Module 1

Research – types, process, problem formulation and hypotheses

Meaning

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In
fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Research is an academic activity and as such
the term should be used in a technical sense. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the
help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The
systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also
research.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened
or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,
frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. . In analytical
 research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge‟s sake is termed „pure‟ or „basic‟ research.” Research concerning some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with
a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)
facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement

of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
„Motivation Research‟, an important type of qualitative research.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research
relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.

(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one
or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or
the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is
done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out. rch studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that
which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-
oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up
a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as
he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker
 and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his
own inclination.

Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well
illustrates a research process.

(1) formulating the research problem;

(2) extensive literature survey;

(3) developing the hypothesis;

(4) preparing the research design;

(5) determining sample design;

(6) collecting the data;

(7) execution of the project;

(8) analysis of data;

(9) hypothesis testing;

(10) generalisations and interpretation, and

(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results

1. Formulating the research problem

Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding
the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one‟s own
colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter. After this the researcher
rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as
specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step
of greatest importance in the entire research process.

2. Extensive literature survey

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies
are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should
be remembered that one source will lead to another.

3. Development of working hypotheses

 Research Methodology: An Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF

FF

Review the literature

Review concepts
Define and theories Design research Analyse data
Formulate (including Collect data Interpret
research (Test hypotheses
hypotheses sample design) (Execution) and report
problem Review previous F if any) F
research finding V VII
I III IV VI
II

Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system

to which it is transmitted)
FF = feed forward (Serves the vital function of
providing criteria for evaluation)

Fig. 1.1

11
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research
hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for
research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data
and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research,
the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very
specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. It indicates
the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

4. Preparing the research design

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to
be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. There are several research designs,
such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be
either informal designs or formal designs, out of which the researcher must select one for his
own project.

5. Determining sample design

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.

6. Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. Primary data can be collected either
through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes
some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth
contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by observation,
personal interview, telephone interviews, mailing of questionnaires and schedules.

7. Execution of the project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of
the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and
in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be
readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may
be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made
for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

8. Analysis of data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the
help of various statistical measures.

9. Hypothesis testing

After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start
with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested
by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research
lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to
start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which
in turn may lead to further researches.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done. Writing of report must
be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be
as follows:

(i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should have the
following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of

findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarised.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

Research methodology in management

Experimental design

As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Professor
Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then by
conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and
inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop
certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations.
Today, the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of
several disciplines. Since experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural
operations, we still use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as
treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs. The experiment should be repeated
more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.
By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.

Problem formulation

Problem formulation in research methodology refers to the crucial process of identifying and
defining the specific issue or question that the research aims to address. It involves a clear
and concise articulation of the research problem, often in the form of a research question or
hypothesis, which guides the entire research process. A well-defined problem helps
researchers focus their efforts, choose appropriate methods, and gather relevant data to draw
meaningful conclusions. It serves as the foundation for the research study, ensuring its
relevance, significance, and contribution to the existing body of knowledge.

The process includes understanding the background of the problem, reviewing existing
literature, and determining the gaps or limitations in previous research. The formulated
problem should be clear, well-defined, and addressable through empirical investigation. A
carefully crafted research problem guides the researcher in selecting appropriate research
methods, data collection techniques, and analysis procedures, leading to meaningful findings
and contributing to the advancement of knowledge in the chosen field of study.
Hypothesis

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main function is
to suggest new experiments and observations. In fact, many experiments are carried out with
the deliberate object of testing hypotheses. Decision-makers often face situations wherein
they are interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available information and then take
decisions on the basis of such testing. The hypothesis may not be proved absolutely, but in
practice it is accepted if it has withstood a critical testing.

Characteristics of hypothesis:

Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

 Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
 Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
 Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.
 Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
 Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned.

Basic concepts concerning testing hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis:

In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis
as Ha.

The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn
(the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data that he collects and
then testing the hypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the
following considerations are usually kept in view:
 (a) Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis we are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities.

(b) If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk,
it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is α
(the level of significance) which is chosen very small.

(c) Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about
or approximately a certain value.

2. The level of significance;

This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some
percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case
we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be rejected when
the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if
H0 is true.

3. Decision rule or test of hypothesis:

Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha, we make a rule which is known as
decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).

4. Type I and Type II errors:

In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make.
We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true. The
former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error. In other words, Type I error
means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted and Type II error means
accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is denoted by α
(alpha) known as α error, also called the level of significance of test; and Type II error is
denoted by β (beta) known as β error.

5. Two – tailed and one – tailed tests:

In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms are quite important and must be clearly
understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is
significantly higher or lower than the hypothesised value of the mean of the population. Such
a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative
hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis.