CBSE GRADE - 12

PHYSICS LEARNING MATERIAL

Syllabus : Concept of the magnetic field, Oersted's experiment. Biot - Savart law
and its application to the current carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its
applications to infinitely long straight wire. Straight solenoid (only qualitative
treatment),

Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Force on a

current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, the force between two
parallel current-carrying conductors, definition of an ampere, torque experienced by
a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment, moving coil
galvanometer- its current sensitivity and conversion to an ammeter and voltmeter

Concept of Magnetic Field & Oersted’s Experiment

In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted noticed that electric current passing
through a wire deflects the nearby magnetic needle in the compass. By
proper investigation, he observed that the deflection of magnetic needle is
due to the change in magnetic field produced around current carrying
conductor.
When the direction of current is reversed, the magnetic needle is deflected in
the opposite direction.

REMEMBER THE DIRECTION :

 NOSE : Current North to South , Pointer moves East

 SNOW : Current South to North , Pointer moves West

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Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

LORENTZ FORCE :

 If a charge is moving in an uniform electric field, then force FE = qE

 If the charge is moving in an uniform magnetic field, then force FB = q ( 𝒗 x 𝑩 )
 Therefore the total force is F = FE + FB = q ( E + ( 𝒗 x 𝑩 ) )

MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

 Condition 01 : When a charged particle moves along or opposite to

the magnetic field ( θ = 00 or 1800 )

When a charge moves either parallel ( θ = 00 ) or anti-parallel ( θ = 180 0 ) to

the magnetic field ( θ = 00 )
Lorentz force F = qvB sinθ = 0 B

F=0

( Remember : Force exerted by a stationary charge in a magnetic field is also zero )

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 Condition 02 : When a charged particle moves at the right angle to
the magnetic field ( θ = 900 )

 Condition 03 : When a charged particle moves at an angle

( θ other than 00 , 900 & 1800 ) to the magnetic field

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  Let the number of free electrons per unit volume = n
 So, the total number of free electrons in the entire volume = n (volume) = n ( Al )
 Total charge in the conductor q = ne = nAle

Force experience by a charge when placed in a magnetic field F = qvdB (sinθ)

F = nAle (vdB sinθ )

( since I = nAevd ) F = Il B sinθ = I ( 𝑙 x 𝐵 )

F = BIl sinθ

(a) If the conductor is placed along the direction of the magnetic field, the angle then
θ = 0o. Hence, the force experienced by the conductor is zero.

(b) If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field, then the angle
θ =90o Hence, the force experienced by the conductor is maximum, which is
Ftotal = Bil.

The direction of the force is found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Do you know the relation ……………?

 Charge of alpha particle = 2 ( charge of proton )

 Mass of alpha particle = 4 ( mass of proton )

 Charge of deuteron = Charge of proton

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR  Mass of deuteron = 2 ( mass of proton )
When a current carrying conductor is placed in an uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a force
Practice Numericals :

1. An α-particle of mass 6.65×10−27 kg is travelling at right angles to a magnetic field

with a speed of 6×105 ms−1. The strength of the magnetic field is 0.2 T. Calculate
the force on the α-particle and its acceleration
[ Ans : F = 3.84 x 10 -14 N , a = 5.77 x 1012 ms-2 ]

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 BIOT SAVART LAW
2. An alpha particle is projected with velocity 𝑣 = ( 3.0 x 10 m/s ) 𝑖 into a region in
5

Biot and Savart experimentally observed that the magnitude of magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 at
which magnetic field 𝐵 = [ (0.4 T) 𝑖 + (0.3 T) 𝑗 ] exists. Calculate the acceleration a point P at a distance r from the small elemental length taken on a conductor
of the particle in the region. 𝑖, Ĵ and 𝑘 are unit vectors along x, y and z axis carrying current varies
respectively and charge to mass ratio for alpha particle is 4.8 x 107 C/kg. (i) directly as the strength of the current ( I )
(ii) directly as the magnitude of the length
−30
3. An electron of mass 0.90×10 kg under the action of a magnetic field moves in a
Element ( 𝑑𝑙 )
circle of 2.0 cm radius at a speed of 3.0×106 ms−1. If a proton of mass 1.8×10−27
(iii) directly as the sine of the angle θ between
kg has to move in a circle of the same radius in the same magnetic field, then its
𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
speed will be ms−1. [ Ans : vp = 1.5 x 103 ms-1 ]
(iv) inversely as the square of the distance r

4. A charge „q‟ moving along the X-axis with a velocity vector v is subjected to a between the point P and length element 𝑑𝑙.
uniform magnetic field B acting along the Z-axis as it crosses the origin O.(i)
Trace its trajectory. (ii) Does the charge gain kinetic energy as it enters the
magnetic field?

5. A deuteron and a proton moving with the same speed enter the same magnetic

field region at right angles to the direction of the field. Show the trajectories
followed by the two particles in the magnetic field. Find the ratio of the radii of the
circular paths which the two particles may describe
[ Ans : rd : rp = 2 : 1 ]

6. A proton and an alpha particle having the same kinetic energy are allowed to pass

through a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of their motion.

Compare the radii of the paths of proton and alpha particle.
[ Ans : rP : rα = 1 : 1 ]

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 Magnetic field produced along the axis of the current-carrying circular coil
dl From Figure
r2 = a2+x2 = (a2+x2)1/2

dl’

 Consider a circular coil of radius “a” carrying current “I” with a point “P” at a
distance of “x” from the centre of the coil “O”
 A small element length dl is selected at the point C in the coil which is at a
distance of r from P
 The current element I dl produces a magnetic field dB at point P which is at
right angles ( θ = 900 )
 The magnetic field makes an angle Φ with YY‟, to find its resultant it is resolved
into two components dB cos Φ along Y axis and dB sin Φ along X axis.
 Similarly another element dl’ is selected at point D in the coil that produces a
magnetic field dB‟ cos Φ along Y axis and dB‟ sin Φ along X axis.
 Here it is clear that the dB cos Φ components are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction so they cancel each other
 Where dB sin Φ components are equal in magnitude and in same direction , so
they get add up or integrate ( )

From Biot savart law we know that

Substitute value of r2 from figure

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 Substituting the value of dB we get Practice Numericals :

7. Two concentric circular coils X and Y of radii 16 cm and 10 cm, respectively, lie

in the same vertical plane containing the north to south direction. Coil X has 20
turns and carries a current of 16 A; coil Y has 25 turns and carries a current of
18 A. The sense of the current in X is anticlockwise, and clockwise in Y, for an
observer looking at the coils facing west. Give the magnitude and direction of
From figure the values of sin Φ & dl the net magnetic field due to the coils at their centre.
[ Ans : B = 5π x 10-4 T , towards west ]

8. Two identical loops P and Q each of radius 5 cm are lying in perpendicular

planes such that they have a common centre as shown in the figure. Find the
magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the common centre of the
two coils, if they carry current equal to 3 A and 4 A respectively.

[ Ans : B = 2π x 10-5 T , θ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟑/𝟒) ]

9. Two very small identical circular loops, (1) and (2), carrying equal currents I are

placed vertically (with respect to the plane of the paper) with their geometrical
axis perpendicular to each other as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude and
direction of the net magnetic field produced at the point O.

Do you Know … ?
The magnitude of magnetic field for an infinite long wire is [ Ans : ]

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Conceptual Question : AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Ampère’s law : The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop in vacuum is
μ0 times the net current in the same loop.

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 Magnetic field due to the current carrying wire of infinite length Magnetic field due to the current carrying Long Cylinder

Consider a straight conductor of infinite length carrying current I and the direction of
magnetic field lines is shown in Figure. Since the wire is geometrically cylindrical in
shape and symmetrical about its axis, we construct an Amperian loop in the form of a
circular shape at a distance r from the centre of the conductor as shown in Figure .

From the Ampère‟s law, we get

Due to the symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic field is uniform over the
Ampèrian loop. Hence

For a circular loop, the circumference is 2πr, which implies,

In vector form, the magnetic field is

where 𝑛 is the unit vector along the tangent to the Ampèrian loop

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 Magnetic field due to the current carrying Solenoid
 A solenoid is a long coil of wire closely wound in the form of helix as shown in
Figure
 When electric current is passed through the solenoid, the magnetic field is
produced
 The direction of magnetic field due to solenoid is given by right hand palm-rule.
 Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly uniform and parallel to its axis
whereas, outside the solenoid the field is negligibly small.
 The solenoid is assumed to be long which means that the length of the solenoid is
large when compared to its diameter.
 Let I be the current passing through the solenoid, and n be the number of turns
per unit length

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 Force between two Long Parallel Current carrying conductors
 Let two long straight parallel current carrying conductors separated by a distance r
be kept in air medium as shown in Figure.
 Let I1 and I2 be the electric currents passing through the conductors A and B in
same direction

 Magnetic field on the conductor Y due to current I1 passing through the

conductor X

 As the current carrying conductor Y lies in the magnetic field B1 , therefore the
unit length of conductor Y experiences a force

“A SOLENOID IS AN EQUIVALENT BAR MAGNET”

Practice Numericals :

10. A solenoid of length 1 m has 1000 turns and as radius 1 cm. A current of 5 A is

flowing in the solenoid. Calculate the axial magnetic field. If an electron moves
along its axis with the velocity 104 m/s, then how much force will it experience
[ Ans : B = 2π x 10-3 T , FB = 0 ]

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 Torque on a current carrying coil [Loop] placed in a magnetic field
 Consider a rectangular coil ABCD carrying current is placed in a uniform magnetic
field.
 A current carrying coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque
 Let a & b be the length and breadth of rectangular loop respectively

 Force in the arm AB F1 = BIl sinθ ( Here l = b and θ = 900 ) F1 = BIb

 Force in the arm BC F = 0
 Force in the arm CD F2 = BIl sinθ ( Here l = b and θ = 900 ) F2 = BIb
 Force in the arm DA F = 0

F1 = F2 = BIb

The net force acting on the loop is zero

One Ampere :
Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance ( AT )
One ampere is the constant current which that flows through two infinitely long
parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of 1 metre apart in air or vacuum
produces a force of 2 × 10−7 newton per metre length of conductor.

If l = 1m , I1 = I2 = 1A & r = 1 m , then F = 2 × 10−7 N

If the loop has N closely wound turns, then

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Practice Numericals :

11. A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns and carries a current of 12 A. The

coil is suspended vertically and the normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle
of 30º with the direction of a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.80
T. What is the magnitude of torque experienced by the coil?
[ Ans : Torque = 0.96 Nm ]

12. A rectangular loop of wire of size 2.5cm × 4cm carries a steady current of 1A. A

straight wire carrying 2A current is kept near the loop as shown. If the loop and
the wire are coplanar, find the (i) torque acting on the loop (ii) the magnitude &
direction of the force on the loop due to the current carrying wire.

The upper end of the rectangular coil is attached to one end of fine strip of phosphor
bronze and the lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring which is also
made up of phosphor bronze.

Working :

 When the current flows through coil , the coil experiences a torque
-7 -7 -7
[ F1 = 8 x 10 N , F2 = 3.55 x 10 N , Fnet = 4.45 x 10 N , Torque = 0 ] τ = NBAI  (1)
 Due to this deflecting torque, the coil gets twisted and restoring torque is
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
developed.
Moving coil galvanometer is a device which is used to detect the flow of current in
τ = Kθ  (2)
an electrical circuit.
 At equilibrium, the deflecting couple must be equal to the restoring couple.
Principle : When a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field, Therefore we get, Equ (1) = Equ (2)

it experiences a torque. NBAI = Kθ

𝑵𝑩𝑨𝑰
Construction : θ= 𝑲
 A moving coil galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil with insulated thin Hence the deflection produced is directly proportional to the current
copper wire wound over a light metallic frame.
 A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed symmetrically inside the coil as shown Do you know …. ?
 The rectangular coil is suspended freely between two pole pieces of a horse-  Why phosphor bronze spring is used in moving coil galvanometer ?
shoe magnet. Phosphor-Bronze wire is used in galvanometer because it has high tensile

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 strength .and restoring torque (couple) per unit twist is small ( Low torsion The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by
constant )
(i) increasing the magnetic field , B
(ii) increasing the area of the coil, A
 Why radial magnetic field is used in moving coil galvanometer ?
(iii) increasing the number of turns, N
The main importance of using radial magnetic field is to obtain uniform and
(iv) decreasing the couple per unit twist of wire , K.
maximum torque in all positions . magnets are shaped into cylindrical pole
(v) decreasing the resistance , R
pieces to create a radial magnetic field
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER
SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER
 Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current flowing in the electrical circuit.
The galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it shows large scale deflection even for a
 The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it will not change the current
small current passed through it or a small voltage applied across it.
passing through it. so ammeter is connected in series to measure the circuit
current.
CURRENT SENSITIVITY
 A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing through
parallel with the galvanometer. This low resistance is called shunt resistance S.
galvanometer
 The range of ammeter depends on the values of the shunt resistance.

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by

(i) increasing the magnetic field , B
(ii) increasing the area of the coil, A
(iii) increasing the number of turns, N Since Shunt resistance is connected to galvanometer in parallel, the voltage is same
(iv) decreasing the couple per unit twist of wire, K.

VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across
galvanometer.

