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Chapter 1: Fundamentals

Objectives

By the end of this fisrt chapter, the student will be able to:

 Understand the different states of matter and distinguish between the qualitative and
quantitative aspects of matter.
 To provide examples of the importance of chemistry in everyday life.
 Understand the notion of quantity of matter and all types of concentration in
chemistry.

Introduction

The aim of general chemistry, and specifically the structure of matter, is to study the chemical
concepts that enable us to describe the composition of matter and understand the nature of
chemical reactions.

These concepts make it possible to predict most of the properties of atoms and the way they
combine to form molecules. Chapter 1 starts with the basics to give an overview of matter and
its macroscopic aspects.

Matter is anything that has mass and volume. The definition of matter is often taken to mean
anything composed of atoms and molecules, so when zooming a sample of matter with a
powerful microscope, we can see different shapes and different things.

Thus, matter is anything made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

1- Classification of matter

Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition—elements, compounds,and
mixtures..
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a-An element is the simplest type of matter with unique physical and chemical properties. It
consists of only one kind of atom and, therefore, cannot be broken down into a simpler type of
matter by any physical or chemical methods. Each element has a name.
b-A compound consists of two or more different elements that are bonded chemically. Unlike
an element, a compound can be broken down into simpler substances—its component elements.

c-A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are
physically mixed together, not chemically combined. The components retain their individual
properties, can be present in any proportion, and can be separated by physical changes.

Most of the matter around us consists of mixtures of pure substances. Gasoline, soil, and air
are all mixtures. The main characteristic of a mixture is that it has variable composition.
Mixtures can be classified as homogeneous (having visibly indistinguishable parts) or
heterogeneous (having visibly distinguishable parts).

d-A homogeneous mixture is called a solution. Air is a solution consisting of a mixture of

gases. is a complex liquid solution. Steal is a solid solution of iron and carbon. Sand in water
and iced tea with ice cubes are examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

e-Heterogeneous mixtures usually can be separated into two or more homogeneous mixtures
or pure substances (for example, the ice cubes can be separated from the tea).
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2- Identifying physical and chemical changes

To understand how matter is classified by its chemical constitution, we must distinguish

between physical and chemical changes and between physical and chemical properties.

a- A physical change is a change in the form of matter but not in its chemical identity. Changes
of physical state are examples of physical changes.

For instance, you can dissolve sodium chloride (table salt) in water. The result is a clear liquid,
like pure water.

b-A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is a change in which one or more kinds of matter
are transformed into a new kind of matter or several new kinds of matter. The rusting of iron,
during which iron combines with oxygen in the air to form a new material called rust, is a
chemical change. The original materials (iron and oxygen) combine chemically and cannot be
separated by any physical [Link] recover the iron and oxygen from rust requires a chemical
change or a series of chemical changes.
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3- States of matter

There are three states of matter: solid; liquid and gas. They

have different properties, which can be explained by

looking at the arrangement of their particles.

a-Solids: Solids contain particles arranged in a lattice

structure. The particles vibrate in their fixed positions. This
explains properties of solids:

They can’t be compressed (particles are already tightly packed together).

b-Liquids: Liquids contain particles that roll around each other and settle on the bottom of their
container. The particles are generally slightly further apart than in a solid. (Water is an exception
– ice particles are slightly further apart than liquid water, which is why ice floats.) This explains
properties of liquids:
• They change shape when poured into a different container (particles roll over each other and
settle on the bottom).
• They have constant volume (particles are close together).
• They are slightly compressible. (There are slight spaces between particles.)

c-Gases: Gases contain particles that move around very quickly. The particles travel in straight
lines until they bounce off another particle or a surface. Gas particles are widely spaced and
tend to be only slightly attracted to each other. This explains properties of a gas:
• They fill available space (slight attraction between particles).
• They are very compressible (particles are widely spaced).
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changing state of matter

Melting Point: This is the temperature at which a substance transitions from a solid state to a
liquid state.
Boiling Point: This is the temperature at which a substance transitions from a liquid state to a
gaseous state.
Sublimation Temperature: This is the temperature at which a substance transitions directly
from a solid state to a gaseous state without passing through the liquid state.
Condensation Temperature: This is the temperature at which a substance transitions from a
gaseous state to a liquid state.
Freezing Point: This is the temperature at which a substance transitions from a liquid state to
a solid state.
4- Extensive and Intensive Properties
Some variables are dependent on the amount of substance present; these are called extensive
properties. On the other hand, intensive properties are independent of the amount of substance.
Mass and volume, for example, are extensive properties, but density is an intensive property.
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5- Notions of Mole, Molecular Mass, Atomic Mass and Avogadro's Number

a- Avogadro's number

The specific number of molecules in one gram-mole of a substance, defined as the molecular
weight in grams, is 6.02214076 × 1023, a quantity called Avogadro’s number, or the Avogadro
constant. For example, the molecular weight of oxygen is 32.00, so that one gram-mole of
oxygen has a mass of 32.00 grams and contains 6.02214076 × 1023 molecules.
b- The mole

