Module-5

Nuclear Power Plant

 Introduction
 Nuclear power plants use nuclear fuels like Uranium and Plutonium to produce
energy by nuclear reaction. In such fuels when the nuclei of the atoms are split by
fast moving neutrons, the binding energy is released as heat energy. This heat energy
is used to raise steam, which in turn is used to run a steam turbine connected to a
generator as in conventional steam power plant.
 Principle of Release of Nuclear Energy
 Fission Reactions
 Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus (such as Uranium-
235 or Plutonium-239) splits into two lighter nuclei, along with the release of a large
amount of energy, neutrons, and radiation.
 Example

 235
U + n (Neutron) → 141Ba + 92Kr + 3n (Neutron) + Energy

 Principle of Energy Release

 Fuel Rods contain fissile material like Uranium-235.
 A neutron hits the U-235 nucleus, making it unstable.
 The nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei (called fission fragments), such as Barium and
Krypton. During this split 2 or 3 more neutrons are released a large amount of thermal
energy (heat) is produced.
 The released neutrons strike other U-235 nuclei, causing a chain reaction.

 Fusion Reactions
 Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which two or more light atomic nuclei combine to
form a heavier and more stable nucleus.
 This process is accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.
 Example:
 2
H + 3H → 4He + n (Neutron) + Energy
 Here, Deuterium (²H) and Tritium (³H) fuse to form Helium (⁴He) and a neutron.
 Principle of Energy Release:
 The mass of the products (helium + neutron) is less than the mass of the reactants (²H +
³H).
 The mass difference is converted into energy according to E=m c2.
 The binding energy per nucleon in helium is greater, meaning the new nucleus is more
stable.
 The increase in binding energy appears as released energy.
 Nuclear Fuels

 Common Nuclear Fuels for Fission Reactors:

o Uranium-235 (U-235)
 Naturally found in uranium ore (~0.7% of natural uranium).
 Fissile material – easily undergoes fission when struck by a neutron.
 Used in most commercial nuclear reactors.
o Plutonium-239 (Pu-239)
 Man-made fuel, produced from Uranium-238 in reactors.
 Also fissile – used in Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX).
 Used in breeder reactors and some fast reactors.
o Uranium-238 (U-238)
 Not fissile but fertile (can be converted into Pu-239).
 Makes up about 99.3% of natural uranium.
 Used in breeder reactors.
o Thorium-232 (Th-232)
 Fertile material – can be converted into fissile Uranium-233 (U-233).
 Abundant and less radioactive.
 Still in experimental or research phase in many countries.

 Common Nuclear Fuels for Fusion Reactors:

o Deuterium
 Isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron.
 Abundant – found in seawater (about 1 part in 6,500 of hydrogen atoms)
 Non-radioactive and safe to handle.
o Tritium
 Isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 2 neutrons.
 Radioactive (half-life ~12.3 years).
 Not naturally abundant, must be produced in reactors (e.g., by bombarding lithium
with neutrons)
o Deuterium-Helium
 Fusion between Deuterium and Helium-3 (³He).
 Produces Helium-4 and a proton.
 Produces no neutrons → cleaner reaction (less radiation).
o Hydrogen-Boron
 Proton (hydrogen nucleus) fuses with Boron-11.
 Produces three alpha particles (helium nuclei).
 No neutrons released → completely clean reaction.
 Moderation

 Moderation is the process of slowing down fast neutrons produced during nuclear fission
to make them more effective in sustaining a chain reaction. In most nuclear reactors,
thermal (slow) neutrons are required to continue the fission of fuel like uranium-235.
 To achieve this, a moderator is used, which slows down the neutrons without capturing
them. Common moderator materials include light water, heavy water, and graphite. By
reducing the speed of neutrons, moderation increases the probability of further fission
reactions, making the nuclear reactor operate efficiently and safely

 Breeding
 It is the process in which non-fissionable fertile materials (like Uranium-238 or Thorium-
232) are converted into fissionable fuel (like Plutonium-239 or Uranium-233) inside a
nuclear reactor.
 This happens when fertile materials absorb neutrons and undergo nuclear reactions to
become fissile. Reactors designed for this purpose are called breeder reactors.
 Breeding helps in:
o Producing more fuel than the reactor consumes
o Efficient use of natural resources
o Reducing nuclear waste
 Thermal Utilization Factor
 A four-factor formula is used in nuclear engineering to determine the multiplication
of a nuclear chain reaction in an infinite medium. The formula is given the relation.

