ENGLISH NOTES

Learning English basics such as correct use of punctuation is

necessary either in written English or in verbal English.
Punctuation Learning Example:

Women: without her man, is nothing.

Woman: without her, man is nothing.

Basics of English
SVO (Subject, Verb. Object)
Subject:
The person or thing doing the action is called subject.

Verb:
The action being done is called verb.
Object:
The person or thing receiving the action is called object.
Example:

She (subject) kicks (verb) the ball (object).

Subject and Predicte

Subject
Subject is a person, place or thing. It can be either a noun or pronoun.

Predicate:
The part of sentence that provides information about subject is
called predicate subjects
Phrase:
A group of words that lacks complete meaningful sense is called phrase.
Example: in the
room

very quickly

Clause:
A group of words that consists of a subject and verb and provides
complete meanings is called clause.
Example: He runs.

She cried.

Sentence Structure:
 Phrase + clause
 Subject + verb + adverb + (adjective)
 Subject + Predicate

Sentence:
A group of words that imparts complete meaningful sense is called
as sentence.
Example: She runs very quickly.

Types of Sentence
Based on function:

▪ Declarative/Assertive sentence
▪ Interrogative sentence
▪ Imperative sentence
 ▪ Exclamatory sentence
Based on Structure:
▪ Simple sentence
▪ Compound sentence
▪ Complex sentence
▪ Compound complex sentence

Syntax:
Syntax means the rules for arranging words to form correct sentences.
Example:

Correct: “She is reading a book.”

Incorrect: “Reading she is a book.”

Declarative Sentence:

A group of words that make complete statement, declaration or assertion

is called declarative/assertive sentence.
Example: Sun sets in the west.

Interrogative Sentence:
A sentence that asks a question is called interrogative sentence.
There in always a question mark (?) at end of such sentence. It may
start from Wh family, How or helping verbs.
Example:
Are you okay?
Imperative Sentence:

A sentence that makes command, order, request, a piece of advice or a

wish is called imperative sentence.
Example:

Please open the door.

Respect your elders.

Exclamatory Sentence:
A sentence that expresses sudden feelings or emotions is called
exclamatory sentence. There is a sign of exclamation at end of sentence.
Example:
What a beautiful view!
He has won the match!

Parts of Speech
Words are grouped by their functions in a sentence called parts of speech.
Example: Noun, verb, adjective are parts of speech.

Noun:

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

Example: Ali plays cricket. (Ali = noun)

Pronoun:
A pronoun replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Example: She is my friend. (She = pronoun)

Adjective:
An adjective describes or qualifies a noun or pronoun.
Example: The tall boy runs fast. (Tall = adjective)

Adverb:
An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Example: He runs quickly. (Quickly = adverb)

Conjunction:
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. Example:

Ali and Ahmed are brothers. (And = conjunction)

Types of Conjunction
1) Coordinate Conjunction:
It connects equal parts (words, phrases, clauses).
Example: I like tea and coffee. (And = coordinate)

2) Subordinate Conjunction:
It connects a dependent clause to an independent clause. Example: I

stayed home because it rained. (Because = subordinate)

Preposition:
A preposition shows relation between noun/pronoun and other

words. Example: The book is on the table. (On = preposition)

Interjection:
An interjection shows sudden emotion or feeling.

Example: Wow! That’s amazing. (Wow = interjection)

Articles:

Articles (a, an, the) define nouns as specific or general.

Example: I saw a cat. (A = article)

Sentence Structure

Types of Clauses:

Independent Clause:
An independent clause consists of a subject and verb and provides
the complete meanings.
Dependent Clause:
A dependent clause consists of coordinate conjunction and does not exist
on its own and requires an independent clause to complete its meanings.

Coordinate Conjunction:
A coordinate conjunction joins two independent clauses together.
Subordinate Conjunction:
A subordinate conjunction connects equal words, phrases, or clauses.
Example: Ali plays cricket, and Ahmed studies hard.

Clause:
A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.
 It can be independent (complete meaning) or dependent (incomplete
meaning).

Types of Sentences (based on structure)

1. Simple Sentence (I.C)

A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause.

Example: He loves to read books.

2. Compound Sentence (I.C + I.C + Coordinate Conjunction)

It consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a
coordinate conjunction (and, but, or, so).
Example: Waseem likes to read books, and Hanzla listens to music.
 3. Complex Sentence (I.C + Sub Conj + D.C)
It consists of one independent clause joined with one or more dependent
clauses using a subordinate conjunction (because, although, if, while).
Example: We missed the train because we were late.