Since, the deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to the current passing

through it

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the deflection produced in the galvanometer is a measure of the current I passing This gives the resistance of voltmeter. Thus the voltmeter resistance is
through the circuit. Shunt resistance is connected in parallel to galvanometer.
Therefore, resistance of ammeter (Ra) can be determined by computing the effective
resistance, which is

Key points
Key points :
 Voltmeter is a high resistance instrument and it is always connected in parallel with
 An ammeter is a low resistance instrument and it is always connected in series to the circuit element across which the potential difference is to be measured.
the circuit
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
Practice Numericals :
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER
13. A galvanometer has a resistance of 30 ohm and a current of 2 mA is needed to
 Voltmeter must have high resistance and when it is connected in parallel, it will give a full scale deflection. What is the resistance needed and how is it to be
not draw appreciable current so that it will indicate the true potential difference. connected to convert this galvanometer (a) Into an ammeter of 0.3 A range ?
 A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high resistance Rh (b) Into a voltmeter of 0.2 V range ?
in series with galvanometer ( Ans : (a) r = 0.2 Ω (b) R = 70 Ω )

14. A galvanometer coil of 50 Ω resistance shows"full scale deflection for a current of 5

mA. How will you convert this galvanometer into a voltmeter of range 0 to 15 V?
( Ans : R = 2950 Ω )

 Let Rg be the resistance of galvanometer and Ig be the current with which the
Do you Know …..?
galvanometer produces full scale deflection.
 Since the galvanometer is connected in series with high resistance, the current (a) Why is it necessary to introduce a cylindrical soft iron core inside the coil

in the electrical circuit is same as the current passing through the galvanometer. of a galvanometer?
It is necessary to introduce a cylindrical soft iron core inside the coil of a
galvanometer because magnetic field is increased, so its sensitivity increases and
magnetic field becomes radial. So, angle between the plane of coil and magnetic
 Since the galvanometer and high resistance are connected in series, the total line of force is zero in all orientations of coil.
resistance or effective resistance in the circuit is the sum of their resistances.

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(b) Increasing the current sensitivity of a galvanometer may not necessarily
increase its voltage sensitivity. Explain with giving reasons.
[ Mar 2024 ]

The relation between current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity is given by

This means if Vs increases, Is also increases. But, if Rc increases in the given

ratio, then
Vs is a constant.

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 Magnetism and Matter
Magnetic Field : Magnetic field is the region or space around a magnet or a
Syllabus : Bar magnet, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid (qualitative treatment
only), magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its axis and current carrying conductor till which its force can be experienced.
perpendicular to its axis (qualitative treatment only), torque on a magnetic dipole (bar The magnetic field 𝐵 at a point is defined as a force (F) experienced by the bar
magnet) in a uniform magnetic field (qualitative treatment only), magnetic field lines.
Magnetic properties of materials- Para-, dia- and ferro – magnetic substances with magnet of unit pole strength (m)
examples, Magnetization of materials, effect of temperature on magnetic properties. 𝑭
𝑩= ( SI unit : N A–1 m–1 )
MAGNET : A magnet is a material or an object that produces a magnetic field. 𝒎
The magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for most notable property of
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES :
magnet.
1. Magnetic field lines are continuous closed curves. The direction of magnetic

BAR MAGNET : A bar magnet is a rectangular piece of the object. It is made up of field lines is from North pole to South pole outside the magnet and from South
iron, steel or any other ferromagnetic substance, having permanent magnetic pole to North pole inside the magnet.
properties. The magnet has two poles : a north and a south pole of same strength
2. The direction of magnetic field at any point on the curve is known by drawing
tangent to the magnetic field lines at that point.

3. Magnetic field lines never intersect each other. Otherwise, the magnetic
compass needle would point towards two different directions, which is not
PROPERTIES OF A BAR MAGNET :
possible.
 A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north-south direction.
 A magnet attracts or repels another magnet or magnetic substances towards
itself. The attractive or repulsive force is maximum near the end of the bar
magnet (poles)
 When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet with 4. The degree of closeness of the field lines determines the relative strength of
poles at its ends. the magnetic field. The magnetic field is strong where magnetic field lines crowd
 Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another. and weak where magnetic field lines are well separated.
 Like poles ( N-N ) or ( S-S ) repel each other , while unlike poles ( N-S ) attract.
 The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and the length between
two magnetic poles in a bar magnet is called magnetic length. Magnetic length is
always slightly smaller than geometrical length. The ratio of magnetic length and
geometrical length is 5/6

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 MAGNETIC FLUX & COULOMB’S LAW OF MAGNETISM where mA and mB are pole strengths of two poles and r is the distance between
two magnetic poles. K is a proportionality constant whose value depends on
The number of magnetic field lines crossing any area normally is defined as
the surrounding medium. In SI unit, the value of k for free space
magnetic flux ΦB. Mathematically, the magnetic flux through a surface of area 𝐴
in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 is defined as

( μ0 is the absolute permeability of free space = 4π x 10-7 )

Magnetic dipole :
Two unlike poles of equal pole strength separated by a small distance ( 2l )
Example : Bar magnet, Magnetic compass

Magnetic dipole moment 𝑴 :

Special cases :
 The magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of its pole strength
(a) When 𝐵 is normal to the surface ( θ = 00 ) the magnetic flux is ΦB = BA (max) (m) and magnetic length ( 2l ). It is a vector quantity, denoted by 𝑴
(b) When 𝐵 is parallel to the surface ( θ = 900 )the magnetic flux is ΦB = 0.  Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity and it is directed from South
Suppose the magnetic field is not uniform over the surface, then can be pole to North pole
written as  SI unit of dipole moment is J/T (or) Am2

 Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

 The SI unit for magnetic flux is weber, which is denoted by symbol Wb.
Conceptual Question :
 Dimensional formula for magnetic flux is [ ML2 T-2 A−1 ]
1. Let the magnetic moment of a bar magnet be 𝑴 whose magnetic length is 2l
 The CGS unit of magnetic flux is maxwell
and pole strength is m. Compute the magnetic moment of the bar magnet when
1 Wb = 108 maxwell it is cut into two pieces (a) along its length (b) perpendicular to its length.

Magnetic Flux density : The magnetic flux density is defined as the number of
magnetic field lines crossing per unit area kept normal to the direction of lines
of force. Its unit is Wb m–2 (or) Tesla ( T ).

Coulomb’s law of Magnetism : The force of attraction or repulsion between two

magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

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Magnetic field at a point along the axial line of the magnetic dipole Magnetic field along the Equatorial line of the magnetic dipole

Note that magnitude of Baxial is twice that of magnitude of Bequatorial

and the direction of Baxial and Bequatorial are opposite.
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 CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE TORQUE ACTING ON A BAR MAGNET IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

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POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A BAR MAGNET IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

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 BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID 3. What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of
length 5.0 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its mid-point? The magnetic moment
of the bar magnet is 0.40 Am2
[ Baxial = 6.4 x 10-7 T , BEqu = 3.3 x 10-7 T ]
4. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 J T−1 lies aligned with the direction of a
uniform magnetic field of 0.22 T.
(a) What is the amount of work required by an external torque to turn the
magnet so as to align its magnetic moment: (i) normal to the field direction, (ii)
opposite to the field direction?
From Biot Savart Law, For Circular current carrying ring
(b) What is the torque on the magnet in cases (i) and (ii)?
[ Ans : a) (i) W = 0.33 J (ii) W = 0.66 J b) (i) τ = 0.33 J (ii) τ = 0 J ]

IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO MAGNETISM

Magnetic Permeability (μ) : It is defined as the ability of the material to permit

the magnetic lines of forces through it. It is equal to the ratio of magnetic
induction to magnetising field
𝑩
𝝁 =
𝑯
Magnetic Intensity (or) Magnetising Field (H) : The ability of magnetic field
to magnetise the substance is measured in terms of magnetic intensity of the
field.
𝑩𝑶
𝑯 =
𝝁𝑶
Its SI unit is Am-1
 Bo = magnetic field inside vacuum
 μo = Permeability of free space ( 4π x 10-7 T-mA-1 )

Relative Permeability (μr) :is defined as the ratio of Permeability of the

medium to the Permeability of free space

𝛍 𝐁
Class work Numerical :
𝝁𝒓 = =
𝐁𝐨
𝛍𝐨
2. Two identical thin bar magnets, each of length L and pole strength m are placed Intensity of Magnetisation (I) : The magnetic dipole moment induced per unit
at right angles to each other, with the N pole of one touching the S-pole of the volume in the field of specimen of magnetic material in magnetising field is
other. Find the magnetic moment of the system [ Ans : 𝟐 mL ] known as intensity of magnetisation. Its SI unit is Am-1

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 GAUSS LAW FOR MAGNETISM

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero. This law
suggests that the number of magnetic field lines leaving any closed surface is
always equal to the number of magnetic field lines entering it.
Magnetic Inductor (B) : The resultant magnetic field produced inside the
specimen of magnetic material after magnetisation is known as magnetic
inductor.
Magnetic Susceptibility ( Xm ) : It is the property that determines how easily a
material can be magnetized
It is equal to the ratio of intensity of magnetisation and magnetising field

Class work Numerical :

It has no unit. It is a scalar quantity. 5. Two materials X and Y are magnetised, whose intensity of magnetisation are
500 A/m and 2000 A/m, respectively. If the magnetising field is 1000 A/m,
RELATION BETWEEN MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY (μ) & MAGNETIC
then which one among these materials can be easily magnetized?
SUSCEPTIBILITY ( Xm )
[ Ans : Material Y ]

ELECTROSTATIC ANALOGUE

The SI unit of magnetic induction is Tesla (T) or Wb/m2

1 Tesla = 104 Gauss

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The magnetic materials are generally classified into three types based on their Independent
behaviour in a magnetising field. They are
 Diamagnetic materials
 Paramagnetic materials and
 Ferromagnetic materials
Cause :
DIA MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus, and thus possess orbital
 Diamagnetic materials are substances that are usually repelled by a
angular momentum. The resultant magnetic momentum in an atom of the
magnetic field. They do not posses magnetic moment on their own.
diamagnetic material is zero since they are arranged in a random manner.
 When these substances are placed in a magnetic field they get weakly In diamagnetic materials, there are no atomic dipoles due to the pairing
magnetised in the direction opposite to the magnetic field between the electrons. When an external magnetic field is applied, dipoles
 Example : Antimony, Bismuth, Copper, Lead, Water, Mercury , are induced in the diamagnetic materials in such a way that induced
Hydrogen dipoles oppose the external magnetic field according to Lenz’s law.

Properties of diamagnetic materials :

 The magnetic field lines are repelled or expelled by diamagnetic

materials when placed in a magnetic field.

B < Bo
𝑩
𝝁𝒓 = < 1
𝑩𝑶
PARA MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Relative permeability is slightly less than one.
 Paramagnetic materials posses magnetic moment on their own.
 When these substances are placed in a magnetic field they get weakly

Since 𝜇𝑟 < 1 , then Xm will be negative magnetised in the direction of the magnetic field

 Magnetic susceptibility is negative.  Example : Aluminium, Chromium, Manganese, Lithium, Tungsten,

Sodium Oxygen
 Susceptibility is nearly temperature independent.
 The intensity of magnetization (I) is very small, negative and
proportional to the magnetizing field.
15 | P a g e 16 | P a g e
 Properties of paramagnetic materials : magnetic field is applied, the atomic dipole aligns in the direction of the

 A few magnetic field lines are attracted into the paramagnetic materials external magnetic field but get magnetised weakly.

when placed in a magnetic field.

 Curie's law governs the amount of paramagnetism, which states that
the higher the temperature, the lower the magnetization.
B > Bo
𝑩
𝝁𝒓 = > 1
𝑩𝑶

 Relative permeability is greater than unity.

Since 𝜇𝑟 > 1 , then Xm will be small positive

 Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
 Paramagnetic substances obey Curie’s law, according to which
magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to its absolute
temperature.
 The intensity of magnetization is very small, positive and directly
FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS
proportional to the magnetizing field.
 Ferromagnetic materials posses magnetic moment on their own.
 When these substances are placed in a magnetic field they get
strongly magnetised in the direction of the magnetic field.
 Example : Iron, Cobalt , Nickel and their alloys

Properties of ferromagnetic materials :

 All magnetic field lines are attracted into the ferromagnetic materials
when placed in a magnetic field.
Cause :

In Paramagnetic materials every atom has some permanent dipole

moment. As a result, an atomic dipole exists. In the absence of external B >> Bo
magnetic field, the atomic dipoles are randomly orientated so their 𝑩
𝝁𝒓 = >> 𝟏
average magnetic moment per unit volume is zero. When an external 𝑩𝑶
17 | P a g e 18 | P a g e
  Relative permeability is very large. In the presence of external magnetic field, two processes take place

(1) The domains having magnetic moments parallel to the field grow bigger in
Since 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1 , then Xm will be Large positive
size
 Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large.
(2) The other domains (not parallel to field)are rotated so that they are aligned
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
with the field
 When temperature increases Susceptibility decreases at a particular
When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the ferromagnetic materials will
temperature ( critical temperature ) ferromagnetic materials become
have a strong tendency to move from weaker to stronger part of the field.
para magnetic.
Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the direction of applied field are
 The intensity of magnetization is very large, positive and varies linearly
called ferromagnetic materials.
to the magnetizing field.

Cause :
A ferromagnetic material is made up of smaller regions, called
ferromagnetic domains . Within each domain, the magnetic moments are

spontaneously aligned in a direction. This alignment is caused by strong

interaction arising from electron spin which depends on the inter-atomic COMPARISION BETWEEN DIA , PARA & FERRO MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
distance. Each domain has net magnetisation in a direction. However the
direction of magnetisation varies from domain to domain and net
magnetisation of the specimen is zero.

19 | P a g e 20 | P a g e
 CURIE LAW IN MAGNETISM (b) For material B plot the variation of intensity of magnetization with
temperature. justify your answer.