 Where,
η = The reproduction factor, f = The thermal utilization factor
p =The resonance escape probability, ε = The fast fission factor

k∞ = Infinite multiplication factor (no leak out of the neutrons)

 Multiplication Factor
 In a nuclear fission process, whether the reaction continues or not, can be determined
by a number termed the Multiplication Factor.
 It is expressed by the relation,

 Where,
k = Effective multiplication factor, P = Rate of neutron production
A = Rate of neutron absorption E = Rate of neutron leakage

 The multiplication factor k is useful in determining whether a fission reaction will be

sustained, slowed down or increasing, based on the following:
o Critical Reaction: When, k = 1, the chain reaction will continue at a steady rate,
i.e., reaction is critical.
o Sub-critical Reaction: When, k < 1, the chain reaction will stop, i.e., reaction is
sub-critical, which is not desirable. With this state, the chain reaction dies down,
and indicates that the conditions to maintain a chain reaction are not fulfilled.
o Super-critical Reaction: When, k > 1, chain reaction will be building up, i.e., it
goes super-critical, which is the most undesirable and dangerous condition as it is
uncontrollable. This condition is applied in nuclear bombs.
  Layout of a Nuclear Power Plant

It consists of following major components:

 Nuclear Reactor
 It is the most expensive and important component of a nuclear power plant. In a
reactor vessel heat energy is released by the nuclear reaction. It is constructed within a
metal vessel with fuel rods, moderator and reflector. The whole vessel is surrounded with
a very thick concrete wall to avoid radiation hazards.
 Steam Boiler
 The primary coolant cycle picks up heat energy from the reactor core and transfers it
to water to form steam in the boiler.
 Turbine-Generator
 The steam generated is expanded in turbines and the mechanical energy is in turn used
to generate electrical energy.
 Cooling System
 This is a very important system of a nuclear power plant. Usually, the primary cooling
cycle picks up the heat energy from the reactor core and transfers it to the water in the
boiler to raise steam. Another cooling system is that of condenser, where the steam
expanded from the turbines is condensed and recirculated to generate steam.
  Components of a Nuclear Reactor
 Nuclear reactor is the heart of a nuclear power plant.

 Fuel Rods
 Either Uranium U-235 (primary fuel) or Plutonium Pu-239/U-233 (secondary fuel) is
used as the fuel in the nuclear reactors. Fuel rods are encased in metal cladding made
of stainless steel or aluminium material to protect the fuel from corrosion in contact
with the coolant.
 Moderator
 The neutrons released in a fission reaction are fast moving in nature and less effective
at higher velocities to cause further fission. With fast moving neutrons chain reaction
cannot be sustained. Thus, it is necessary to reduce the velocity of the fast-
m oving neutrons. This is achieved by a material termed moderator. The fast
neutrons are collided with the moderator, so as to bring down their velocity.
 Control Rods
 These are cylindrical shaped cadmium or boron rods located centrally in the fuel rods,
which have the property of absorbing neutrons. These rods can be moved up and
down in the reactor vessel. When they are moved down, they absorb the released
neutrons and damp the nuclear reaction.
 Reflector
 The neutrons in a fission reaction are partly absorbed by the fuel, moderator and
coolant materials. The remaining neutrons try to escape from the reactor core. Such
losses are to be minimized to sustain chain reaction. This is achieved by a reflector
that surrounds the reactor core. Graphite and beryllium are generally used as
reflectors.
 Reactor Vessel
 It is a strong steel container in which the fuel rods, moderator, control rods and the
reflector are arranged properly. Its function is to form a strong structural support for
the reactor core
 Biological Shielding
 This is a thick concrete or lead wall which surrounds the whole reactor system. The
main purpose of shielding is to avoid radiation hazards that may be caused by the
escape of various radioactive radiation from the reactor core due to the nuclear
reaction.
 The radiation particles released are neutrons, gamma, alpha and beta rays of these the
neutrons and gamma rays are deadly particles.
 Coolant
 The function of the coolant in a reactor is to transfer heat energy from the reactor core
to the boiler for steam generation. Coolants are used both in the primary and
secondary cycles in nuclear reactors. The commonly used coolants are water, heavy
 water, inert gases (such as helium, carbon dioxide), and liquid metal such as sodium.

