CHAPTER 6: CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

6.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION

The word ‘soil’ shall refer to ‘sub-soil’ which possesses the capacity to sustain building
foundations. Subsoils are the soils below the top soil, the top soil being about 300mm deep.
The purpose of Soil Investigation is to:
i. Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project.
ii. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design.
iii. Determine the difficulties which may arise during the construction process and period.
iv. Determine the occurrence and/or cause of all changes in subsoil conditions.
v. To predict the way the soil will behave under load placed on those particular little areas
on which the load is imposed.
The above purposes can usually be assessed by establishing the physical, chemical and general
characteristics of the subsoil by obtaining subsoil [Link] pits are usually dug or holes are
bored to a level lower than the underside of the proposed substructure.

Liner tubes could be used if

Ideal for dry ground which requires little or no temporary required to extract subsoil
support to sides of excavation. They can also be used to samples to a depth beyond the
expose and locate underground services. With trial pits, economic limit of trial holes.
subsoil can be visually examined insitu. Both disturbed and This is generally a cheaper and
undisturbed samples can also be obtained. simpler method of obtaining
samples.

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Since the soils are weakened around them, these pits or holes should not be taken precisely where
the foundation will be. Rather they should be taken out as near as is practicable or necessary to
give a correct indication.

Soil samples
Soil samples can be obtained as disturbed or as undisturbed samples.

 Disturbed Soil Samples: these are soil samples obtained from bore holes and trial pits. The
method of extraction disturbs the natural structure of the subsoil but such samples are
suitable for visual grading, establishing the moisture content and some laboratory tests.
Disturbed soil samples should be stored in labelled airtight jars.
 Undisturbed Soil Samples: these are soil samples obtained using coring tools which
preserve the natural structure and properties of the subsoil. The extracted undisturbed soil
samples are labelled and laid in wooden boxes for dispatch to a laboratory for testing. This
method of obtaining soil samples is suitable for rock and clay subsoils.

6.2 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

There are four major types of characteristics that are of interest to engineers, namely
 Physical properties
 Particle size
 Chemical composition
 Geological origin
Physical properties and particle size are associated with the performance of the soil under stress.
Chemical composition is of concern to the designer anxious to avoid chemical reactions with
building materials. Geological orign of the soil is of little consequence.

BS 1377-1:1990 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes, classifies soils as cohesive
(Soil which because of its fine-grained content will form a coherent mass at suitable moisture
contents) or cohesioness (Granular soil consisting of particles which can be identified individually
by the naked eye or with the aid of a hand lens, e.g. gravel, sand). Each of these types is grouped
as follows:

 Fine grained soils: Soils containing not more than 10% retained on a 2mm test sieve
 Medium-grained soils: soils containing more than 10% retained on a 2mm test sieve but
not more than 10% retained on a 20mm test sieve.
 Coarse grained soils: soils containing more than 10% retained on a 20mm test sieve but
not more than 10% retained on a 37.5mm test sieve.
BS 1377 relates soil names and particle size as follows
 Clay- The fraction of a soil composed of particles smaller in size than 0.002 mm.
 Silt- fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes of 0.06 mm and 0.002 mm.

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  Sand: The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes of 2.0 mm and 0.06
mm.
 Gravel: The fraction of a soil composed of particles between the sizes of 60 mm and 2
mm.
 Cobbles: Solid particles of sizes between 200 mm and 60 mm.
Clays are further classified by the way they behave in relation to their moisture content.
 Liquid state-when a lot of moisture is present and the clay particles stay suspended in
water
 Plastic state-with less water in soil
 Solid state-on further decrease of the soil moisture content
Points of change are referred to as the plastic limit(The moisture content at which a soil becomes
too dry to be in a plastic condition) and the liquid limit (The moisture content at which a soil
passes from the liquid to the plastic state),and can be found by applying tests set out in BS 1377.

6.3 ONSITE TESTS

The subsoil should be tested to ensure that all the characteristics which determine its ability to
carry loads remain stable. The load per unit area that the ground can carry is called the bearing
capacity. On-site tests are very valuable since they do not disturb the soil under test.
Visual examination
The bearing capacity of the soil in the bottom of a trial hole or trench could be assessed by visual
examination and the impression heels leave in the surface provided that

 The builder,architect or engineer is quite experienced

 Knows the area intimately
 The loads to be dealt with are small-the sort of circumstances which can occur with
residential housing.