Case (i) Case (ii)

Class work Numerical :

6. A magnetising field of 1600 A/m produces a magnetic flux of 2.4 × 10 –5 Wb

in an iron bar of cross-sectional area 0.2cm2. What is the susceptibility of an
iron bar. [ Ans : Xm = 596 ]

6. The given graphs show the variation of intensity of magnetization I with a

strength of applied magnetic field H for two magnetic materials A and B (a)
Identify the materials A and B in case (i) and case (ii)
21 | P a g e 22 | P a g e
23 | P a g e 24 | P a g e
 Chapter – 07 MEAN VALUE or AVERAGE VALUE OF CURRENT

Alternating Current
The mean value of AC for a full cycle is zero. So the mean
value is calculated only for half cycle
It is defined as the value of AC which would send same amount

Syllabus : Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating of charge through a circuit in half-cycle that is sent by steady
current/voltage; reactance and impedance; LCR series circuit current in the same time ( T/2 )
(phasors only), resonance, power in AC circuits, power factor,
wattless current. AC generator, Transformer

Alternating Voltage & Alternating Current :

A voltage that changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is
called as Alternating Voltage and this gives rise to a current that
changes its direction at regular intervals of time is called as
Alternating Current.

It is represented as I = Io sin ѡt (or) I = Io cos ѡt

 I = Instantaneous value of the current

 Io = Maximum or Peak value of the current
 Ѡ = Angular frequency ( ѡ = 2πf )

Sinusoidal Alternating voltage & current :

If the waveform of alternating voltage is a sine wave, then it is
known as sinusoidal alternating voltage

V = Vo sin ѡt

or in terms of EMF it is represented as E = Eo sin ѡt

When sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied to a closed circuit,

the resulting alternating current is also sinusoidal in nature

I = Io sin ѡt
“ Mean value of AC is 63% of peak value of AC over any half-
cycle. In a complete cycle of AC, the mean value of AC will be
zero ”

ROOT MEAN SQUARE ( RMS ) VALUE OF CURRENT

It is defined as the value of AC over a complete cycle which would

generate same amount of heat in a given resistors that is generated
by steady current in the same resistor and in the same time during
a complete cycle.

“ The 70.7% of peak value of current gives effective or RMS

value of AC ”
Practice Numerical : AC CIRCUIT WITH PURE RESISTOR ONLY
1. The equation for an alternating current is given by
i = 77 sin 314 t. Find the peak current, frequency, time period
and instantaneous value of current at t = 2 ms.

2. A light bulb is rated 150W for 220V ac supply of 60Hz.

E
Calculate (i) the resistance of the bulb
Consider a circuit containing a pure resistor of resistance R
(ii) the rms current through the bulb. connected across an alternating voltage source. The instantaneous
[ Ans : R = 322.7 Ω , Irms = 0.68 A ] value of the alternating EMF is given by
E = Eo sin ѡt -----(1)
PHASOR AND PHASOR DIAGRAM An alternating current I flowing in the circuit due to this voltage,
develops a potential drop across R
A sinusoidal alternating voltage (or current) can be represented
E = IR -----(2)
by a vector which rotates about the origin in anti-clockwise
Combining both the equations we get
direction at a constant angular velocity ω. Such a rotating vector
Eo sin ѡt = IR
is called a phasor.
The diagram which shows various phasors and their phase 𝐄𝐨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ѡ𝐭
relations is called phasor diagram.
I=
𝑹
= Io sin ѡt -----(3)

From equ (1) &(3), it is clear the current and voltage are in
same phase ( Φ = 00 )

 Alternating voltage can be easily converted from one value to

another by a transformer.
 Alternating current energy can be transmitted to long
distance without much energy losses.
 AC CIRCUIT WITH PURE INDUCTOR ONLY
From equ(1) &(3), it is clear the current lags the voltage by
900

E
Consider a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L
connected across an alternating voltage source . The
instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by
E = Eo sin ѡt -----(1)
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ( XL )
The alternating current flowing through the inductor induces a
self-induced emf or back emf in the circuit. ѡL refers to the resistance offered by an inductor known as
𝒅𝑰 Inductive Reactance. Its SI unit is Ω
E=-L ----- (2)
𝒅𝒕 XL = ѡL = 2πfL
To maintain current in the circuit the applied voltage must be  For a DC circuit f = 0, so XL becomes 0
equal and opposite to the induced voltage
 So a pure inductor circuit cannot reduce DC
 An inductor blocks AC but it allows DC

Practice Numerical :

3. A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz AC supply.

Determine the rms value of the current in the circuit.
( Ans : Irms = 15.92 A )
----- (3)
 AC CIRCUIT WITH PURE CAPACITOR ONLY From equ(1) &(3), it is clear the current leads the voltage by
900

E
Consider a circuit containing a pure capacitor of Capacitance
C connected across an alternating voltage source . The
instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by
E = Eo sin ѡt -----(1) CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ( XC )

1/ѡC refers to the resistance offered by an capacitor known as

Let q be the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. The emf
across the capacitor at that instant is Capacitive Reactance. Its SI unit is Ω
Xc = 1/ѡC = 1/2πfC
V = q/C V=E
 For a DC circuit f = 0, so XC becomes infinite
E = q/C -----(2)
 A Capacitor will block DC but it allows AC
Combining both the equations we get

Practice Numerical :

4. A 15 μF capacitor is connected to a 220V, 50Hz source. Find

the capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in
the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, when happens to the
capacitive reactance and the current?
----- (3)
 SERIES LCR CIRCUIT  The maximum voltage across resistor VR = IOR
AC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a  The maximum voltage across inductor VL = IOXL
capacitor in series  The maximum voltage across capacitor VC = IOXC
Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance R, an
Solving the above phasor diagram using parallelogram law of
inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C
vectors ( ODEA )
connected across an alternating voltage source .

The instantaneous value of the alternating current is given by Z is called impedance of the circuit which refers to the effective
I = Io sin ѡt opposition to the current by the series RLC circuit.

Direction of the resultant :

EO Special Case :

 If XL = XC, Φ is zero. Therefore current and voltage are in the

same phase and the circuit is resistive.
 If XL > XC, Φ is also positive. It means that the applied
voltage leads the current . The circuit is inductive.
 If XL < XC, Φ is also negative. It means that the applied
voltage lags the current . The circuit is capacitive.
 RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUIT
The maximum current at series resonance is limited by the
When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to resistance of the circuit. For smaller resistance, larger current with
the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, the current in the circuit sharper curve is obtained and vice versa.
reaches its maximum value. Then the circuit is said to be in
electrical resonance. The frequency at which resonance takes place Applications of series RLC resonant circuit :
is called resonant frequency
 RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits,
oscillators, voltage multipliers etc.
 An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in the tuning
circuits of radio and TV systems. The signals from many
broadcasting stations at different frequencies are available in the
air.

Note : The phenomenon of electrical resonance is possible when the

circuit contains both L and C. Only then the voltage across L and
C cancel one another when VL and VC are 180° out of phase and
the circuit becomes purely resistive. This implies that
resonance will not occur in RL and RC circuits.

Practice Numerical :

5. Three electrical circuits having AC sources of variable

frequency are shown in the figures. Initially, the current
flowing in each of these is same. If the frequency of the applied
AC source is increased, how will the current flowing in these
circuits be affected? Give the reason for your answer.

6. A 500 μH inductor, 80/π2 pF capacitor and a 628 Ω resistor are

connected to form a series RLC circuit. Calculate the resonant
frequency

7. The figure shows a series LCR circuit with L = 10.0H, C = 40μF,

R = 60Ω connected to a variable frequency 240V source,
Calculate
 (i) the angular frequency of the source which drives the where VRMS IRMS is called apparent power and cos Φ is power
circuit at resonance, factor. The average power of an AC circuit is also known as the
(ii) the current at the resonating frequency, true power of the circuit.
(iii) the rms potential drop across the inductor at resonance.
Special Case :

 For a purely resistive circuit, Φ = 0 then cos Φ = 1

Pavg = VRMS IRMS

 For a purely inductive / Capacitive circuit, Φ = π/2

then cos Φ = 0
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS Pavg = 0

Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption of electric  For series RLC circuit, the phase angle Φ
energy in that circuit. It is given by the product of the voltage and
current.

The alternating voltage and alternating current in the series Pavg = VRMS IRMS cos Φ
inductive RLC circuit at an instant are given by
 For series RLC circuit at resonance, Φ = 0 and cos Φ =1
V = Vo sin ѡt
Pavg = VRMS IRMS
I = Io sin ( ѡt + Φ )
Power P = VI Wattless current : The current in an AC circuit is said to be
P = Vo sin ѡt ( Io sin ( ѡt + Φ )) wattless current if the power consumed by it is zero. This wattless
P = Vo Io sin ѡt (sin ( ѡt + Φ )) current occurs in a purely inductive or capacitive circuit.

P = Vo Io sin ѡt (sin ѡt cos Φ + cos ѡt sin Φ )

P = Vo Io (sin 2 ѡt cos Φ + sin ѡt cos ѡt sin Φ )

Here the average of sin 2 ѡt over a cycle is 1/2 and sin ѡt

cos ѡt is zero. Substituting these values, we obtain average
power over a cycle.

(i) The component of current IRMS cos Φ

which is in phase with the voltage is called active component. The
power consumed by this current= VRMS IRMS cos Φ So that it is also
known as ‘Wattful’ current.
 (ii) The other component IRMS sin Φ which has a phase angle of 9. A capacitor C, a variable resistor R and a bulb B are connected
π/2 with the voltage is called reactive component. The power in series to the AC mains in the circuit as shown. The bulb glows
with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb change if
consumed is zero. Hence it is also known as ‘Wattless’ current. (i) a dielectric slab is introduce between the plates of the
capacitor keeping resistance R to be the same
POWER FACTOR (ii) the resistance R is increased keeping the same capacitance?

The power factor of a circuit is defined in one of the following

ways:
 Power factor = cos Φ = cosine of the angle of lead or lag
 Power factor = R/Z = Resistance / Impedance
 Power factor = True Power / Apparent Power
10. A series L-C-R circuit is connected to an AC source (200 V, 50 Hz).
The voltages across the resistor, capacitor and inductor are
respectively 200 V, 250 V and 250 V. (i) The algebraic sum of the
voltages across the three elements is greater than the voltage of
the source. How is this paradox resolved? (ii) Given the value of
the resistance of R is 40 Q, calculate the current in the circuit.

11. A resistor 'R' and an element 'X' are connected in series to an AC

source of voltage. The voltage is found to lead the current in phase
Special Case : by π/4. If 'X is replaced by another element 'Y, the voltage lags
behind the current by π/4.
 For a purely resistive circuit, Φ = 0 then cos Φ = 1 so the (i) Identify elements X and Y
Power factor = 1 (ii) When both 'X and 'Y are connected in series with 'R' to the
same source, will the power dissipated in the circuit be
 For a purely inductive / Capacitive circuit, Φ = π/2 then
maximum or minimum? Justify
cos Φ = 0 so the Power factor = 0
 Power factor lies between 0 and 1 for a circuit having R, L and 12. Find the value of the phase difference between the current and
C in varying proportions. the voltage in the series L-C-R circuit shown below.

Practice Numerical :

8. An inductor 200mH, capacitor 500μF, resistor 10Ω are

connected in series with a 100V, variable frequency a.c. source.
Calculate the (i) frequency at which the power factor of the
circuit is unity. (ii) current amplitude at this frequency
 (i) Which one leads in phase: current or voltage?
(ii) Without making any other change, find the value of the (iv) Obtain an expression for the current in the circuit and its phase
additional capacitor C', to be connected in parallel with the relation with AC voltage
capacitor C, in order to make the power factor of the circuit
unity. 15. The graphs shown here depict the variation of current with
angular frequency for two different series LCR Observe the graphs
13. (i) When an AC source is connected to an ideal inductor show carefully. (i) State the relation b/w L and C values of the two circuits
that the average power supplied by the source over a complete when the current in the two circuits is maximum. (ii) Indicate which
cycle is zero. power factor is higher
(ii) A lamp is connected in series with an inductor and an AC
source. What happens to the brightness of the lamp when the key
is plugged in and an iron rod is inserted inside the inductor?
Explain.

14. A device X is connected to an AC source, V = Vo sin ѡt. The

variation of voltage, current and power in one cycle is shown in the
following graph.

Question 16 : [ Feb 2025 ]

(i) Identify the device X.

(ii) Which of the curves A, Band C represent the voltage, current and
the power consumed in the circuit? Justify
(iii) How does its impedance vary with frequency of the AC source?
Show graphically.
 Chapter 08
Electromagnetic Waves
Syllabus : Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves,
their characteristics, their transverse nature (qualitative idea only).
Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their
uses While the capacitor is being charged up, varying electric field is
produced between capacitor plates. There must be a current
Maxwell’s Law of Induction : Faraday’s law of electromagnetic associated with the changing electric field between capacitor
induction states that the change in magnetic field produces an plates that produces a current. This is known as displacement
electric field. Mathematically, it is written as current

Similarly the change in electric field also produces a magnetic

field which is given by
From Gauss’s law of electrostatics, the electric flux between the
plates of the capacitor is

Differentiating the above equ with time t

This is known as Maxwell’s law of induction

CONDUCTION CURRENT & DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

Let us consider a situation of charging a parallel plate

capacitor which contains non−conducting medium between the
plates. A time−dependent current ic, called conduction current
be passed through the wire to charge the capacitor

1|Page
Therefore the modified Ampere’s Law is ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves which move

with speed equals to the speed of light (in vacuum). It is a
transverse wave.