 Types of Nuclear Reactors

• Nuclear reactors can be classified as follows:

 Based on Neutron Energy

• Fast reactors: In this fission is caused by fast Neutrons, without any moderator.

• Slow reactors: In these the fast Neutrons are slowed down by the moderator.
 Based on the Fuel Used

• Natural Fuel: These use natural uranium as fuel, generally with heavy water or
graphite as moderator.

• Enriched Uranium: These use enriched uranium (540% U235) as fuel, with ordinary
water as moderator.
 Based on the Moderator Used

• Water (ordinary or heavy) b) Graphite c) Beryllium

 Based on the Coolant Used

• Water cooled Reactor (BWR, PWR)

• Gas cooled reactor

• Liquid Metal (Na or NaK) Cooled reactor

• Organic Liquid Reactor

 Based on the Coolant Cycle

• Direct Cycle Reactor

• Single Cycle Reactor

• Double Cycle Reactor

 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

 This reactor uses enriched uranium as the fuel and water as the moderator. This
reactor in the category of direct cooling cycle reactor. In this reactor the coolant itself
acts as the working medium. The coolant i.e., water enters the reactor from the bottom
to the core and is evaporated due to the heat released by the nuclear reaction. The
coolant that is converted into steam leaves the reactor from the side. This steam is
directly expanded in a turbine. The turbine is coupled to a generator to produce
electrical power. In this reactor, the coolant itself acts as the moderator in the reactor
core.
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

 In operation, the coolant enters the reactor from the bottom, picks up heat and comes
out from the side. In the same circuit a pressurizer is provided, the function of which
is to maintain a constant high pressure in the-coolant circuit (80-100 bar). This is
achieved by heating water in the pressurizer by an external heating element, which
generates steam and collected at the dome. The steam generated then maintains its
pressure on the water in the coolant cycle. Due-to this the water in the reactor doesn't
boil but carries more heat and transfers to the water in the steam cycle through the
heat exchanger (boiler). The steam raised is used to generate power.
 Liquid Metal Reactor (LMR) or Sodium Graphite Reactor

 This reactor falls under the category of double circuit coolant type of reactor. This
reactor uses enriched uranium as the fuel, liquid metal and alloys such as sodium and
Na-K as coolant, and graphite as the moderator. This is also popularly known as
Sodium Graphite Reactor, since it uses sodium as the coolant and graphite as the
moderator. However, it requires two coolant cycles, whose primary circuit uses
sodium (Na) as the coolant, whereas the secondary circuit uses an alloy of sodium-
potassium (Na-K) as the coolant.
 In operation Na picks up heat energy from the core and transfers it to Na-K in the
secondary coolant circuit through an intermediate heat exchanger. In turn, NaK
transfers the heat to water in the boiler to raise steam, which is used to run the
turbines and generate power.
 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

Fig: Fast Breeder Reactor

 The principle of operation of a FBR is same as that of a sodium graphite reactor

except for the moderator used. This reactor doesn't use a moderator but the reactor
core is surrounded by a blanket/layer of fertile material like U-238 or Th-232. These
materials absorb the fast neutrons thus acting as the moderator, but also become
fissionable materials. The blanket material after absorbing neutrons becomes a
fissionable material (U-238 becomes Pu-239 and Th-232 becomes U-233), which
can be further used as nuclear fuel. The blanket converted into a fissionable material
is called as secondary fuel. Since, in this reactor a secondary fuel is produced by fast
neutrons of primary fuel, Vs termed Fast Breeder Reactor.
 Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)
 In this reactor, the coolant picks up heat from the core and transfers to a working
medium as in a single circuit reactor. A gas cooled reactor can also be a direct cycle
type of reactor like BWR, in which the hot coolant itself acts as the working medium,
and used to run a gas turbine. This type of reactors uses secondary nuclear fuels like
Pu-239 or U-233 as the fuel, gases like carbon dioxide, hydrogen or helium as the
coolants, with graphite as the moderator.
 In operation, the CO2 gas enters the core from the bottom, absorbs heat from the core
and leaves the vessel from the top or side. The hot gas enters a heat exchanger where
it gives out its heat content to evaporator in the steam circuit to raise steam. In the
same heat exchanger, there is an additional circuit of economizer to preheat the boiler
feed water, and super heater to superheat the saturated steam are provided. The steam
raised is used to run a steam turbine coupled to an alternator.