The assessor is exepected to:

 Observe the soil exposed in the sides of a trial to reveal the type and distribution of the
material
 Determine whether it is natural or infilled ground as well as the pattern of the strata
Visual examination must be carried out as soon as possible after excavation as in many instances
water will enter the hole. Following a visual examination, further information can be gained by
specific tests.
Plate load test
A direct way to find out how the soil will react to compressive load is to apply a pressure and that
is the basis of this test. The Plate load test consists of a steel plate between 300 and 1000mm

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diameter placed on the bottom of a trial pit and loaded with sandbags, bags of cement,concrete
blocks, a tank of water or even a heavy vehicle.

The load, called kentledge-is placed on a platform supported well clear of the pit. A hydraulic jack
acts to impose an accurately measured and progressively increased presssure on the plate. Pressure
and settlement of the plate are recorded and test proceeds until the soil shears, or load developped
is equivalent to three times the building load.

Although the test is direct,it is an expensive exercise and can lead to misleading results. Since test
plate is smaller than the foundation, the bulb of distribution of the test pressure does not extend
deep enough.

Penetration tests
One way to find out about the soil is to drive something down into the bottom of the pit or borehole
and measure how difficult this operation us. Penetration tests are usually employed during the
design of pile foundations. There are three forms of this type of penetration tests:

1. Standard penetration test

Consists of a sample tube fitted with a driving shoe and a ring with a sharpened bottom edge. A
Sampler is fitted onto a rod or rods and driven 150mm down into the ground.
The N-value i.e the
number of blows
required to achieve
300mm penetration
after that is noted.

From this figure the

soil resistance can be
assessed. The Sampler
is then withdrawn and
the tube, which is split,
is opened to allow
examination of
contents.

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 2. Continuous dynamic cone penetration test.

Employs a cone instead of a tube and is driven into the ground by a drop hammer and the N-value
recorded.
3. Static cone penetration test.

Also called the dutch cone test, the force is exerted by a hydraulic ram. The force required to
achieve 75mm penetration is observed.

Vane shear test

Measures the shear strength of cohesive soils. Consists of a rod fitted with four small bladed or
vanes each measuring 25mm x 100mm. This is then pushed down into the ground to the desired
level. A rotational force is gradually applied through a spring until the soil contained between the
vanes shears off. Maximum torque force required to rotate the vanes gives a direct value of the
shear strength of the clay. Test should be repeated at about every 300mm of downward travel of
the apparatus.

Unconfined compression test

A Sample measuring 38mm diameter x 75mm long is taken in-situ from the bottom of a trial pit
or [Link] Sample is then placed between the plates of a test machine and compressed until
failure occurs either by bulging or shearing diagonally.

The apparatus required is small,

portable and usualy taken to the
site. Test is unrealistic and
requires compensatory
allowances to be made since
neither of the test failure modes
are possible in its natural state

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Geophysical tests
Geophysical methods are more often employed where deep investigation of rock strata is required
e.g tunnel boring or where penetrative tests are difficult because of the presence of large stones in
the ground.
The Tests measure:-

 Electrical resistance between buried electrodes

 Variations in the speed of travel of vibrations from a source through strata of differing
density
 The changes in the earth’s magnetic field resulting from changes in strata

6.4 LABORATORY TESTS

Tests can be condicted on soil tests to determine:-

 The moisture content

 The liquid and plastic limits
 The particle size distribution
 The compressive and shear strengths
 The permeability
 Chemical constituents
The sample should be undisturbed for most tests. A Sample is obtained by forcing a 100mm
diameter tube into the soil until it is full, removing it and sealing the contents by a cap at each end.
Tests should be carried out within two weeks of the sample being taken to minimise changes
occuring in the sample. Tests are used either to identify and classify the soil or to assess its
engineering properties.

Identification and classification soil tests

The first test is to measure the moisture content of some or all samples from site. For cohesive
soils, the next step would be to assess the liquid and plastic limits.
Liquid limit

 Fill a cup in the test apparatus with the soil.

 Cut a diagonal groove through the specimen.
 Count number of times the cup must be dropped onto a hard rubber base for the groove to
be closed up.
 Liquid limit is reached at 25 drops. The soil is considered to be a plastic material rather
than a stiff liquid if the groove is still open at this point.

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Plastic limit

Indicated by rolling a ball of soil between the hand and a glass plate to form a 3mm diameter
thread. Soils below the plastic limit will crumble when subjected to this treatment.
Sieve analysis
As already
discussed, soils are
classified by
particle size. For
coarse grained soils,
classification is
determined by
weighing the
amount of soil
retained on each of a
series of sieves.

For fine grained soils, particle size is determined using the sedimentation method. A specimen is
stirred in distilled water to form a suspension. According to stokes’ law, particles of different sizes
settle at different velocities and therefore a sample drawn off at a specified depth after a calculated
time will only contian the particles too small to have descended further in the vessel. The maximum
particle size can be calculated from the depth and settlement time and the quantity deduced by
weighing the residue in each sample taken.