4. Compound–Complex Sentence (I.C + I.C + Sub Conj + D.C)

It contains at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.
Example: The baby is sleepy, and the mother is watching while it is
raining outside.

Noun and Its Types

1. Proper Noun
A proper noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or
thing. It always begins with a capital letter.
Example: Multan, Pakistan, English

2. Common Noun
A common noun represents a person, place, or thing in general.
Example: Book, chair, city
3. Collective Noun
A collective noun represents a number of persons or things taken together
and considered as one.
Example: Army, class, flock, herd, team
 4. Abstract Noun
An abstract noun names a quality, state, or idea. These cannot be
perceived by the five senses.
Example: Love, honesty, bravery, laziness, beauty
5. Concrete Noun
A concrete noun refers to physical things that exist and can be
perceived by the senses.
Example: Chair, ball, table, desk
6. Compound Noun

A compound noun is made up of two or more words combined to form a

single meaning.
Example: Watermelon, sunflower, ice cream, snowfall, classroom
7. Countable Noun
A countable noun refers to things that can be counted in
numbers. Example: Chair, table, pen, apple
8. Uncountable Noun
An uncountable noun refers to things that cannot be counted in
numbers. Example: Sand, rice, milk, hair, water
9. Masculine Noun
A masculine noun indicates the male gender.

Example: Boy, man, king, prophet

10. Feminine Noun
A feminine noun indicates the female gender.
Example: Girl, princess, actress, queen
 11. Common Gender Noun
It includes the names that can be used for both male and female
genders without distinction.
Example: Parent, teacher, artist, student
12. Gender-Neutral / Exclusive Noun
Names that include both genders and can be used for either male or
female without prejudice.
Example: Spouse, player, chairperson

Noun Cases
1. Nominative Case:
When a noun is used as the subject of a verb, it is in the nominative

case. Example: The horse kicks the man. (Horse = subject)

2. Objective (Accusative) Case:

When a noun is used as the object of a verb, it is in the objective case.

Example: We walked home.

3. Possessive Case:
When a noun shows ownership or possession it is called possessive

case. Example: The boy’s watch, Mother’s bag, The tree’s leaves
 Rules for Nouns
1. Some nouns have the same singular and plural form: sheep, fish, deer.
2. Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning: cattle,
police, army.
3. Some nouns are always plural: jeans, trousers, scissors.
4. Some nouns are uncountable and have no plural:
information, knowledge, advice.

Pronoun and Its Types

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid repetition. Example:

A boy said that he was sick. (He = pronoun, boy = antecedent)

1. Personal Pronoun

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing.

Nominative (subject): When pronoun is being used as a subject i.e. I,
we, he, she, they
Objective (object): When pronoun is being used as a pronoun i.e. me,
us, him, her, them
Example: Ahmad wants to meet me.

2. Possessive Pronoun

A possessive pronoun shows ownership or possession.

Example: My book, their class, his pen, her house

3. Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject (action received by
subject itself).
Example: He hurt himself.

4. Intensive Pronoun

An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to the subject.

Example: I myself can complete this task.

5. Demonstrative Pronoun

A demonstrative pronoun is used to indicate specific things.

Example: This is my book. Those are the boys.

6. Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is used only in reference to questions.

Example: who, which, what, whom, one’s, where, whose etc..

1) What is the time by your watch?

2) How are you doing today?

7. Relative Pronoun

The relative pronoun is used to connect clarifying information about noun

and other pronouns in a sentence.
Example: who, whom, whose, which, that, whatever, whenever, wherever,
whoever

i) who → refers to subject.

Who is CR of this class?

ii) whom → refers to object.

With whom did he leave?
This letter is written to whom?

iii) whose → refers to possession.

Whose book is this?

8. Reciprocal Pronoun

A reciprocal pronoun is used to show a mutual action or relationship

between two or more people.
Examples:
1) They extend each other’s contact numbers.
2) We help one another in the hour of need.

9. Indefinite Pronoun

An indefinite pronoun refers to people or things that are not specific or

clearly identified. It indicates something in general.
Examples: No one, everyone, several, many, all, numerous, nothing,
something.

1) No one is willing to complete this task.

2) Many students are present today.