The above equation is Ampere’s Maxwell Law

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN ELECTRODYNAMICS

First equation ( Gauss’s law of electricity ) It relates the net

electric flux to net electric charge enclosed in a surface

Hertz’s Experiment

Second equation ( Gauss’s law of magnetism ) The surface

Properties of EM Waves :
integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any accelerated
(or) oscillating charge.
 EM wave is a non-mechanical wave.
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. The
Third equation ( Faraday’s law of EMI ) This law relates electric
oscillating electric field vector, oscillating magnetic field
field with the changing magnetic flux vector and propagation vector are mutually perpendicular
to each other
 Electromagnetic waves travel with speed which is equal to
the speed of light in vacuum or free space
Fourth equation ( Modified Ampere circuital law ) This law
relates the magnetic field around any closed path to the
conduction current and displacement current through that path  Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric field or
magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic waves can exhibit interference, diffraction
and polarization.

2|Page
 𝐸𝑂 
c= If the incident electromagnetic wave of energy U is totally
𝐵𝑂 reflected from the surface, then the momentum delivered
to the surface is Δp = 2U/c

ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM

𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ vary with time but with same frequency

 In a medium with permittivity ε and permeability μ, the RADIO WAVES

speed of electromagnetic wave v is less than that in free
space or vacuum (v < c)  Production : They are produced by accelerated motion
of charges in conducting wires.
 Frequency : a few Hz to 109 Hz.
 Property : They show reflection and diffraction.
 Like other waves, electromagnetic waves also carry  Uses :
energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.  In radio and television communication systems
 EM waves share energy equally between 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗
 In cellular phones to transmit voice communication
in the ultra high frequency band
MICROWAVES
 If the electromagnetic wave incident on a material surface
is completely absorbed, then the energy delivered is U  Production : Produced by special vacuum tubes
and momentum imparted on the surface is p = U/c
 Frequency : 109 Hz to 1011 Hz.

3|Page
 Property : They show reflection & polarisation. VISIBLE LIGHT
 Uses :
 Production : Produced by incandescent bodies and also
 Microwave oven for cooking
it is radiated by excited atoms in gases
 In Aircraft navigation( short wavelength )
 Frequency : 4 × 1014 Hz to 8 × 1014 Hz.
 Speed of the vehicle,
 Property : It obeys the laws of reflection and refraction. It
 Long distance wireless communication through
undergoes interference, diffraction and can be polarised.
satellites.
It exhibits photo-electric effect also.
INFRARED RADIATION
 Uses :
 Production : It is produced by hot bodies (also known as  Used to study the structure of molecules, arrangement
heat waves). of electrons in external shells of atoms.
 Frequency : 1011 Hz to 4 × 1014 Hz.  It causes sensation of vision.
 Uses : ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
 It provides electrical energy to satellites by solar cells.
 Production : It is produced by Sun, and ionized gases
 It is used to produce dehydrated fruits,
 Frequency : 8 × 1014 Hz to 1017 Hz
 In green houses to keep the plants warm
 Heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain,  Property : Low penetrating power
 TV remote as a signal carrier  Uses :

 Infrared photography  It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and is

 Checking the purity of chemicals harmful to human body.

 It is used to destroy bacteria in sterilizing the surgical
instruments,
 Used in burglar alarm,
 To detect the invisible writing, finger prints
 To study of atomic & molecular structure

4|Page
  Uses :
 Gamma rays provide information about the structure of
atomic nuclei.

X – RAYS

 Production : Fast moving electrons suddenly stopped by

a metal target with high atomic number
 Used in radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and
 Frequency : 1017 Hz to 1019 Hz.
tumour,
 Property : High penetrating power  Used in food industry to kill pathogenic microorganism
 Used to understand the structure of atomic nucleus.
 Uses :
 Used in studying structures of inner atomic electron Practice Numerical :
shells and crystal 1. In an EM wave, the oscillating electric field having a
 It is used in detecting fractures, diseased organs, frequency of 3 x 1010 Hz and an amplitude of 30 V/m
formation of bones and stones, propagates in the positive x-direction.
 Observing the progress of healing bones. a) What is the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave ?
 Used to detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes b) Write down the expression to represent the
 Used in finding gold and silver in smugglers - X ray corresponding magnetic field.
scanner
2. The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is
GAMMA RAYS
given by
 Production : Produced by transitions of radioactive By = ( 2 x 10-7 sin [ 500 x + 1.5 x 1011 t ] )
nuclei and decay of certain elementary particles (a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave ?
 Frequency : 1018 Hz and above (b) Write an expression for the electric field vector
 Property : High penetrating power
5|Page
 Chapter – 09 Angle of deviation due to reflection :

The angle between the direction of incident ray and the

Ray Optics reflected ray is called angle of deviation due to reflection.

d = 180 – 2i

Syllabus : Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror

formula, refraction of light, total internal reflection and
optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin
lens formula, lens maker’s formula, magnification, power of
a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of
light through a prism. Optical instruments: Microscopes
and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and
their magnifying powers
SPHERICAL MIRRORS :
REFLECTION OF LIGHT A spherical surface is a part cut from a hollow sphere.
Spherical mirrors are generally constructed using glass.
The bouncing back of light into the same medium when it
One surface of the glass is silvered. The reflection takes
encounters a reflecting surface is called reflection o flight.
place at the other surface which is polished. If the reflected
According to laws of reflection,
surface of the mirror is curved inwards it is called as
Law 1 : The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the concave mirror and If the reflected surface of the mirror is
reflecting surface lie in the same plane ( co-planar ). curved outwards it is called as convex mirror.

Law 2 : The angle of incidence ( i ) is equal to the angle of

reflection ( r )
i=r

Page 1
Paraxial Rays and Marginal Rays : Relation between f and R :
The paraxial rays are the rays which travel very close to the Consider a ray of light parallel to the principal axis is
principal axis and make small angles with it. They fall on incident on the mirror at M. It passes through the principal
the mirror very close to the pole. On the other hand, the focus F after reflection. The geometry related to this is
marginal rays are the rays which travel far away from the shown in Figure. The line CM is the normal to the mirror at
principal axis and make large angles with it. M. Let i be the angle of incidence and the same will be the
angle of reflection.
New Cartesian convention system ( Sign Convention ) If MP is the perpendicular from M to the principal axis, then

Rules for drawing Ray diagram :

(a) A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection will
pass through the principal focus.
(b) A ray passing through the principal focus, after
reflection will travel parallel to the principal axis.
(c) A ray passing through the centre of curvature retraces
its path after reflection as it is a normal incidence.
(d) A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per law of
reflection keeping principal axis as the normal.

PF is focal length f and PC is the radius of curvature R.

R = 2f

Page 2
 MIRROR EQUATION
Concave Mirror ( Real & Inverted Image )

Concave Mirror ( Virtual & Erect Image )

Page 3
Convex Mirror ( Virtual & Erect Image )

Page 4
Magnification : REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction is passing of light from one optical medium to

another optical medium through a boundary.

For both concave and convex mirror

Practice Numerical : ( Feb 2025 )

This law is called as snell’s Law
1. (a) A concave mirror has radius of curvature 20 cm.
Calculate the distance of an object from the mirror so
as to form an image of magnification 2. Also find the
location of the image.

(b) If the silver coating around the centre of a concave

mirror is removed, will the mirror still form the image
of an object ? Justify your answer.

Page 5
 Simultaneous reflection (or) refraction : The
phenomenon in which a part of light from a source
undergoing reflection and the other part of light from the
Conceptual Question ( Board Exam 2015 ) : same source undergoing refraction at the same surface is
called simultaneous reflection (or) simultaneous refraction.

Angle of deviation due to refraction :

The angle between the direction of incident ray and the
refracted ray is called angle of deviation due to refraction. Principle of reversibility : The principle of reversibility
states that light will follow exactly the same path if its
d=i–r direction of travel is reversed.

Page 6
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB REAL DEPTH & APPARENT DEPTH

Finding Lateral displacement (or) Lateral Shift

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

For any angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, the
entire light is reflected back into the denser medium itself.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Page 7
Conditions for TIR to occur : cladding (or) sleeving. The refractive index of the core must
(i) Light must travel from denser to rarer medium. be higher than that of the cladding for total internal
reflection to happen. Signal in the form of light is made to
(ii) Angle of incidence in the denser medium must be
incident inside the core-cladding boundary at an angle
greater than critical angle ( i > C ) greater than the critical angle. Hence, it advances with
repeated total internal reflections inside the optical fiber
Critical angle ( C ) : The angle of incidence in the denser without undergoing any refraction.
medium for which the angle of refraction is 90° (or) the
refracted ray graces the boundary between the two media is
called critical angle C

The light travels inside the core with no appreciable loss in

the intensity of the light .While bending the optical fibre, it
is done in such a way that the condition for total internal
reflection is ensured at every reflection inside the fibre

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

( OPTICAL FIBER )
Transmitting the signals through optical fibers is possible
due to the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical
fibers consist of inner part called core and outer part called

Page 8
Practice Numerical : 4. A tank is filled with a liquid of refractive index 𝟐 , up
to a height of 30 cm. A tiny bulb is glowing at the
2. Three light rays red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are bottom of the tank. Calculate the diameter of an opaque
incident on a right angled prism ‘abc’ at face ‘ab’. The disc floating symmetrically on the liquid surface that
refractive indices of the material of the prism for red, can cut off completely the light from the bulb that
green and blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47 comes out of the liquid surface. [ Feb 2025 ]
respectively. Out of the three which colour ray will
emerge out of face ‘ac’? Justify your answer. Trace the 5. A rectangular glass slab ABCD (refractive index 1·5) is
path of these rays after passing through face ‘ab’ surrounded by a transparent liquid (refractive index
1·25) as shown in the figure. A ray of light is incident on
face AB at an angle i such that it is refracted out
grazing the face AD. Find the value of angle i.

3. A right angled isosceles glass prism ABC is kept in

contact with an equilateral triangular prism DBC as
shown in the figure. Both prisms are made of the same
glass of refractive index 1·6. Trace the path of the ray 6. A point source of light in air is kept at a distance of 12
MN incident normally on face AB as it passes through cm in front of a convex spherical surface of glass of
the combination. [ Feb 2025 ] refractive index 1·5 and radius of curvature 30 cm. Find
the nature and position of the image formed

SPHERICAL REFRACTING SURFACE

Page 9
REFRACTION THROUGH SPHERICAL REFRACTING
SURFACE

CONVEX SURFACE WITH REAL IMAGE

( RARER TO DENSER )

Page 10
CONVEX SURFACE WITH REAL IMAGE
( DENSER TO RARER )

CONCAVE SURFACE WITH REAL IMAGE

( DENSER TO RARER )

Page 11
 THIN LENS LENS FORMULA & LENS MAKERS FORMULA

A Lens is formed by a transparent material bounded

between two spherical surfaces (or)one plane and another
spherical surface. In a thin lens, the distance between the
surfaces is very small.
For a plane surface, the centre of curvature C is at infinity
and its radius of curvature R is infinity (R = ∞).

Lenses are classified into two :

Page 12
The Image formed by the first refracting surface becomes
object for the second surface
The governing equation from the previous derivation is
taken

Lens formula for convex Lens :

Light moving from Object distance Image Distance
Rarer to denser u v1
Denser to rarer v1 v

Page 13
 Lens formula for concave Lens :

Magnification of Lens :

Page 14
Practice Numerical :

7. A convex lens whose refractive index is given 1.5 and

focal length of 18 cm, has been immersed in liquid
whose refractive index is 4/3. Calculate what will be new
focal length and change in focal length of the lens
[ Ans : f2 = 72 cm & Δf = 54 cm ]
[ Ans : v = - 16 cm ]
8. A double convex lens made of glass of refractive index 13. A ray of light falls on a transparent sphere with
1.5 has its both surfaces of equal radii of curvature of 30 centre C as shown in the figure. The ray emerges from
cm each. An object of 5 cm height is placed at a distance the sphere parallel to the line AB. Find the angle of
of 12.5 cm from the lens. Find the position, nature and refraction at A if refractive index of the material of the
size of the image. sphere is √3.
[ Ans : v = -150/7 cm, hi = 8.55 cm ]

9. Find the radius of curvature of the convex surface of a

plano-convex lens, whose focal length is 0.3m and the
refractive index of the material of the lens is 1.5
[ Ans : R2 = - 0.15 m ]
[ Ans : r = 30 0 ]
10. A convex lens made of glass (μ=1.5) is immersed in a
medum (μ=1.65) and then in water (μ=1.33), Will it 14. You are given three lenses L1, L2 and L3 each of
behave as converging & diverging lens in both cases focal length 10cm. An object is kept at 15cm in front of
L1, as shown. The final real image is formed at the focus
11. A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a concave ‘I’ of L3. Find the separations between L1, L2 and L3.
lens of focal length 16 cm is placed in the path of the
convergent beam 12 cm from P. At what point does the
beam converge justify using ray diagram.
[ Ans : v = 48 cm ]

12. An air bubble is trapped at point B ( CB=20 cm ) in a

glass sphere of radius 40 cm and refractive index 1.5 as
shown in figure. Find the nature and position of the [ Ans : Distance b/w L1 & L2 = 40 cm &
image of the bubble as seen by an observer at point P. L2 & L3 = any distance ]

Page 15
 COMBINATION OF LENSES
15. Find the position of the image formed of the object 'O’
by the lens combination given in the figure.

(a) Both are convex lenses

[ Ans : v3 = 30 cm ]

POWER OF LENS

Lens Object distance Image Distance

1 u vI
2 vI v

Applying in Lens formula : 1/v – 1/u = 1/f

Page 16
 PRISM

A prism is a triangular block of transparent glass. It is

bounded by the three plane faces. Its one face is rough
which is called base of the prism. The other two faces are
polished which are called refracting faces of the prism.
The angle between the two refracting faces is called angle
of the prism (or) refracting angle (or) apex angle.

