Chapter 2: Cells
LO:
Describe and compare the structure of an animal cell with a plant cell
Describe the functions of each structure found in the plant, animal and bacterial cell
Name some specialised cell and their functions
Remember the magnification equation and be able to use it
Animal & plant cells
Animal cell structure
The main features of animal cells:
o They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Cells do not have cellulose cell walls
o Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis)
o They contain carbohydrates stored as glycogen
Animal cell diagram
A typical animal cell
Plant cell structure
The main features of plant cells:
o They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
o They contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
o Carbohydrates are stored as starch or sucrose
Plant cell diagram
A typical plant cell
Structure Function
Nucleus Contains the DNA (genetic material) which controls the activities of the cell
A gel like substance composed of water and dissolved solutes
Cytoplasm Supports the internal structures of the cell
Site of many chemical reactions (including anaerobic respiration)
Holds the cell together separating the inside of the cell from the outside
Cell membrane
Controls which substances enter or leave the cell
Found in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes
The site of protein synthesis
Mitochondria The site of aerobic respiration
Plant and animal cell structure and function
Cell structure diagram
An animal and plant cell as seen under a light microscope
Plant cell structure and function
Structure Function
Made of cellulose (a polymer of glucose)
Cell wall
Gives the cell extra support, defining its shape
Chloroplast Contains the green chlorophyll pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
Contains cell sap: a solution of sugar and salt
Permanent vacuole Used for storage of certain materials
Helps to support the shape of the cell
Bacteria cells
Bacteria cell structure
Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological characteristics:
o They are microscopic single-celled organisms
o Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
o Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm
o Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also floating in the cytoplasm) that
contain extra genes to those found in the chromosomal DNA
o They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound organelles found in animal and
plant cells
Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella (plural). These are long, thin, whip-like
tails attached to bacteria that allow them to move
Examples of bacteria include:
o Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk)
o Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia)
Bacteria cell diagram
A typical bacterial cell
Identifying cell structures & function
Within the cytoplasm, the following organelles are visible in almost all cells except prokaryotes when looking
at higher magnification (ie using an electron microscope):
o Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the cytoplasm
o Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached to a system of
membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the microscope; this gives rise to
its name of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
o Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification - these are small circular structures found
moving throughout the cytoplasm
Identifying cell structures under a microscope
Structures in an animal cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope
Structures in a plant cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope
Producing New Cells
The cells in your body need to be able to divide to help your body grow and repair itself
Cells grow and divide over and over again
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
Specialised Cells
Specialised cells in animals
Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics to perform particular functions.
Genes in the nucleus control these differences
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells develop the structure and
characteristics needed to be able to carry out their functions
Specialised Cells in Animals Table
Diagrams of specialised cells in animals:
Diagrams of specialised cells in plants:
Levels that makes up the organism
Levels of organisation
Names and functions of organ system
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Most incorrect answers here come from not
being able to identify a tissue, so it’s worth
making sure you understand and remember
that tissues are always made up of only one
type of cell.
Magnification Formula
Calculating magnification and specimen size using millimetres as units
Magnification is calculated using the following equation:
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle:
Magnification equation
Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy when you remember the
triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place your finger over it and whatever is left is what you do, so:
o Magnification = image size / actual size
o Actual size = image size / magnification
o Image size = magnification x actual size
Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’
Examiner Tips and Tricks
This skill most frequently appears in Papers 5 and 6 (although it also appears in the multiple-choice and occasionally
the theory paper), and you will have to calculate either magnification, drawing size, or actual size in at least one
paper. To ensure you do not lose marks:
1. Always look at the units that have been given in the question - if you are asked to measure something, most
often you will be expected to measure it in millimetres, NOT in centimetres - double check the question to
see!
2. Learn the equation triangle for magnification and write it on the page straight away
3. Don’t forget that magnification has NO UNITS - students often lose a mark because they put one in