🧪 Chapter 0: Research Methods in Psychology
Complete Notes with Deep Content for Cambridge A-Level
1. 🔬 Experimental Method
✅ Key Features
Independent Variable (IV): The factor the researcher manipulates to
test its effect.
o Example: Changing the amount of sleep participants get.
Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured to see the effect of
the IV.
o Example: Number of words recalled in a memory test.
Control Group: A group that does not receive the IV; used for
comparison.
o Purpose: Helps isolate the effect of the IV.
Random Assignment: Participants are randomly placed in groups to
reduce bias.
o Benefit: Ensures groups are equivalent at the start.
Standardization: Keeping procedures, instructions, and conditions
consistent.
o Purpose: Increases reliability and fairness.
📊 Types of Experiments
Lab Experiment
o Strengths: High control, replicable, clear cause-effect.
o Weaknesses: Artificial setting, low ecological validity.
Field Experiment
o Strengths: More natural behavior, higher ecological validity.
o Weaknesses: Less control, harder to replicate.
Quasi-Experiment
o Strengths: Useful for studying real-world groups (e.g., gender, age).
o Weaknesses: No random assignment, lower internal validity.
2. 👀 Observational Method
🔍 Types of Observation
Naturalistic: Observing behavior in its natural environment without
interference.
o Example: Watching children play in a park.
Controlled: Observation in a structured setting with some manipulation.
o Example: Observing reactions to a staged event in a classroom.
Overt: Participants know they’re being observed.
o Risk: May change behavior (Hawthorne effect).
Covert: Participants are unaware of observation.
o Ethical issue: No informed consent.
Participant: Researcher joins the group being studied.
o Benefit: Richer insight.
Non-Participant: Researcher observes from outside.
o Benefit: Less bias, more objectivity.
📈 Evaluation
Strengths: Realistic behavior, useful for exploratory research.
Weaknesses: Observer bias, ethical concerns, no control over variables.
3. 📝 Self-Report Methods
📋 Questionnaires
Closed Questions: Fixed responses (e.g., yes/no, multiple choice).
Open Questions: Free-text responses for deeper insight.
Likert Scale: Measures attitudes on a scale (e.g., 1–5 from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”).
Strengths: Quick, cost-effective, easy to analyze.
Weaknesses: May lack depth, risk of misinterpretation.
Interviews
Structured: Fixed questions in a set order.
o Strengths: Easy to replicate, reliable.
o Weaknesses: Limited flexibility.
Semi-Structured: Core questions with room for follow-up.
o Strengths: Balanced depth and consistency.
Unstructured: Informal, conversational.
o Strengths: Rich data, reveals unexpected themes.
o Weaknesses: Hard to analyze, less reliable.
⚠️Social Desirability Bias
Participants may give answers that make them look good rather than
truthful.
Solution: Ensure anonymity, use indirect questioning.
4. 🔍 Case Studies
Definition: In-depth study of one person or small group using multiple
methods (e.g., interviews, tests, observations).
Example: Phineas Gage—frontal lobe injury changed personality.
Strengths: Rich, detailed data; good for rare or complex cases.
Weaknesses: Low generalizability; may be subjective or biased.
5. 🎯 Sampling Techniques
📊 Types of Sampling
Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal
chance of selection.
o Strength: Reduces bias.
o Weakness: Hard to achieve in practice.
Stratified Sampling: Population divided into subgroups (strata); sampled
proportionally.
o Strength: More representative.
o Weakness: Time-consuming.
Opportunity Sampling: Uses whoever is available.
o Strength: Quick and easy.
o Weakness: High risk of bias.
Volunteer Sampling: Participants opt in.
o Strength: Motivated participants.
o Weakness: May not represent wider population.
Snowball Sampling: Participants recruit others.
o Used for: Hidden or hard-to-reach populations (e.g., drug users).
6. ✅ Validity
Internal Validity: Study accurately measures the intended effect.
External Validity: Results can be generalized to other settings.
Ecological Validity: Study reflects real-life situations.
Temporal Validity: Results remain true over time.
Face Validity: Does the test appear to measure what it claims?
Construct Validity: Does the test measure the theoretical concept?
7. 🔁 Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability: Consistency of results over time.
Inter-Rater Reliability: Agreement between different observers.
Split-Half Reliability: Consistency within a test (e.g., comparing
odd/even items).
Improved by: Clear instructions, training, standardized procedures.
8. ⚖️Ethical Guidelines
🧑⚖️Core Principles
Informed Consent: Participants must understand and agree to the study.
Confidentiality: Personal data must be protected.
Right to Withdraw: Participants can leave at any time.
Debriefing: Full explanation after the study.
Protection from Harm: No physical or psychological damage.
Deception: Only allowed if necessary and approved.
🧪 Example
Milgram’s Obedience Study: Used deception and caused distress—
raised ethical concerns.
9. 🧠 Role of the Researcher
Demand Characteristics: Participants change behavior based on
perceived study aims.
Experimenter Effects: Researcher unintentionally influences results.
Standardization: Ensures consistency across participants.
Double-Blind Design: Neither participant nor researcher knows group
assignment—reduces bias.
10. 📊 Data Types & Analysis
📈 Types of Data
Quantitative: Numerical data (e.g., scores, reaction times).
Qualitative: Descriptive data (e.g., interview transcripts).
📐 Data Presentation
Tables, graphs, bar charts, pie charts.
📊 Statistical Analysis
Descriptive Statistics:
o Mean: Average
o Median: Middle value
o Mode: Most frequent
o Range: Spread of scores
Inferential Statistics:
o T-tests: Compare two groups
o ANOVA: Compare multiple groups
o Correlation: Relationship between variables
Significance Testing: Determines if results are due to chance (e.g., p <
0.05).
11. 🧪 Designing a Study
🧠 Steps
1. Define research question and hypothesis.
2. Choose appropriate method (e.g., experiment, observation).
3. Identify IV and DV.
4. Select sampling technique.
5. Ensure ethical compliance.
6. Collect data using standardized procedures.
7. Analyze results using appropriate statistics.
8. Draw conclusions and evaluate limitations.
🧪 Chapter 0: Research Methods – Extended Practice Questions (30)
🔍 Definitions & Recall
1. Define the term independent variable.
2. What is a dependent variable, and how is it measured?
3. What does random assignment help control in an experiment?
4. Name two types of experimental designs.
5. What is the main feature of a quasi-experiment?
6. Define naturalistic observation.
7. What is the difference between overt and covert observation?
8. What is a structured interview, and why is it considered reliable?
9. What does a Likert scale measure?
[Link] is social desirability bias, and how can it be reduced?
🧠 Application & Examples
[Link] an example of a study with high ecological validity.
[Link] a situation where participant observation would be useful.
[Link] could a researcher ensure inter-rater reliability in an observation
study?
[Link] might a psychologist choose a case study over a lab experiment?
[Link] ethical issues arise in covert observation?
[Link] does stratified sampling improve representativeness?
[Link]’s one strength and one weakness of volunteer sampling?
[Link] could standardization improve the reliability of a study?
[Link]’s the purpose of a control group in an experiment?
[Link] an example of temporal validity being low in a study.
📊 Data & Analysis
[Link]’s the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?
[Link] two types of descriptive statistics.
[Link] does a correlation coefficient tell us?
[Link] is inferential statistics important in psychological research?
[Link] does p < 0.05 mean in significance testing?
[Link] can a researcher present data visually? Name three methods.
[Link] is construct validity, and how is it assessed?
[Link] is split-half reliability useful for questionnaires?
[Link]’s the difference between internal and external validity?
[Link] does a double-blind design reduce bias?