(b) One convex and other concave Lens

Calculate angle of minimum deviation :

Page 17
Page 18
 17. A ray of light passing from air through an equilateral
glass prism undergoes minimum deviation when the
angle of incidence is 3/4th of the angle of prism.
Calculate the speed of light in the prism.
[ Ans : v = 2.1 x 108 m/s ]

18. A right-angled prism ABC (refractive index ) is kept

on a plane mirror as shown in the figure. A ray of light is
incident normally on the face AC.
(a) Trace the path of ray as it passes through the prism.
(b) Find the angle of deviation produced by the prism.

Practice Numerical :
16. Trace the path of a ray of light passing through a
glass prism (ABC) as shown in the figure. If the refractive
index of glass is 3, find out of the value of the angle of
emergence from the prism.
[ Ans e = 600 ]

Page 19
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

( REFRACTING TELESCOPES )

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Page 20
 Objective Lens : Small focal length & Short aperture
 Eye piece : Moderate focal length & large aperture

Practice Numericals :

19. A compound microscope uses an objective lens of

focal length 4cm and eyepiece lens of focal length 10cm.
An object is placed at 6cm from the objective lens.
Calculate the magnifying power of the compound
microscope. Also calculate the length of the microscope.
[ Ans : m = 7 , L = 19.14 cm ]

Page 21
20. The total magnification produced by a compound
microscope is 20. The magnification produced by the
eyepiece is 5. When the microscope is focussed on a
certain object, the distance between the objective and
eyepiece is observed to be 14 cm. Calculate the focal
lengths of the objective and the eyepiece. (Given that the
least distance of distinct vision = 20 cm)

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

Case (i) Normal adjustment :

 Objective Lens : Large focal length & Large aperture

 Eye piece : Small focal length & small aperture

Page 22
(ii) When the final image is formed at least distance :

Practice Numericals :

21. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length

140cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5.0cm. What is the
magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant
objects when
(a) the telescope is in normal adjustment (i.e., when the
final image is at infinity)?
(b) the final image is formed at the least distance of
distinct vision (25cm)?
[ Ans : m = 28 , m = 33.6 ]

Page 23
22. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal Parallel beam of light from star enters the tube gets
length 150 cm and eyepiece of focal length 5 cm. What is reflected by the objective concave reflector C. The light
the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant falls on secondary mirror that is convex. Further the
objects in normal adjustment? If this telescope is used light converge at the eye piece forms an inverted image
to view a 100 m tall tower 3 km away, what is the height
of the image of the tower formed by the objective lens? Newtonian reflecting type telescope :
[ Ans : h = - 30 cm ]
The parallel beam of light coming from star falls on the
23. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length parabolic reflector gets reflected and then falls on a plane
144cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.0 cm. What is mirror that is inclined 450 to the axis. The plane mirror
the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the reflects the beam to form a real image inform the eyepiece
separation between the objective and the eyepiece?
[ Ans : m = 24 , dist = 150 cm ]

24. In a refracting telescope, the focal length of the objective

is 50 times the focal length of the eyepiece. When the
final image is formed at infinity, the length of the tube is
102 cm. Find the focal lengths of the two lenses

REFLECTING TELESCOPES

Cassegrainian Telescope :
.

Page 24
 Chapter – 10 When a wave propagates it is treated as the propagation of wavefront.
The wavefront is always perpendicular to the direction of the propagation

Wave Optics of the wave. As the direction of ray is in the direction of propagation of
the wave, the wavefront is always perpendicular to the ray.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Syllabus : Wave front and Huygen’s principle, reflection and
refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of
laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen’s principle.
Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe
width (No derivation final expression only), coherent sources and
sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of
central maxima
HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE
WAVE FRONT
Huygens principle is basically a geometrical construction which gives the
A wavefront is the continuous locus of those particles of a medium which
shape of the wavefront at any time if we know its shape at t = 0
are vibrating in the same phase.
According to Huygens' principle :
(i) Every point on wavefront behaves like a light source and emits
secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets spread in all directions
in space (vacuum) with the velocity of light.
(ii) The envelope of wavefront of secondary wavelets, after a given time,
along forward direction gives the new position of wavefront.
The shape of wavefront depends on the shape of sources of light.
Wavefronts can be of three types. They are as follows:
(i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Cylindrical wavefront (iii) Plane wavefront

Page :1
 LAWS OF REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF HUYGENS' WAVE THEORY LAWS OF REFRACTION ON THE BASIS OF HUYGENS' WAVE THEORY

As shown in figure, consider a plane wavefront AB incident on the Consider a plane wavefront AB incident on a plane surface XY,
reflecting surface XY, both the wavefront and the reflecting surface being separating two media 1 and 2, as shown in figure. Let v1 and v2 be the
perpendicular to the plane of paper. velocities of light in two media, with v2 < V1

According to the principle, every point in the primary wavefront AB acts According to the principle, every point in the primary wavefront AB acts
as a source to obtain secondary wavelet as a source to obtain secondary wave.

Let the secondary wavelet from A strike C at the time t AC = c x t Let the secondary wavelet from B strike C at the time t BC = v1x t
The secondary wavelet from B strike D at the same time BD = c x t Secondary wavelet from A strike D at the same time t AD = v2 x t

From C draw a tanget touching D so it becomes the secondary wavelet

This proves Snell's law of refraction.

Page :2
Similarly if the question is asked for denser to rarer medium

Drawback in Huygens’s principle : There is one shortcoming in the

above Huygens’ construction for propagation of a wavefront. It could not
explain the absence of backward wave which also arises in the above
BEHAVIOUR OF A PRISM, LENS AND SPHERICAL MIRROR construction.
TOWARDS PLANE WAVEFRONT
Conceptual Question :

Page :3
 COHERENT AND INCOHERENT SOURCES INTERFERENCE

Coherent sources of light are those sources of light which emit light
waves of same frequency, same wavelength and have a same or
constant phase difference.

Coherent source of light can be obtained by deriving two sources from a

primary (or initial) source by
(i) division of wavefront (ii) division of amplitude

Two sources of light, which do not emit light waves with a constant
phase difference are called incoherent sources.

Conditions for sustained interference :

(i) The two sources of light must be coherent.
(ii) The amplitude of electric field vector of interfering wave should
be equal to have greater contrast.

Page :4
Page :5
For constructive interference, the phase difference should be
ϕ = 0, 2π, 4π, 6π . .

Expression for fringe width in interference

Relation b/w phase difference & path difference

For destructive interference, the phase difference should be

ϕ = π, 3π, 5π . .

Page :6
 Intensity Pattern for double slit experiment

Page :7
Practice Numerical :

1. Laser light of wavelength 630nm incident on a pair of slits produces an (ii) Light of wavelength 500 A propagating in air gets partly reflected
interference pattern where bright fringes are separated by 8.1mm. from the surface of water. How will the wavelengths and frequencies
Another light produces the interference pattern, where the bright fringes of the reflected and refracted light be affected
are separated by 7.2mm. Calculate the wavelength of second light. [ Ans = 3.44x 10-4 m ]
[ Ans : λ2 = 560nm ]
6. The ratio of the widths of two slits in Young's double slit experiment is
2. The intensity, at the central maxima (O) in a Young's double slit set up
4:1. Evaluate the ratio of intensities at maxima and minima in the
is I0. If the distance OP equals one third of the fringe width of the
interference pattern.
pattern, show that the intensity, at point P, would equal I0/4.
[ Ans = 9 : 1 ]

3. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits 0.15 mm apart are
7. The ratio of the intensities at minima to the maxima in the Young's
illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm. The screen is
double slit experiment is 9:[Link] the ratio of the widths of the two
1.0 m away from the slits.
slits.
(a) Find the distance of the second (i) bright fringe, (ii) dark fringe from
[ Ans = 16 : 1 ]
the central maximum.
(b) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from
8. Two light sources with amplitudes 5 units and 3 units respectively
the slits?
interfere with each other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and
[ Ans : (i) 6 mm (ii) 4.5 mm ]
minimum intensities.
[ Ans = Imax : Imin = 16 : 1 ]
4. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 560 nm and 420 nm is
used to obtain interference fringes in a Young's double slit experiment.
9. Find the intensity at a point on a screen in YDSE, where the
Find the least distance from the central maximum, where the bright
interfering waves of equal intensity have a path difference of
fringes, due to both the wavelengths coincide. The distance between the
(i) λ /3 (ii) λ /2
two slits is 4.0 mm and the screen is at a distance of 1.0 m from the
[ Feb 2025 ]
slits.
[ Ans : n= 3 , 0.42 mm ]

5. Answer the following questions: (i) In a double slit experiment using light
of wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of the fringe formed on a
distant screen is 0.1°. Find the spacing between the two slits.

Page :8
 DIFFRACTION Intensity Pattern for Single slit experiment : Intensity of central
maxima is maximum and intensity of secondary maxima decreases with
The phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp corners and the the increase of their order. The diffraction pattern is graphically shown
spreading of light within the geometrical shadow of the opaque obstacles is alongside.
called diffraction of light.

Diffraction due to a Single Slit of Width d :

Page :9
 Practice Numerical :

10. In a diffraction experiment, the slit is illuminated by light of

wavelength 600 nm. The first minimum of the pattern falls at θ = 30°.
Calculate the width of the slit.

11. Find the angle of diffraction (in degrees) for first secondary
maximum of the pattern due to diffraction at a single slit. The width of
the slit and wavelength of light used are 0·55 mm and 550 nm,
respectively

Board Exam 2023 : Draw the intensity distribution for (i) the fringes
produced in interference, and (ii) the diffraction bands produced due to
single slit. Write two points of difference between the phenomena of
interference and diffraction

Page :10
 potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic
surface is called surface barrier.

Free electrons possess some kinetic energy and this energy is different for
Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter different electrons. The kinetic energy of the free electrons is not sufficient to
overcome the surface barrier. Whenever an additional energy is given to the
Syllabus: Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's free electrons, they will have sufficient energy to cross the surface barrier and
observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation-particle nature of light. they escape from the metallic surface.
Experimental study of photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave nature of Work Function (φ0) :The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape
particles, de-Broglie relation. from the metal surface is called work function of that metal. The work function
of the metal is denoted by φ0and is measured in electron volt (eV).
Introduction : When electrons, protons and other particles are discovered,
they are considered as particles because they possess mass and charge.
However, later experiments showed that under certain circumstances, they
exhibit wave-like properties also.
One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when
In this chapter, the particle nature of waves (radiation) and the wave nature of accelerated by a potential difference of 1 V.
particles (matter) – that is, wave-particle duality of radiation and matter is
 1 eV = KE gained by electron = Work done by the electric field
discussed with the relevant experimental observations supporting this dual
nature.  1 eV = qV = 1.602 × 10–19 C × 1 V = 1.602 × 10–19 J

Free electrons : In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron
bound to the nucleus and free to move within the metal ( valence electrons or emission.
Free electrons ) but they cannot leave the surface of the metal.
TYPES OF ELECTRON EMISSION
The reason is that when free electrons reach the surface of the metal, they are
The metal selected for electron emission should have low work function. The
attracted by the positive nuclei of the metal. It is this attractive pull which will
electron emission is categorized into different types depending upon the form
not allow free electrons to leave the metallic surface at room temperature.
of energy being utilized. There are mainly four types of electron emission
Surface Barrier : In order to leave the metallic surface, the free electrons which are given below.
must cross a potential barrier created by the positive nuclei of the metal. The

1|Page
Thermionic emission :When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident
free electrons on the surface of the metal get sufficient energy in the form of radiation.
thermal energy so that they are emitted from the metallic surface This type of
emission is known as thermionic emission. The intensity of the thermionic
emission (the number of electrons emitted) depends on the metal used and its
temperature.

Secondary emission :When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the

surface of the metal, the kinetic energy of the striking electrons is transferred
to the free electrons on the metal surface. Thus the free electrons get
sufficient kinetic energy so that the secondary emission of electron occurs.
Field emission / Cold cathode emission :Electric field emission occurs
when a very strong electric field is applied across the metal. This strong field
pulls the free electrons and helps them to overcome the surface barrier of the
metal

HERTZ AND LENARD'S OBSERVATIONS

Heinrich Hertz’s Observation : Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism

predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and concluded that light
Photo electric emission : When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable
itself is just an electromagnetic wave.
frequency is incident on the surface of the metal, the energy is transferred
from the radiation to the free electrons. Hence, the free electrons get sufficient In 1887, Heinrich Hertz was successful in generating and detecting
energy to cross the surface barrier and the photo electric emission takes electromagnetic wave with his high voltage induction coil causing a spark
place. discharge between two metallic spheres
2|Page
 irradiated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp, it becomes positively charged
and the leaves will open as shown in Figure.

Further, if the negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to ultraviolet light, the
leaves will come closer as the charges leaked away quickly. If the plate is
positively charged, it becomes more positive upon UV rays irradiation and the
leaves open further

From these observations, it was concluded that negatively charged electrons

were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
When a spark is formed, the charges will oscillate back and forth rapidly and
the electromagnetic waves are produced.

The electromagnetic waves thus produced were detected by a detector that

has a copper wire bent in the shape of a circle. Although the detection of
waves is successful, there is a problem in observing the tiny spark produced in
the detector.