Once identified and classified, the soil description should be stated in the sequence laid down in
BS 5930 Code of practice for ground investigations and where applicable should include:
1. Field strength or compactness e.g firm
2. Bedding (layers)
3. Discontinuity (fissures,faults,etc) e.g closely fissured
4. State of weathering
5. Colour e.g yellowish brown
6. Particle shape
7. Soil name (in capitals),grading and plasticity e. g CLAY of high plasticity
8. Geological formation,terminating e,g LONDON clay
9. The soil group symbol if required. E.g H

Tests of engineering properties

Main tests are designed to establish the permeability, the compressive strength and shear strength
of the samples.

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Permeability tests

The rate by which water flows through the soil gives an indication of its load bearing capacity.
Permeability is important where dewatering or soil stabilisation systems are to be used, where land
drainage, soak ways or sewage disposal systems are to be installed.

A Soil sample is placed in a cylinder and water run through it from a small tank above. Volume
of water flowing in a given time is measured. The Coefficient of permeability which is expressed
as metres per second is then calculated.
Compression tests
There are mainly two compression tests
 The unconfined test: can also be carried out on site and described earlier. In an
unconfined compression test, sample fails by either by bulging or by diagonal shearing.
Which does not happen in normal circumstances due to confinement of the surrounding
soil.
 Triaxial test: The triaxial test eliminates this unrealistic situation by applying a horizontal
hydrostatic pressure all round the sample whilst a vertical load is applied. The soil sample
is placed inside a rubber cylinder and then mounted inside an acrylic cylinder filled with
water under a regulated pressure. A Vertical load is applied on top of the sample while
the surrounding water controls any tendency of the sample to buldge or shear diagonally.
A porous disc and pipe at the bottom of the sample allow the water contained within the
soil to be drawn off. The axial load is increased slowly until a compression failure occurs.
Test is repeated with varrying water pressures and the results are plotted on a graph. The
cohesion of the soil and the internal angle of friction can be measured from the graph.
These values give respectively the shear strength and the angle of repose of the soil.

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Shear strength test

A more direct method of obtaining the shear strength of a soil is using the equipment where a
specimen of the soil is placed in a box split round the middle. Porous plates are placed at the top
and the bottom of the box if the sample is wet, to allow drainage. A vertical load is applied to the
top of the sample and a horizontal force applied to the upper and lower halves of the shear box.
The force and the corresponding shear displacement are measured in a series of tests against
different vertical loads. The results are plotted on a graph from which the shear strength and angle
of internal friction can be measured. Although test is simple, it is not as reliable or accurate as the
triaxial test.

6.5 UNDERPINNING
The main objective of most underpinning work is to transfer the load carried by a foundation from
its existing bearing level to a new level at a lower depth. Underpinning can also be used to replace
an existing weak foundation.
An underpinning operation may be necessary for one or more of the following reasons:-
Uneven Settlement: this could be caused by uneven loading of the building, unequal
resistance of the soil action of tree roots or cohesive soil settlement.
Increase in Loading: this could be due to the addition of an extra storey or an increase in
imposed loadings such as that which may occur with a change of use.
Lowering of Adjacent Ground: usually required when constructing a basement adjacent to
existing foundations.

Underpinning is one of the most expensive building maintenance operations.

Several techniques are employed in underpinning including continous strip as well as piers or piles.
Strengthening soil layers below the foundation by cement injection could be an economic
alternative.

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Continous strip underpinning
Used to correct faulty or inadequate foundations where

 Soil of greater load bearing capacity is available reasonably near to the underside of the
existing foundation
 The existing wall is to be carried further into the ground to form a basement structure

The method is only

suitable for load
bearing walls. The
method involves
excavating in short
lengths beside and
below the foundation to
the required level, and
filling succesive pits
until a continous
concrete ‘wall’ has
been formed.

Underpinning pads
Building stanchions are shored up to relieve the foundation of any load. The soil below the
concrete base is excavated down to the required new level, breaking up the old concrete base. A
new concrete pad is cast and a concrete or brick pier is formed between it and the bottom end of
the column. The detail of the top of the pier will depend on the existing structure. In the case of a
steel stanchion, provision must be made to refit the holding down bolts as the old base was broken
up.

Underpinning injections
Cement or various chemicals can be injected into the ground beneath a foundation. Either to fill
voids which have developped in the soil or to consolidate non-cohesive soils. Method can be used
to stabilise a building which has moved to permit deep excavation to take place adjacent to the
foundations.

