Filippou Dimitrios, MD, PHD
Associate Professor- General Surgeon
Sinou Natalia, MD
PhD candidate
■ Protects our organs (brain, intestines, etc.)
■ Provides a framework for the movement of
our body through our muscles
■ Stores minerals that our body needs to
function properly
■ Produces blood cells
■ Axial Skeleton:
consists of the 80 bones
that make up the trunk
of our body.
■ Appendicular
Skeleton:
consists of the other
126 bones in the
human body and make
up our limbs.
Sections:
• Skull
• Spine
(vertebral column)
• Ribcage
Sections:
• Arms and hands (upper
extremities)
• Legs and feet (lower
extremities)
• Shoulders
• Hips (pelvis)
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
A. Parts and regions of the body
1. Head
It consists of:
a. The cranial skeleton
■ encloses the brain and the
sensory organs
■ located posteriorly and
superiorly
b. The facial skeleton
■ encloses the nasal cavity
■ located anteriorly and
inferiorly
2. Trunk c. The abdomen
■ the lower part of the abdomen is the pelvis
■ the lower part of the pelvis is the perineum
■ the abdominal cavity contains the organs of
digestion such as the liver, stomach, and
It consists of the neck, thorax, and intestinal tract; it also contains the excretory
abdomen. organs such as the kidneys, urinary bladder,
etc.
a. The neck ■ the pelvic cavity:
■ connects the head with the thorax – contains the reproductive organs
■ 2 parts: (except the testes)
– nape = posteriorly – is a continuation of the abdominal
– throat = anteriorly cavity
– also contains intestinal loops, the
b. The thorax sigmoid colon, and the rectum
■ encloses organs of the respiratory d. The central axis
and circulatory systems (lungs, ■ vertebral column
heart, etc.) ■ its upper part (cervical region) supports the
■ has the shape of a cone, with the head
base upwards (connected with the e. The back
neck and upper limbs) and the ■ posterior surface of the trunk
apex downwards (connected with
the abdomen)
3. Limbs
Divided into upper
and lower limbs.
a. Upper limb: the
arm, the forearm, the
hand
b. Lower limb: the
thigh, the leg, the foot
Planes and
regions
In order to determine
more precisely the
position of the
organs, we divide the
parts of the body into
smaller regions (by
using various
imaginary planes).
Anatomical Planes
There are four imaginary planes that pass
through the body in the anatomical position:
■ 1. The Median Plane
It is the imaginary vertical plane that passes longitudinally through the
body, dividing it into right and left halves (which are relatively symmetrical,
except for the position of the viscera).
■ 2. The Sagittal Planes
These are imaginary vertical planes that pass through the body parallel to
the median plane.
a. the median plane = the midsagittal plane
b. in description, a reference point is given
(e.g. sagittal plane passing through the middle of the clavicle)
■ 3. The Coronal (or Frontal) Planes
These are imaginary vertical planes that pass through the body at right
angles to the median plane, dividing it into anterior and posterior parts
(frontal).
■ 4. The Horizontal (or Transverse) Planes
These are imaginary planes that pass through the body at right angles to
both the median and the coronal planes. They are parallel to the horizon,
dividing the body into superior and inferior parts = transverse plane. In
description, a reference point is given.
Movements in Anatomical Planes
A. Sagittal Plane (Median and Sagittal Planes):
Movements occur forward and backward.
→ Flexion (bending, decreasing the angle between two body parts)
→ Extension (straightening, increasing the angle)
→ Hyperextension (extension beyond the normal range)
B. Coronal / Frontal Plane:
Movements occur side to side.
→ Abduction (movement away from the midline)
→ Adduction (movement toward the midline)
→ Lateral flexion (side bending of the trunk or neck)
C. Transverse / Horizontal Plane:
Movements are rotational.
→ Internal (medial) rotation
→ External (lateral) rotation
→ Pronation and Supination (for the forearm)
→ Horizontal abduction/adduction (especially at the shoulder joint)
Anatomical Planes and Movements
Axis of Main
Plane Examples
Movement Movements
Flexion,
Frontal (side-to- Bending forward,
Sagittal Plane Extension,
side axis) nodding, kicking
Hyperextension
Jumping jacks,
Abduction,
Sagittal (front-to- side bending,
Coronal (Frontal) Adduction,
back axis) raising arms
Lateral flexion
sideways
Rotation
(internal/externa
Vertical l), Pronation, Turning head,
Transverse
(longitudinal Supination, twisting trunk,
(Horizontal)
axis) Horizontal forearm rotation
abduction/adduc
tion
The Anatomical Position
• All descriptive terms are
expressed in relation to the
anatomical position, with which
each part of the body can be
related to any other.
• In the anatomical position, a
person stands upright (or lies
supine) with the head and
eyes facing forward, the upper
limbs with palms facing
forward, and the lower limbs
together with toes pointing
forward.
• Patients are always
described in the anatomical
position (or as if they were in
the anatomical position).