In order to improve the visibility of the spark, Hertz made many attempts and
finally noticed an important thing that small detector spark became more
vigorous when it was exposed to ultraviolet light. The reason for this behaviour Lenard’s observation :In 1902, Lenard studied this electron emission
of the spark was not known at that time. Later it was found that it is due to the phenomenon in detail. His simple experimental setup is shown in Figure. The
photoelectric emission. Whenever ultraviolet light is incident on the metallic apparatus consists of two metallic plates A and C placed in an evacuated
sphere, the electrons on the outer surface are emitted which caused the spark quartz bulb. The galvanometer G and battery B are connected in the circuit.
to be more vigorous.

Hallwachs’ observation :Wilhelm Hallwachs, confirmed that the strange

behaviour of the spark is due to the action of ultraviolet light with his simple
experiment.

A clean circular plate of zinc is mounted on an insulating stand and is attached

to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire. When the uncharged zinc plate is

3|Page
When ultraviolet light is incident on the negative plate C, an electric current
flows in the circuit that is indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer. On
other hand, if the positive plate is irradiated by the ultraviolet light, no current is
observed in the circuit.

From these observations, it is concluded that when ultraviolet light falls on the
negative plate, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted by the positive
plate A. On reaching the positive plate through the evacuated bulb, the circuit
is completed and the current flows in it. Thus, the ultraviolet light falling on the
negative plate causes the electron emission from the surface of the plate.
. The anode (positive electrode) A collects the electrons emitted from C. These
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT
electrodes are kept in an evacuated glass envelope with a quartz window that
permits the passage of ultraviolet and visible light.
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any
other electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called The necessary potential difference between C and A is provided by high
photoelectric effect. tension battery B which is connected across a potential divider arrangement
PQ through a key K. The plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or
Although these electrons are not different from all other electrons, it is
negative potential with respect to C. To measure both positive and negative
customary to call them as photoelectrons and the corresponding current as
potential of A with respect to C, the voltmeter is designed to have its zero
photoelectric current or photo current.
marking at the centre and is connected between A and C. The current is
Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc show photoelectric emission with measured by a micro ammeter µA connected in series.
ultraviolet light while some alkali metals lithium, sodium, caesium respond well
If there is no light falling on the cathode C, no photoelectrons are emitted and
even to larger wavelength radiation like visible light. The materials which eject
the micro ammeter reads zero. When ultraviolet or visible light is allowed to fall
photoelectrons upon irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable
on C, the photoelectrons are liberated and are attracted towards anode. As a
wavelength are called photosensitive materials.
result, the photoelectric current is set up in the circuit which is measured using
The apparatus is employed to study the phenomenon of photoelectric effect in micro ammeter.
detail. S is a source of electromagnetic waves of known and variable
The variation of photocurrent with respect to the
frequency ν and intensity I. C is the cathode (negative electrode) made up of
photosensitive material and is used to emit electrons (i) Intensity of incident light(ii) potential difference between the electrodes
(iii) nature of the material and (iv) frequency of incident light
4|Page
 EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF INCIDENT LIGHT ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT Now, the potential of A is increased and the corresponding photocurrent is
noted. As the potential of A is increased, photocurrent also increases.
To study the effect of intensity of incident light on photoelectric current, the However a stage is reached where photocurrent reaches a saturation value
frequency of the incident light and the accelerating potential V of the anode (saturation current) at which all the photoelectrons from C are collected by A.
are kept constant. This is represented by the flat portion of the graph between potential of A and
Here the potential of A is kept positive with respect to that of C so that the photocurrent.
electrons emitted from C are attracted towards A. Now, the intensity of the When a negative (retarding) potential is applied to A with respect to C, the
incident light is varied and the corresponding photoelectric current is current does not immediately drop to zero because the photoelectrons are
measured. emitted with some definite and different kinetic energies. The kinetic energy of
some of the photoelectrons is such that they could overcome the retarding
electric field and reach the electrode A. When the negative (retarding)
potential of A is gradually increased, the photocurrent starts to decrease
because more and more photoelectrons are being repelled away from
reaching the electrode A. The photocurrent becomes zero at a particular
negative potential V0, called stopping or cut-off potential.

A graph is drawn between light intensity along x-axis and the photocurrent
along [Link] the graph in Figure, it is evident that photocurrent – the
number of electrons emitted per second – is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.

EFFECT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ON PHOTOELECTRICCURRENT

To study the effect of potential difference V between the electrodes on

photoelectric current, the frequency and intensity of the incident light are kept Stopping potential : Stopping Potential is that value of the negative
constant. Initially the potential of A is kept positive with respect to C and the (retarding) potential given to the collecting electrode A which is just sufficient
cathode is irradiated with the given light. to stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and make the photocurrent
zero.
5|Page
At the stopping potential, even the most energetic electron is brought to rest.
Therefore, the initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron ( Kmax ) is equal to
the work done by the stopping potential to stop it (eV0).

Greater the frequency of the incident radiation, larger is the corresponding

stopping potential. This implies that as the frequency is increased, the
photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic energies so that the retarding
potential needed to stop the photoelectrons is also

when the intensity of the incident light alone is increased, the saturation
current also increases but the value of V0 remains constant.

Thus, for a given frequency of the incident light, the stopping potential is
independent of intensity of the incident light. This also implies that the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity of
the incident light.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT LIGHT ON STOPPINGPOTENTIAL

To study the effect of frequency of incident light on stopping potential, the greater.
intensity of the incident light is kept constant. The variation of photocurrent Now a graph is drawn between frequency of incident radiation and the
with the collecting electrode potential is studied for radiations of different stopping potential for different metals. From this graph, it is found that stopping
frequencies and a graph drawn between them is shown in Figure. From the potential varies linearly with frequency. Below a certain frequency called
graph, it is clear that stopping potential vary over different frequencies of threshold frequency, no electrons are emitted; hence stopping potential is zero
incident light. for that reason. But as the frequency is increased above threshold value, the
stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency of incident light.

6|Page
 LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 2. The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V. What is
the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted?
i) For a given metallic surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only [ Ans : 2.4 × 10−19 J ]
if the frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency
called the threshold frequency.
3. The graph shows the variation of photocurrent for a photosensitive metal
ii) For a given frequency of incident light (above threshold value), the number (a) Identify the variable X on the horizontal axis.
of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident (b) What does the point A on the horizontal axis represent ?
light. The saturation current is also directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.

iii) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of intensity

of the incident light.

iv) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.

v) There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of

photoelectrons.
Practice Numericals :

1. The figure shows a plot of three curves a, b, c showing the variation of

photocurrent vs. collector plate potential for three different intensities I 1 , I2 and
I3 having frequencies ν1 , ν2 and ν3 respectively incident on a photo sensitive
surface. Point out the two curves for which the incident radiations have same
frequency but different intensities.

7|Page
 EINSTEIN’S PHOTO ELECTRIC EQUATION

Einstein extended Planck’s quantum concept to explain the photoelectric

effect. According to Einstein, the energy is concentrated in small packets
called as quanta. Therefore, light of frequency v from any source can be
considered as a stream of quanta and the energy of each light quantum is
given by E = hν

The light quantum can behave as a particle and this is called photon.

Characteristics of photons:

i) The photons of light of frequency ν and wavelength λ will have energy

ii) The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation.

iii) The photons travel with the speed of light , its momentum is given as

iv) Since photons are electrically neutral, they are unaffected by electric and
magnetic fields.
v) When a photon interacts with matter (photon-electron collision), the total
energy, total linear momentum and angular momentum are conserved.
vi) The velocity of photon in different medium is different which is due to
change in wavelength

vii) The rest mass of photons are zero

8|Page
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation :

When a photon of energy hν is incident on a metal surface, it is spent in two

different ways

1. A part of the photon energy is used in over-coming the potential barrier of

the metal surface( photoelectric work function )
2. Remaining energy is used as the maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted electron

Practice Numericals :

4. The following graph shows the variation of stopping potential V 0 with the
frequency ν of the incident radiation for two photosensitive metals X and Y

If we reduce the frequency of the incident light, the speed or kinetic energy of
photoelectrons is also reduced. At some frequencyν0 of incident radiation, the
photo electrons are just ejected with almost zero kinetic energy (i) Which of the metals has larger threshold wavelength? Give reason.
(ii) Explain giving reason, which metal gives out electrons, having larger kinetic
energy, for the same wavelength of the incident radiation.
(iii) If the distance between the light source and metal X is halved, how will the
kinetic energy of electrons emitted from it change? Give reason
The equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it is emitted with 5. Light of frequency 7.21 x 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons
maximum kinetic energy Kmax. with a maximum speed of 6.0 x 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. What is
the threshold frequency for photoemission of electrons?
[ Ans : vo= 4.74 x 1014 Hz ]
9|Page
 FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY TO EXPLAIN PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT DE BROGLIE WAVE (MATTER WAVES )

Board Question : Explain how wave theory of light fails to explain the According to de Broglie hypothesis, all material particles like electrons,
characteristics of photoelectric effect. protons, neutrons in motion are associated with waves. These waves are
called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
According to the wave theory of light, electromagnetic waves carry the energy
stored in oscillating electric and magnetic fields. When enough energy is De-broglie wavelength is given by the formula
absorbed by an electron in a substance, it should be liberated as a
photoelectron. Frequency of light does not come into picture in this case.
Hence, there should not be any threshold frequency for emission of electrons.
m = mass of the particle v = velocity of the particle h = plank’s constant
But it is found that there exists threshold frequency and it depends on the
metal.

Experimentally, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases

linearly with the frequency of light. This cannot be accounted by the wave
theory of light. If a source of light is weak or far away from a metal surface,
emission of an electron will not be almost instantaneous. The electron may
have to wait for several hours/days for absorption of enough energy from the
incident light as by the wave theory of light, energy is spread over the wave
front.

NATURE OF LIGHT: WAVE - PARTICLE DUALITY

 Phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarization can be

explained using nature of light
 Certain phenomena like black body radiation, photoelectric effect can be
explained by particle nature to light.
 It is therefore concluded that light possesses dual nature, that of both
particle and wave. It behaves like a wave at some circumstances and it
behaves like a particle at some other circumstances.

10 | P a g e
Conceptual Question :

11 | P a g e
Practice Numericals : Question 12 :
6. Find the ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths, associated with (i) protons,
accelerated through a potential of 128 V, and (ii) α - particles, accelerated
through a potential of 64 V.
[ Ans = λp : λα = 2 : 1 ]

7. The ratio between the de Broglie wavelengths associated with protons,

accelerated through a potential of 512 V and that of alpha particles
accelerated through a potential of X volts is found to be one. Find value of X.

[ Ans: X = 64 V ]
BOARD PRACTICE QUESTIONS

8. The threshold frequency for given metal is 3·6 x 1014 Hz. If monochromatic
radiations of frequency 6·8 x 1014 Hz are incident on this metal, find the cut-off
potential for the photoelectrons. [ Feb 2025 ]

9. A light of wavelength 400 nm is incident on metal surface whose work

function is 3 ×10−19 J. Calculate the speed of the fastest photoelectrons
emitted

10. A laser beam of frequency 3·0 × 1014 Hz produces average power of 9

mW. Find
(i) the energy of photon of the beam, and
(ii) the number of photons emitted per second on an average by the source.
[ Feb 2025 – Set 01 ]

11. A laser beam of wavelength 500 nm and power 5 mW strikes normally on

a perfectly reflecting surface of area 1 mm2 of a body. It rebounds back from
the surface. Find the force exerted by the laser beam on the body
[ Feb 2025 – Set 02 ]
12 | P a g e
 Chapter – 12 & 13 ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING ( GOLD FOIL ) EXPERIMENT
( Geiger and Marsden Experiment )

Atoms & Nuclei  The experimental arrangement is shown in the Figure

----------------------------
Syllabus : ATOMS : Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model
of atom; Bohr model of hydrogen atom, Expression for radius of nth possible
orbit, velocity and energy of electron in nth orbit, hydrogen line spectra
(qualitative treatment only)

NUCELI : Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force Mass-energy

relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass
number; nuclear fission, nuclear fusion
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
J.J THOMSON’S MODEL Watermelon (or) Plum Pudding Model

According to this model, atom is a positively charged sphere were the entire
mass is distributed in which the negatively charged particles ( electrons ) are  A source of alpha particles ( polonium ) is kept inside a thick lead box with
embedded in it like seeds in water melon as shown in Figure. a fine hole as shown.
 The alpha particles coming through the fine hole of lead box pass through
The atoms are electrically neutral, this means that the total positive charge in an the collimator.
atom is equal to the total negative charge. According to this model, all the
 These particles are now allowed to fall on a thin gold foil and it is observed
charges are assumed to be at rest. But from classical electrodynamics, no stable
that the alpha particles passing through gold foil are scattered through
equilibrium points exist in electrostatic configuration
different angles.
 A movable screen which is coated with zinc sulphide (ZnS) is kept on the
other side of the gold foil to collect the scattered alpha particles.
 Whenever alpha particles strike the screen, a flash of light is observed which
can be seen through a microscope.
 Rutherford proposed an atom model based on the results of alpha scattering
experiment. In this experiment, alpha particles ( positively charged particles)
Limitation : it fails to explain the origin of spectral lines observed in the spectrum were allowed to fall on the atoms of a metallic gold foil.
of hydrogen atom and other atoms

Page | 1
 Conclusion made by Rutherford based on the observation
 Since most of the α particles were un-deflected he proposed that an atom
has a lot of empty space and contains a tiny matter at its centre known as
atomic nucleus of size is of the order of 10-14m.
 The nucleus is positively charged and most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated in the nucleus.
 The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons that revolve
around the nucleus in circular orbits

(a) Most of the alpha particles were un-deflected through the gold foil and went DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH ( rO )
straight.
(b) Some of the alpha particles were deflected through a small angle.
(c) A few alpha particles (one in thousands) were deflected through the angle
more than 90°
(d) Very few alpha particles returned back (back scattered) –that is, deflected
The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha
back by 180° particle just before it gets reflected back through 180°is defined as the
distance of closest approach r0 (also known as contact distance).