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Underpinning piles
Underpinning piers or piles are more appropriately used if the subject is a framed building. Piles
can also be employed to support walls as well as columns. Wall and foundation span between
closely spaced piles. Generally a group of four or six piles is fixed around a column with a
reinforced pile cap firmed up to the underside of the column. A pile driving rig would not be
practical and resulting vibrations could create serious problems in the existing structure.

Piles are convinient

to use if the safe
bearing stratum is
too deep for
[Link] are
bored rather than
driven since they
must be situated
close to the
building. A number
of proprietary
jacked pile systems
do exist. A pit is
excavated below the
foundation. A pile
in short sections is
bonded together and
forced down into
the ground by a
jack. The jack or
jacks do act against
the underside of the
foundation. The
weight of the
building must be
sufficient to provide
the adequate
reaction.
6.6 HOUSE FOUNDATIONS
Foundations must safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other movement which
would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.
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 Subsoil beneath foundation is
compressed and reacts by
exerting an upward pressure to
resist foundation loading. If
foundation load exceeds
maximum passive pressure of
ground (i.e. bearing capacity)
a downward movement of the
foundation could occur.
Remedy is to increase plan size
of foundation to reduce the load
per unit area or alternatively
reduce the loadings being
carried by the foundations.

The choice of foundations depends maily on the nature of & bearing capacity of the subsoil and
the magnitude of the loads to be carried. For example:

 For a building structure that imposes a uniform loading around its perimeter like a load
bearing brick building, a normal strip foundation is normally used.
 The raft foundation spreads the loads over the entire area occupied by the building by
means of a reinforced concrete slab.
 If the poor soil overlays a firmer strata(say 3 m below ground) and for one house or a small
estate, the pad and stem foundation may offer the most optimum solution. Unreinforced
pads are built on the firm strata. Circular piers are then built on the pads. The piers are
finally linked by reinforced concrete beams.
 Pile foundations can be used for very poor soils and large project developments.
 For slopping sites, a stepped strip foundation is possible. The vertical loads imposed on the
sloping planes should be limited to avoid slip failure of the underlying layers.
There are five types of foundations
• Strip foundations
• Pad foundations
• Raft foundations
• Buoyancy or box foundations

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• Piled foundations

Factors influencing the choice of a foundation

Factors affecting the choice of a particular foundation include:
1. Structural factors
Structural characteristics and the way they relate to the nature and bearing capacity of the ground
should be assessed using technical knowledge and experience.
2. Design resources

If local building regulations give minimum widths of strip foundations, no design needs to be done
and no calculations produced. Avoiding design calculations may result in using strip foundations
even where more practical options are possible. Otherwise and increasingly in housing
construction, experienced engineers are employed on foundation design and will produce a scheme
using the most appropriate method.
3. Relative costs

Foundation design must also offer the best economic solution when related to the contractor’s
expertise. For instance, given an efficient firm involved in the use of equipment and organization
of work on site and the cost of obtaining and transporting the necessary piling rig. Short bored
piles and ground beams can be cheaper than strip foundations dug to a depth below 1.5m.
4. Working conditions

One must take into account the effect the ground condition can have on the method employed to
construct foundations. For a very wet site of low bearing capacity, choosing a foundation requiring
heavy equipment is not a good idea, as the vehicles and transporters can get bogged down. Driven
piling would be a good choice for such a site as work can continue even at times when there is
persistent rain. Where the ground water level is high the cost of dewatering can easily render
uneconomic any system requiring such excavations. The close proximity of existing buildings can
preclude the use of driven piles because of associated vibrations. Difficulties in access to the site
make it impossible or very awkward to maneuver the long precast concrete piles required.

Settlement
Settlement refers to ground movement, which may be caused by:

 Deformation of the soil due to imposed loads

 Volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal changes
 Mass movement of the ground in unstable areas.

Almost every building settles to some extent due to consolidation of the soil and the larger the
building, the more it will settle unless if founded on rock. One must ensure that the amount of

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movement is as nearly as possible the same at all points. Differential settlement is when one part
of the structure moves more than the other with inevitable results.

Types of continuous support

Continuous support is usually provided by

 Strip foundations
 Raft foundations
 Ground beams and piles
 Buoyancy foundations
Site constraints and the building form and size will invariably dictate which type of continuous
support to select.

a) Strip foundations
The depth is determined by the nature of the subsoil. A strip foundation must usually be wider than
the minimum to allow working space for the brick layer. A trench is excavated, concrete placed in
the bottom and the wall built upon it. The width is governed by the imposed load and the soil
bearing capacity, and by the practical necessity of making it wide enough for a man to work in.
The deep strip or trench-fill type of strip foundation can prove economic when it can be excavated
by machine.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ =
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
For example, if the total load is 40kN/m and the subsoil safe bearing capacity is 80kN/m2
40
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = = 0.5𝑚 𝑜𝑟 500𝑚𝑚
80
PS: Safe bearing capacity is determined by obtaining the actual bearing capacity by laboratory
analysis and applying a factor of safety.