■ Long bones
■ Short bones
■ Flat bones
■ Irregular bones
■ (Sesamoid bones)
o Longer than wide
o Carry most the load of our daily activities
o Crucial for skeletal mobility
o Examples: thigh bone (femur), tibia, and fibula
■ Structure:
– Diaphysis: main shaft composed of compact bone
■ Periosteum: membrane of living cells in diaphysis that allow
tendons and muscles to attach themselves to bones
■ Medullary cavity: hole that contains bone marrow
– Bone marrow: stores fat, produces blood cells, and
plays an important part in the body’s immune system
– Epiphysis (2 portions): part that is composed of cancellous
bone and articular cartilage
o Approximately about as wide as long
o Provide support and stability at vital joint areas of the skeletal
system
o Examples: wrist/carpal bones and ankle/tarsal bones
o Protect vital softer tissues
o Provide a surface for
muscle attachments
o Bones which, from their peculiar form,
cannot be grouped/defined like the other
types of bones
o Protect nervous tissue
■ Found in locations where a tendon passes over a joint, such as
the hand, knee, and foot.
■ Functionally, they act to protect the tendon and to increase its
mechanical effect.
Bones have two inside
parts:
■ Compact bone
■ Cancellous, or
spongy, bone
So named because of
its
holey appearance.
■ Compact bone:
– Supports the whole body
– Protects organs
– Provides levers for movement
– Stores and releases chemical elements (calcium)
– Dense, smooth and very strong
– Contains living cells which help make repairs if a bone is
injured or broken.
■ Cancellous/spongy bone:
– Typically occurs at the ends of long bones, proximal to
joints and within the interior of vertebrae
– Spongy and light weight
– Also, like compact bone, contains living cells which help
make repairs if a bone is injured or broken.
The tissue that connects bones to other bones
■ Joint: location where two or
more bones make contact.
■ Joints allow movement and
provide mechanical
support.
■ There is a cartilage cushion
in between the bones to
keep them from touching
directly – which would hurt!
Muscle
Tendons: attach muscles
to bone.
They are made out of a
tough connective tissue
and are capable of Tendon
stretching to allow for
movement.
Bone
Functions
of Joints
■ Permit mobility
■ Provide stability
■ Absorb shock
Classification
of Joints
■ Fibrous joints
■ Cartilaginous
joints
■ Synovial joints
Fibrous
Joints
■ Sutures of skull
■ Syndesmosis
(tibia-fibula)
■ Gomphosis
(tooth-socket)
Cartilaginous Joints
■ Synchondroses
■ Symphyses
■ Examples: intervertebral discs, pubic
symphysis
Synovial
Joints
■ Most common
joint type
■ Freely movable
■ Examples: knee,
shoulder, hip
Articular cartilage
Synovial Joint capsule
Joint
Structure Synovial fluid
Ligaments
Hinge
Joints
■ Elbow, knee
■ Allow flexion and
extension
Ball-and-
Socket
Joints
■ Shoulder, hip
■ Allow movement
in all directions
Pivot Joints
■ Atlas-axis joint
■ Proximal radioulnar
joint
Saddle
Joints
■ Carpometacarpal
joint of thumb
■ Movements in
two planes
Plane
Joints
■ Intercarpal joints
■ Allow
sliding/gliding
movements
Condyloid
Joints
■ Wrist joint
■ Flexion,
extension,
abduction,
adduction
Joint
■ Flexion/Extension
■ Abduction/Adduction
Movements I
Joint
Movements
II
■ Rotation
■ Circumduction
■ Gliding
Knee
Joint
■ Largest synovial
joint
■ Ligaments: ACL,
PCL, MCL, LCL
■ Menisci for shock
absorption
Shoulder
Joint
■ Ball-and-socket
■ High mobility, low
stability
■ Prone to
dislocation
Hip Joint
■ Ball-and-socket
■ Stable due to
deep acetabulum
■ Strong ligaments
Elbow Joint
■ Hinge joint
■ Flexion/extension
■ Stability from
ligaments
Wrist
Joint
■ Condyloid
■ Wide range of
movement
Spine
Joints
■ Facet joints
■ Intervertebral
discs
■ Allow flexibility of
vertebral column
Temporomandibular
Joint
■ Unique synovial
joint
■ Hinge and gliding
movements
Stability
of Joints
■ Role of ligaments
■ Role of muscles
■ Shape of
articular surfaces
Common Joint Disorders
Arthritis Dislocations
Sprains and
ligament
tears
Arthritis Types
Osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Gouty arthritis
Imaging of Joints
X-ray MRI
CT Ultrasound
Clinical Relevance
Sports
Orthopedics
medicine
Rehabilitation
Ligaments
Connective
Provide stability
tissue
and limit
connecting
movement
bones
Functions of Ligaments
Prevent
Stabilize Guide joint
excessive
joints motion
movement
Knee
Ligaments
■ Anterior cruciate
ligament (ACL)
■ Posterior cruciate
ligament (PCL)
■ Medial collateral
ligament (MCL)
■ Lateral collateral
ligament (LCL)
Shoulder
Ligaments
■ Glenohumeral
ligaments
■ Coracohumeral
ligament
■ Role in shoulder
stability
Ankle
Ligaments
■ Lateral ligaments
(anterior
talofibular,
calcaneofibular,
posterior
talofibular)
■ Medial (deltoid)
ligament
Spinal
Ligaments
■ Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
■ Posterior
longitudinal
ligament
■ Ligamentum
flavum
■ Interspinous and
supraspinous
ligaments
Sprains: stretched
or torn ligaments
Ligament Common in ankle
Injuries and knee
Graded I-III
severity
Healing of Ligaments
Limited
Slow healing
blood supply
Importance
of
rehabilitation
Questions
Thank you !!