Fig: Gas cooled reactor

 Nuclear Waste
 Three main sources of wastes in a nuclear power plant are:
 Fission products: These are products of fission process of the nuclei of the solid
nuclear fuels.
 Neutron activation products: These are produced when fast neutrons are absorbed
by the materials. These affect the primary coolant, fuel cladding and the structures
around the core of the reactor.
 Actinides: These products are produced in the reactor due to neutron absorption by
uranium. Most actinides like neptunium, americium, and curium are all nuclear wastes
that are produced during fission reaction.

 Radiation Hazards (Dangers)

 Exposure to Ionizing Radiation:
Workers and nearby residents can be exposed to ionizing radiation, which can damage
living tissues and DNA.
 Leakage from Reactors:
Accidental leakage of radioactive materials from the reactor core can lead to severe
health and environmental risks.
 Radioactive Waste Handling:
Improper handling or storage of nuclear waste can cause long-term radiation
contamination.
 Thermal Pollution:
Heated water discharged from nuclear plants may carry low-level radioactive materials
into water bodies, affecting aquatic life.
 Contamination During Accidents:
In case of reactor accidents (like Chernobyl or Fukushima), large-scale radioactive
contamination can occur, affecting air, water, and soil.
 Internal Exposure:
Inhalation or ingestion of radioactive particles (e.g., iodine-131, cesium-137) can cause
internal organ damage and cancer.
 Occupational Hazards:
Nuclear plant workers are at risk of chronic radiation exposure, which can lead to long-
term health problems.
 Environmental Impact:
Radiation can affect plants, animals, and ecosystems, leading to genetic mutations and
biodiversity loss.
 Reactor Shielding
 Shielding is the use of materials or barriers to absorb and block harmful ionizing
radiation (such as gamma rays and neutrons) to protect humans, equipment, and the
environment.
 Materials Used:
o Lead: Effective against gamma rays.
o Concrete: Commonly used due to low cost and good all-around protection.
o Water: Used in reactor pools to shield against neutrons and gamma rays.
o Borated materials: Used to absorb neutrons effectively
 Types of Shielding
o Biological Shield:
A thick concrete wall around the reactor core that protects people from radiation.
o Radiation Shield in Reactor Vessel:
Shields inside the reactor vessel absorb neutron and gamma radiation produced
during fission.
o Shielding in Spent Fuel Pools:
Water acts as both a coolant and a radiation shield for used (spent) nuclear fuel
rods.

 Radioactive Waste Disposal

 Radioactive waste is the by-product of nuclear reactions that contains radioactive
materials and needs safe disposal.
 Types of Radioactive Waste:
o Low-Level Waste (LLW): Clothing, tools, filters.

o Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW): Reactor components, resins.

o High-Level Waste (HLW): Spent nuclear fuel, highly radioactive

 Storage Methods:
o Dry Storage: Using shielded casks or containers.
o Wet Storage: Storing spent fuel in water pools to cool and shield radiation.
 Waste Treatment:
Waste is treated by compacting, incineration, or solidification to reduce volume and
enhance safety.
 Containment:
Waste is enclosed in corrosion-resistant containers to prevent leakage of radiation.
 Disposal Methods:
Deep geological disposal for HLW, stored in stable underground rock formations.
 Monitoring:
Disposal sites are continuously monitored for radiation levels and environmental
impact.
 Regulatory Control:
Managed under strict national and international safety regulations (e.g., IAEA
guidelines).
 Environmental Protection:
Aim is to isolate waste from the biosphere to prevent contamination of soil, water, and
air.
 Long-Term Safety:
HLW disposal is planned for thousands of years to ensure no harm to future
generations.