At this distance, all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle will be converted
into electrostatic potential energy.

Further, Rutherford calculated the radius of the nucleus for different nuclei
Number of α particles scattered vs Scattering angle and found that it ranges from 10–14 m to 10–15 m.

Page | 2
 IMPACT PARAMETER ( b )

Impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance between the

centre of the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle
when it is at a large distance.

when impact parameter increases, the scattering angle decreases. Smaller

the impact parameter, larger will be the deflection of alpha particles.

Page | 3
 LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD MODEL
Postulate 02 : Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain
This model fails to explain the distribution of electrons around the nucleus and discrete orbits called stationary orbits and electron in such orbits do not radiate
also the stability of the atom.
electromagnetic energy. Only those discrete orbits allowed are stable orbits.
The angular momentum of the electron in these stationary orbits are quantized

Due to emission of radiations, the charge loses its energy undergoes spiral
motion as shown in Figure and finally the electron should fall into the nucleus
and the atoms should disintegrate. But this does not happen. Hence, Rutherford
model could not account for the stability of atoms.
Postulate 03 : An electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing
This model fails to explain the emission of Spectral lines
or emitting a photon whose energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE)
BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM between the two orbital levels

Postulate 01 : The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits ∆ E = E2 – E1 = hv = h ( c /λ )

due to the Coulomb electrostatic force of attraction. This Coulomb force gives where c is the speed of light and λ is the wavelength and v is the frequency of
necessary centripetal force for the electron to undergo circular motion. the radiation emitted.

Page | 4
 RADIUS OF THE BOHR’S STATIONARY ORBIT

r = a 0 n2 Here
FREQUENCY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S STATIONARY ORBIT

VELOCITY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S STATIONARY ORBIT

Page | 5
TOTAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR’S STAT. ORBIT
Ionization energy : The minimum energy required to remove an
electron from an atom in the ground state is known as ionization energy.

Excitation energy : The energy required to excite an electron for lower energy
state to any higher energy state is known as excitation energy.

ORIGIN OF SPECTRAL LINES

Page | 6
Page | 7
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM

Page | 8
 DEBROGLIE ‘S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE Practice Numericals :
1. Find the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of an
electron of hydrogen atom from its:
(i) second permitted energy level to the first level, and
(ii) the highest permitted energy level to the first permitted level

[ Ans : (i) 10.2 eV (ii) 3/4 ]

2. What is the ratio of radii of orbits corresponding to first excited state and
ground state in hydrogen atom? [ Ans : 4 : 1 ]

3. (a) The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is

5.3 x 10-11 m. Calculate its radius in n =3 orbit.
(b) The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the
hydrogen atom is - 3.4 eV.
Find out its (i) Kinetic energy and (ii) potential energy in this state.

4. Calculate the wavelength of Hα line ( n2 = 3 ) in Balmer series

[ Ans : 6563 x 10 -10 m ]

Limitations of Bohr’s atomic model : 5. The energy levels of an atom are shown below. Which of them will result in
the transition of a photon of wavelength 275 nm? Which of these transitions
correspond to emissions of radiations of (a) maximum wavelength (b)
Minimum wavelength?

Page | 9
 BOARD EXAM PRACTICE QUESTIONS

6. An alpha particle and a deuterium ion are accelerated through the

same potential difference. These are then directed towards a target
nucleus to make head-on collision. It is observed that their distance
of closest approach is the same. Justify it theoretically.
[ Feb 2025 ]
Answer : For a given nucleus, the distance of closest approach for a charged
particle depends only on the accelerating potential difference. Since both -
particle and a deuterium ion are accelerated through same potential
difference, therefore distance of closest approach will be same for both.

7. In Bohr model of hydrogen atom, an electron is revolving in second

orbit. [ Feb 2025 ] 1 amu = 931.5 MeV
Find the value of :
(i) angular momentum of electron,
(ii) radius of the orbit, and
(iii) kinetic energy of electron.
Take radius of first orbit of hydrogen atom as 0 5 Å.

[ Ans : L = 2.11 x 10 -34 kg m2 /s , r2 = 2x 10 -10 m , K = 3.4 eV ]

NUCLEI
Atomic Mass :

Page | 10
 ISOBARS :
 Isobars are the atoms of different elements having the same mass number
A, but different atomic number Z. In other words, isobars are the atoms of
different chemical elements which have same number of nucleons.
 Example : 𝑆 𝐶𝑙 𝐶𝑎
 Unlike isotopes, isobars are chemically different elements. They have
different physical and chemical properties.

ISOTONES :

 Isotones are the atoms of different elements having same number of

neutrons.
 Example : 𝐵 𝐶

MASS DEFECT & BINDING ENERGY

It is experimentally found out that the mass of any nucleus is always less than
the sum of the masses of its individual constituent particles. This difference in
mass ∆m is called mass defect.

ISOTOPES : According to Einstein’s mass energy relation , the mass can be converted
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, into energy and energy can be converted into mass.
but different mass number A. The mass that has converted in to energy is called the binding energy of the
 Example : Hydrogen has three isotopes nucleus (BE) and is equal to E = ∆mc2 that binds the nucleons together in the
𝐻 (hydrogen), 𝐻 (deuterium), 𝐻 (tritium) nucleus.

Carbon has four main isotopes 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Page | 11
In fact, to separate the nucleus into individual constituents, we must supply the  The average BE of light nuclei 1H1 , 1H2 , 1H3 is small
energy equal to binding energy of the nucleus.  2He4 , 6C12, 8O16 having sharp peaks are more stable
 The value of average BE rises as the mass number increases until it
reaches a maximum value of 8.8 MeV for A=56 (iron) and then it slowly
decreases
 The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having
BINDING ENERGY CURVE mass number lying between A=30 and 120. These elements are
( Average Binding Energy per Nucleon ) comparatively more stable and not radioactive.
The average binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required to  For higher mass numbers, the curve drops slowly and BE for uranium is
separate single nucleon from the particular nucleus. about 7.6 MeV. Such nuclei are unstable and exhibit radioactive.
 If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into two or more nuclei of
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Average Binding Energy = medium value A, the energy released would again be large. The atom bomb
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐀
is based on this principle and huge energy of atom bombs comes from this
fission when it is uncontrolled.

NUCLEAR FORCES

Nuclear Forces are strong forces of attraction that holds the protons and
neutrons ( nucleons ) together in an atom in-spite of strong repulsive force
between protons

The electrostatic repulsive force between two protons separated by a distance

10−15 m

The acceleration experienced by proton due to the force of 230 N is

Page | 12
This is nearly 1028 times greater than the acceleration due to gravity. it was
concluded that there must be a strong attractive force between protons to
overcome the repulsive Coulombic force. This attractive force which holds the
nucleons together is called strong nuclear force .
Characteristics of Nuclear Force :
 Nuclear forces is strongest force in nature
 Nuclear forces are short range forces
 Nuclear force is charge in-dependent because they act between proton –
proton, neutron - neutron & proton – neutron pair.
 Nuclear forces are non central forces
 When the distance between the nucleons becomes less than 0.8 fm, the
nuclear force is repulsive

 Potential Energy is positive for repulsive force and negative for attractive
force
Page | 13
 NUCLEAR FISSION
 In an uncontrolled chain reaction, the number of neutrons multiply indefinitely
The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two and the entire amount of energy is released in a fraction of second. Example
smaller nuclei with the release of a large amount of energy is called nuclear : Atom Bomb
fission. The fission is accompanied by the release of neutrons. The energy that
is released in the nuclear fission is of many orders of magnitude greater than the  In an controlled chain reaction, the average number of neutrons released in
energy released in chemical reactions. each stage is kept as one such that it is possible to store the released energy.
Example : Nuclear reactor

NUCLEAR FUSION

 When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to form a heavier nucleus,
then it is called nuclear fusion.
 In the nuclear fusion, the mass of the resultant nucleus is less than the sum
of the masses of original light nuclei. The mass difference appears as energy.
 The nuclear fusion never occurs at room temperature unlike nuclear fission.
Energy released in fission:
It is because when two light nuclei come closer to combine, they is strongly
The energy released during this process is nearly 200 MeV. This energy first
repelled by the coulomb repulsive force.
appears as kinetic energy of daughter nuclei and neutrons. But later, this kinetic
 To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei must have enough kinetic
energy appears in the form of heat given to the surrounding.
energy to move closer to each other such that the nuclear force becomes
effective. This can be achieved if the temperature is very much greater than
Chain reaction : When one 92U235 nucleus undergoes fission, the energy
107 K.
released might be small. But from each fission reaction, three neutrons are
released. These three neutrons can cause further fission in three other 92U235  When the surrounding temperature reaches around 107 K, lighter nuclei start
nuclei which in turn produce nine neutrons. These nine neutrons initiate fission fusing to form heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is called
in another nine 92U235 nuclei which produces 27 neutrons and so on. This process thermonuclear fusion reaction.
is called a chain reaction and the number of neutrons goes on increasing almost
in geometric progression.

There are two kinds of chain reactions :

(i) Uncontrolled chain reaction (ii) Controlled chain reaction.
Page | 14
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FISSION & FUSION REACTION

Conceptual Question 10 : How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept

glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take the fusion reaction as

Given :
 Power of the lamp = 100 W
 Energy released by fusing two deuterium = 3.2 MeV
Solution :
 2 g of deuterium contains NA ( 6.023 x 1023 ) number of atoms
Conceptual Question 08 :  Then 2 kg of deuterium has = NA x 1000 = 6.023 x 1026 atoms

Therefore the energy released when 6.023 x 1026 nucleus fuse.

We know that Energy = Power x time

Conceptual Question 09 : [ MAR 2024 ] Therefore Time = =
.
= 1.54 x 1012 s
Find the Q value of the following nuclear reaction :
Result : t = 1.54 x 1012 s (or) t = 4.88 x 104 years
Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic ?

Page | 15
 Conduction Band :
 The energy band formed due to the unoccupied orbitals is called

Semi Conductor Electronics conduction band (CB).

 The conduction band is the upper band that is unfilled
 The electrons can jump from VB to CB when energised.
Syllabus : Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators
(qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n Forbidden Energy Gap : The energy gap between the valence band and the
junction Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, conduction band is called forbidden energy gap (Eg). Electrons cannot exist in
application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier
the forbidden energy gap.
Energy band diagram of solids : Let us consider an atom with one electron in  EV represents the maximum energy of the valence band and
the outermost orbit. It means that the number of valence electrons is one.  EC represents minimum energy of the conduction band.
When two such atoms are brought close to each other, the valence orbitals are  Hence the forbidden energy gap, Eg = EC– Ev
split up into two. Similarly the unoccupied orbitals of each atom will also split up
into two. The electrons have the choice of choosing any one of the orbitals as
the energy of both the orbitals is the same. When the third atom of the same
element is brought to this system, the valence orbitals of all the three atoms are
split into three. The unoccupied orbitals also will split into three.

In reality, a solid is made up of millions of atoms. When millions of atoms are

brought close to each other, the valence orbitals and the unoccupied orbitals
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON ENERGY BAND
are split according to the number of atoms. In this case, the energy levels will
be closely spaced and will be difficult to differentiate the orbitals of one atom Conductors : In conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap.
from the other and they look like a band as shown in Figure. Hence, electrons can move freely into the conduction band from valence band.
So, conduction is possible even at low temperatures.
Energy Band : The band that has large number of closely spaced energy
levels in a very small energy range is known as energy band. Semiconductors : In semiconductors, forbidden energy gap is small
Valence Band : ( Eg < 3 eV ) At a finite temperature. A small increase in temperature is enough
to transfer electrons from valence band to conduction band. The conductivity of
 The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals is called valence the semiconductors is less as that of the conductors.
band (VB).
 The valence band is the lower band that is completely filled with Eg for germanium = 0.72 Ev Eg for silicon = 1.1 eV
electrons. At zero Kelvin, semiconductor behaves as insulator
Page 1
Insulator : In Insulator the valence band and the conduction band are Each Germanium atom has four electrons in the outermost orbit and is
separated by a large energy gap. The forbidden energy gap is greater than covalently bonded with four neighbouring atoms to form the lattice. A small
3 eV in insulators. The gap is very large that electrons from valence band increase in temperature is sufficient enough to break some of the covalent
cannot move into conduction band even on the application of strong external bonds and release the electrons free from the lattice .As a result, electrons
electric field or the increase in temperature. Therefore, the electrical conduction move from VB to CB. The vacancies produced in the valence band are called
is not possible.. holes.

As the holes are deficiency of electrons, they are treated to possess positive
charges. Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge carriers in
semiconductors.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons in the conduction band is
equal to the number of holes in the valence band.

The total current I is always the sum of the electron current and the hole
TYPES OF SEMI CONDUCOTRS current. I = Ie + Ih.

Intrinsic semiconductors : A pure semiconductor without any impurity is

An intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator at 0 K
called as intrinsic semiconductor. Here, impurity means presence of any other
foreign atom in the crystal lattice.

Page 2
 DOPING

The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.

It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the
semiconductor and in turn, its electrical conductivity increases. The impurity
atoms are called dopants and its order is approximately 100 ppm (parts per
million).

