to get better.
It helps you do things well, like playing a sport, creative
writing, solving math problems, cooking, or even
communicating well with people. If you could learn one
skill today, what would it be and why?
Do you think entrepreneurship is the ‘driving force’ of
production? Why or why not?
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 8 Part 1

Can technology replace other factors like labour? Is this

good or bad? Support your answer with the help of an
example.
How do education and skill training affect human capital?
Can they substitute for each other, or do they complement
each other?
Imagine you want to start a business that produces steel
water bottles. What kind of inputs are needed? How would
you obtain them? Suppose one of the factors is missing;
what happens to your business operations?
Interview an entrepreneur or founder to understand their
motivation to start a business and the opportunities and
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215
 challenges they saw. You can work in pairs to create a
questionnaire to collect the information and share what
you have learned in a report.
10. Think like an economist. Let’s explore what happens when
things change. If you were Ratna, what would you do in
the following situations? Discuss with your classmates.
1. Suppose the rent for your space suddenly doubles.
= Will youraise the price of the food served to cover
the costs?
= Will youlook for a cheaper location?
= How does this affect your business?
II. Imagine one of your helpers quits suddenly.
= Can the remaining workers manage the same
amount of work?
= Will youneed to offer a higher salary to attract a
new worker?
III. You receive a small loan to invest in better technology
for your restaurant.
= Will this increase the production or improve
quality?
= Will it help you reach more customers?
IV. Suppose another restaurant opens in the
neighbourhood.
= How will you attract and keep your customers?
= Will you improve your service, reduce prices, or
offer something new?
V. What government laws or rules should be changed to
Economic Life Around Us
7 - Factors of Production

improve the ease of doing business?

0

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