If concrete will be plain in the strip foundation thickness must be equal to the projection of the
concrete from the face of the wall.

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Stepped strip foundations: used mainly on sloping sites to reduce the amount of excavation and
materials required to produce an adequate foundation.

b) Raft foundations
If the bearing capacity of the sub soil is so low, the resulting strip foundations will be of such width
that they almost meet. The foundation strips are allowed to meet as a continuous slab under the
building and reinforced as a raft distributing the load on the soil over the whole area of the building.
This way, differential settlement and structural failure is avoided.

Since load is distributed over a very large area, the compressive stress on the soil low and so can
be carried by the soil layers quite near the surface. In fact, one of the advantages of a raft is the
absence of deep excavations across the site. Raft foundations can also be applied to larger
structures, where it may be stiffened with beams to form what may be referred to as a ‘waffle’ raft.
Although the quantity
of concrete is greater,
the volume of
excavated material and
amount of walling are
both less. And filled
with concrete avoiding
the need for workmen
to descend into the
trench at all.

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 c) Ground beams and piles
As an alternative to a raft foundation, ground beams and piles can be used especially where poor
or unreliable ground conditions are encountered near the surface. The method is favored by many
foundation designers where the proximity of trees and the effect of their roots extracting moisture
from the ground can cause failure to strip foundations.

For domestic work this method using hand augured short bored piles, can be economically
competitive with strip foundations especially if depth is to exceed 1m. The technique is to bore or
drive piles down to firmer more stabler soil, excavate a shallow trench from pile to pile, then cast
a reinforced concrete beam of sufficient strength to transfer the continuous load of the wall to the
piles.

d) Buoyancy foundations
For a building with a basement storey, the mass of the subsoil removed can equal or exceed the
total mass of the finished building and its designed imposed loads. The complete structure will
impose no greater stress on the subsoil than did the soil it replaced and so capacity of the soil to
carry the load is not in doubt. The basement should be lined with a water proof membrane so
that the resulting upward hydrostatic pressure counterbalances a proportion of the downward
building thrust.

Example: Consider Subsoil of mass of 2400kg/m3, Building mass of 1200kg/m2 of floor area
basement depth of 3m.

Mass of soil excavated per square metre of base = 3x2400=7200kg. This represents the
removal of a pressure on the base of the excavation of approx. 72kN/m2. A building mass per
storey of 1200kg/m2 is equivalent to a pressure of approximately 12kN/m2.

Number of storeys required to reimpose the pressure removed =72/12=6 storeys.

Types of isolated supports

Found in framed structures, in which each stanchion or column must be provided with its own
support. For relatively light loads and good soil bearing capacity, the column loads can be spread
on the subsoil through a pad foundation. In other cases, piles must be employed to achieve the
necessary strength.

Pad foundations
Suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. The design of a pad
foundation is similar to strip foundation, except a square hole is excavated thereafter placing a
usually symmetric concrete pad. The size is calculated from the load imposed and the bearing
capacity of the soil. Thickness is based on a 45 degrees shear angle if it is a mass concrete base.

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The thickness of a mass concrete foundation for a heavy point load would result in a foundation
that is costly and adds unnecessary load to the subsoil. In such cases, reinforced concrete bases are
recommended. The thickness is based on the principle of a cantilever slab. The plan size is derived
from:
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

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Foundations in restricted conditions
Most foundation systems are constructed symmetric to the point of application of the loads thus
avoiding eccentricity. A wall must be built along the centerline of a strip foundation to ensure
equal load distribution, a column must stand over the centroid of a concrete base for the same
reason and the line of action of a force should pass down the center of a pile to eliminate the
bending which can occur if any eccentricity of load is permitted. Consequently, there is as much
foundation projecting on one side of the superstructure as on the other, which is all right if
sufficient space exists to permit this.
But where the wall or column is at or close to the boundary of the site, the space available can be
insufficient or non-existent, Alternative ways have to be found to resolve the problem of
asymmetric support.

Placing a wall along the edge of a concrete strip produces a tendency for that strip to tilt as a result
of the inequality of stress in the sub soil. One way to prevent this tilt is to bring the foundation
structure up to the floor and tie the two together with reinforcement. This way the floor acts as a
membrane preventing the foundation from rotating and thus stabilizing the support.

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