Extrinsic semiconductors : On the basis of the type of impurity added,

ne >> nh
extrinsic semiconductors are classified into
i) n-type semiconductor ii) p-type semiconductor
p -type semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, trivalent impurity atoms such as boron, aluminium,
n-type semiconductor :
gallium and indium are added to the silicon (or germanium) crystal. The dopant
A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure silicon (or germanium) has only three valence electrons but silicon needs four to form a covalent bond.
crystal with pentavalent impurity atoms such as phosphorus, arsenic and So there is electron vacancy.. This electron vacancy present is called as a hole.
antimony. During the process of doping, a few of the silicon atoms are replaced
by pentavalent dopants .The dopant has five valence electrons while the silicon
atom needs only four for bonding .

The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom is loosely attached with the
nucleus and they form a energy band just below the conduction band and is
called the donor energy level as a result the forbidden energy gap
decreases.

At room temperature, these electrons can easily move to the conduction band
with the absorption of thermal energy. Therefore, each impurity atom provides nh >> ne
one extra electron to the conduction band in addition to the thermally generated To make complete covalent bonding with all four neighbouring atoms, the
electrons. These thermally generated electrons leave holes in valence band. dopant is in need of one more electron. These dopants can accept electrons
Hence, the majority carriers of current in an n-type semiconductor are from the neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is called an acceptor
electrons and the minority carriers are holes.

Page 3
impurity. The energy level of the hole created by each impurity atom is just
above the valence band and is called the acceptor energy level, as a result the DIFFERENTIATE INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR
forbidden energy gap decreases.

For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the valence band; this is in
addition to the holes left by the thermally generated electrons. In such an
extrinsic semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers

COMPARISION OF ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

( n type & p type semi conductor )

DIFFERENTIATE n TYPE & p TYPE SEMI CONDUCTOR

n type semi conductor p type semi conductor

Board Question : In an n-type semiconductor electron-hole combination is a

continuous process at room temperature. Yet the electron concentration is
always greater than the hole concentration in it. Explain. [ Feb 2025 ]

Answer : In a doped semiconductor the total number of conduction electrons is

due to the electrons contributed by donors and those generated intrinsically,
while the total number of holes is only due to the holes from the intrinsic
sources.
Page 4
 PN JUNCTION

A single piece of semiconductor crystal is suitably doped such that its one side
is p-type semiconductor and the other side is n-type semiconductor. The
contact surface between the two sides is called p-n junction.

Diffusion current : Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free

electrons diffuse from the n-side to the p-side while the holes from the p-side to
the n-side. The diffusion happens since n-side has higher electron
concentration and the p-side has higher hole concentration.

The diffusion of the majority charge carriers across the junction gives
rise to an electric current, called diffusion current.

Depletion region : Due to the diffusion of electrons and holes, a layer of Hence at equilibrium, there is no net electric current across the junction.
positive charge donor atoms in n-region and a layer of negative charge Thus, a p-n junction is formed.
acceptor atoms in p-region is created. This positive and negative charge
regions on both sides of PN junction will form a region with immobile ions called Junction Potential or Barrier Potential :
as depletion region. The immobile ions on both sides of the junction establish an electric potential
difference across the junction.
Drift current : An electric field is set up between the positively charged layer in
the n-side and the negatively charged layer in the p-side in the depletion
region. This electric field makes electrons in the p-side drift into the n side and
the holes in the n-side into the p-side.
The electric current produced due to the motion of the minority charge carriers
by the electric field is known as drift current.

The diffusion current and drift current flow in opposite directions.

Though drift current is less than diffusion current initially, equilibrium is reached
This difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier
between them at a particular time.
potential (Vb)

Page 5
 PN JUNCTION DIODE

A p-n junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused with an n-

type semiconductor.

BIASING A DIODE
When the applied voltage is increased, the width of the depletion region and
Biasing means providing external energy to charge carriers to overcome the
hence the barrier potential are further reduced. This results in a large number
barrier potential and make them move in a particular direction.
of electrons passing through the junction resulting in an exponential rise in
The external voltage applied to the p-n junction is called bias voltage.
current through the junction.
Depending on the polarity of the external source to the p-n junction, we have
two types of biasing:
REVERSE BIAS :
i) Forward bias ii) Reverse bias If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the negative
terminal to the p-side, the junction is said to be reverse biased
FORWARD BIAS :
If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is connected to the p-side
and the negative terminal to the n-side, it is called forward biased.

The application of a forward bias potential pushes electrons in the n-side and
the holes in the p-side towards the junction. This initiates the recombination
with the ions near the junction which in turn reduces the width of the depletion
region

In addition, the accelerated electrons experience a strong attraction by the

positive potential applied to the p-side and similarly, holes in the p-side
towards the n-side

Page 6
As the positive terminal is connected to the n-type material, the electrons in the Forward voltage (or) Threshold (or) cut-in (or) knee voltage :
n-side are attracted towards the positive terminal and the holes in the p-side
The current flow is negligible when the applied voltage is less than the
are attracted by the negative terminal. This increases the immobile ion
threshold voltage. Beyond the threshold voltage, increase in current is
concentration at the junction.
significant even for a small increase in voltage. it is approximately 0.3 V for
germanium and 0.7 V for silicon.
The net effect is the widening of the depletion region leading to an increase in
the barrier potential. Yet, a small current flows across the junction due to the
The graph clearly infers that the current flow is not linear and is exponential.
minority charge carriers called as reverse saturation current. The reverse
Hence it does not obey Ohm’s law. ( Non Ohmic device )
saturation current is independent of the applied voltage.
Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when it is forward biased.
V-I CHARACTERSITICS OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE
Breakdown voltage :
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS : However, if the applied voltage is increased beyond a rated value, it will
produce an extremely large current which may destroy the junction due to
It is the study of the variation in current through the diode with respect to the
overheating. This is called as the breakdown of the diode and the voltage at
applied voltage across the diode when it is forward biased.
which the diode breaks down is called the breakdown voltage.
An external resistance (R) is used to limit the flow of current through the diode.
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS :
The forward bias voltage and the corresponding forward bias current are noted
and a graph is plotted. This graph is called the forward V-I characteristics In the reverse bias, the p-side of the diode is connected to the negative
terminal and n-side to the positive terminal of the dc power supply.

A graph drawn between the reverse bias voltage and the current across the
junction is called the reverse characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
Under this bias, a very small current in μA flows across the junction.
This is due to the flow of the minority charge carriers and is called the leakage
current or reverse saturation current.

This reverse current is independent of the voltage up to a certain voltage,

known as breakdown voltage.

Initially when the voltage is raised there is no rise in the current

Page 7
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

The half wave rectifier circuit consists of a transformer, a p-n junction diode and
a resistor
In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half or the negative half of the
AC input is passed through by the diode while the other half is blocked. Only
one half of the input wave is rectified. Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
Here, a p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier diode.

During the positive half cycle : When the positive half cycle of the AC
VI Characteristics of an PN Junction diode ( Forward & Reverse ) input signal passes through the circuit, terminal A becomes positive with
respect to terminal B. The diode is forward biased and hence it conducts.
The current flows through the load resistor RL and the AC voltage developed
across RL constitutes the output voltage V

During the negative half cycle : When the negative half cycle of the AC input
DIODE AS A RECTIFER signal passes through the circuit, terminal A is negative with respect to terminal
B. Now the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. Hence no current
Rectification : The process in which alternating voltage or alternating passes through RL The reverse saturation current in a diode is negligible.
current is converted into direct voltage or direct current is known as
rectification. The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady DC voltage but a pulsating
wave. This pulsating voltage cannot be used for electronic equipments.
The device used for this process is called as rectifier. There are two types of A constant or a steady voltage is required which can be obtained with the help
rectifier of filter circuits and voltage regulator circuits.

Page 8
 During negative half cycle : When the negative half cycle of the AC
input signal passes through the circuit, terminal B becomes positive, and A is at
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output DC power to the AC input power negative potential. This forward biases diode D2 and reverse biases diode D1.
supplied to the circuit. Its value is 40.6 % Hence, being forward biased, diode D2 conducts and current flows along the
path.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input signal are rectified in this
circuit and hence it is called the full wave rectifier.

It consists of two p-n junction diodes, a centre tap transformer and a load
resistor R. The centre is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference
point. With the help of the centre tap transformer, each diode rectifies one half
of the total secondary voltage.

During positive half cycle :

When the positive half cycle of the AC input signal passes through the circuit,
terminal A is positive and B is at negative potential. This forward biases diode
D1 and reverse biases diode D2. Hence, being forward biased, diode D1 Though both half cycles of AC input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
conducts and current flows along the path. nature. The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that of a half wave
rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %. The output of the full wave rectifier is a

Page 9
 pulsating wave. A constant or a steady voltage is required which can be BOARD EXAM NUMERICALS
obtained with the help of filter circuits and voltage regulator circuits.
1. Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5×1028 atoms m−3. it is doped by 1 ppm
concentration of pentavalent As. Calculate the number of electrons and
FILTER CIRCUIT : A Single Capacitor of high capacitance is connected
holes. Given that ni =1.5×1016 m–3.
across the rectifier to work as filter
[ Ans : 4.5×10 9 / m3 , N type semiconductor ]

2. In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency

is 50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same
input frequency [ Ans : foutput = 50 Hz, foutput = 100 Hz ]

3. The threshold voltage of a silicon diode is 0.7 V. It is operated at this point

by connecting the diode in series with a battery of V volt and a resistor of
DO YOU KNOW.....? 1000 Ω. Find the value of V when the current drawn is 15 mA
Why a Centre tap transformer is used in a full wave retifier ? [ Ans :15.7 V ]
The central tapping of the transformer is used to make both the diodes conduct 4. Assuming that the two diodes D1 and D2 used in the electric circuit shown
during alternate half cycles. In a center-tapped full-wave rectifier, the center-tap in the figure are ideal, find out the value of the current flowing through 2.5
is used to divide the transformer secondary voltage into two halves. Ω resistor

BOARD EXAM QUESTION : [ MAR 2024 ]

Carbon & Silicon have same lattice structure. Why is C insulator while Si
instinsic semiconductors

 Carbon (C) : The electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2.

 Silicon (Si) : The electronic configuration of silicon is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2.
It means Carbon has its 4 valence electrons in the second shell which is 5. In the given diagram, which bulb out of B1 and B2 will glow and why ?
close to the nucleus and so electrons are tightly bound where as for silicon it
is in third Shell so electrons are loose bound. So it is easy to separate
electrons in Silicon rather than Carbon.
So carbon acts a insulator while silicon is a semi conductor

Page 10
 DIAGRAMS & GRAPHS
Electric dipole when placed in a

Uniform Electric field Non Uniform Electric field

PHYSICS

Electric field intensity for electric dipole – axial line

ELECTRIC FLUX

Electric field intensity for electric dipole – Equatorial line

GAUSS THEOREM :

Electric Field Intensity Due To Infinite Long Straight Charged Wire

Electrostatic potential due to electric dipole – axial line

Electrostatic potential due to electric dipole – at any point

Relation between E and dV : Chapter – 3 : Current Electricity

Relation between current and drift velocity

I = nAevd
Effect of resistivity on temperature Chapter – 04 : Moving Charges and Magnetism
Right hand thumb rule :

Internal resistance of a cell Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

 Condition 01 : When a charged particle moves along or

opposite to the magnetic field ( θ = 00 or 1800 )

F=0
 Condition 02 : When a charged particle moves at the right
angle to the magnetic field ( θ = 900 )

BIOT SAVART LAW

 Condition 03 : When a charged particle moves at an angle

( θ other than 00 , 900 & 1800 ) to the magnetic field

Magnetic field produced along the axis of the current-

carrying circular coil

Force experienced by a current carrying conductor when

placed in uniform magnetic field

F = B I l sinθ
 Magnetic field due to the current carrying Solenoid

Variation of B with respect to distance

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

Force between two Long Parallel Current carrying conductors

Magnetic field due to the current carrying Long Cylinder

 Magnetic field at a point - axial line of the magnetic dipole

Magnetic field at a point – Equatorial line of the dipole

CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID

Chapter - 05 : Magnetism & Matter

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Chapter 06 : Electromagnetic Induction

Lenz’s Law :
 MOTIONAL EMF ( FOR MOVING ARM ) MUTUAL INDUCTION

MOTIONAL EMF ( FOR ROTATING ARM ) Mutual inductance between two long co-axial solenoids

Therefore, M21 = M12 = M

Self Induction :
TRANSFORMER
 CHAPTER 07 : ALTERNATING CURRENT AC circuit with Pure Capacitor Only :

AC circuit with Pure Resistor Only :

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

AC circuit with Pure Inductor Only :
 Resonance in series RLC Circuit Propagation of an EM wave

Wattless Current :
Chapter – 09 : Ray Optics
New Cartesian convention system ( Sign Convention )

Refraction through glass slab – Lateral displacement ( Shift )

 REAL DEPTH & APPARENT DEPTH REFRACTION THROUGH SPHERICAL REFRACTING SURFACE

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

LENS MAKERS FORMULA

 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Simple Microscope :
LAWS OF REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF HUYGENS' WAVE THEORY

LAWS OF REFRACTION ON THE BASIS OF HUYGENS' WAVE THEORY

INTENSITY PATTERN FOR INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION

 RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL
( Geiger and Marsden Experiment )

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION

DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH ( rO )

IMPACT PARAMETER ( b )

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM

SEMI CONDUCTORS

Energy band diagram

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR ( n type semi conductor )

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
( An intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator at 0 K ) ne >> nh

DIFFUSION CURRENT & DRIFT CURRENT

EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR ( p type semi conductor )

nh >> ne
 (2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

FILTER CIRCUIT :
RECTIFICATION