Since any sample of matter contains a very large number of atoms, a unit of measurement was
created to count them, the mole.
A mole of any substance contains Avogadro's number 6.022 x 1023 entities of that substance.
1 mole of atoms or molecules =6.02 x 1023atoms or molecules

c- Molar weight (MW)

Molar weight (MW) is the mass of one mole of a substance in grams (g/mol). The MW of a
molecule is a sum of relative atomic weights Ar (expressed in grams per mole) of all elements
building the molecule. The values of MW are found in the Periodic table.
Example: the MW of H = 1, N = 14, O = 16
molar weight of HNO3 = 1x1 + 1x14 + 3x16 = 63 g/mol.

d- Density

Density of a solution (ρ) is the mass of a specified volume of

the solution
(g/cm3 = g/mL = kg/dm3 = kg/L); it is often labeled on a
bottle containing the solution.
Example: ρ = 1,8 g/mL means that 1 mL of the solution
weights 1,8 g).

e- Molar volume

This is the volume occupied by one mole of substance in the gaseous state. Under Normal
Pressure and Temperature conditions (P= 1 Atm, T= 0°C=273 K), one mole of gaseous
substance occupies a volume of 22.4 L.
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f- Atomic mass unit (AMU)

In physics and chemistry, a unit for expressing masses of atoms, molecules, or subatomic
particles. An atomic mass unit1 is equal to 1/12 the mass of a single atom of carbon-12. The
mass of an atom consists of the mass of the nucleus plus that of the electrons, so the atomic
mass unit is not exactly the same as the mass of the proton or neutron. Atomic mass units are
also called daltons (Da), for chemist John Dalton.

6- Law of Matter Conservation (Antoine Lavoisier)

the law of conservation of mass was discovered by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789 (French chemist),
this law states that in chemical reactions the total mass of reagents equals the total mass of
products. No atoms are lost or created during chemical reactions, only rearranged, maintaining
a consistent mass throughout.
𝑎𝐴+𝑏𝐵→𝑐𝐶+𝑑𝐷
The reacting species A and B are called reagents and the resulting species C and D are called
products. The chemical reaction must obey the law of conservation:
- Of mass (the mass of the product formed must be equal to the mass of the reagents)
- Of charge
- Of matter.
a- Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a
chemical reaction. It is based on the chemical equation and on the relationship between mass
and moles.
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b- Balancing Chemical Equations

To balance the equation, you select coefficients that will make the numbers of atoms of each
element equal on both sides of the equation.

Look at the chemical equation for atoms of elements that occur in only one substance on each
side of the equation. Begin by balancing the equation in one of these atoms.

c- The limiting reactant

The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that is entirely consumed when a
reaction goes to completion. A reactant that is not completely consumed is often referred to as
an excess reactant. Once one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops. This means that:

The moles of product are always determined by the starting moles of limiting reactant.

7- Qualitative aspect of matter

a- The solution: This is a homogeneous mixture of pure substances that do not react with
each other. The majority constituent (In large proportion) is called solvent and the
dissolved substances are solutes.
b- Solvent :the component of a solution which dissolves the other component in itself is
called solvent. A solvent constitutes the larger component of the solution.
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c- Solute the component of the solution which dissolves in the solvent is called solute. The
solute is the smaller component of the solution.

For example, a solution of sugar in water is solid in the liquid. Here, sugar is the solute
and water is the solvent.

d- DilutionDiluting a solution means obtaining a new solution that is less concentrated

than the initial by adding solvent. The initial solution is called the stock-solution, and
the diluted solution is called the sub-solution. After dilution, the quantity of substance
is the same. We can write :

Before dilution: : 𝑛1 = 𝐶1. 𝑉1 ;𝑛2 = 𝐶2. 𝑉2

After dilution:Number of moles is the same: 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 ⇒ 𝐶1. 𝑉1 = 𝐶2. 𝑉2

8- Concentrations
a- Molarity or (Molar concentration )

Molarity or (Molar concentration ) (M or Mol/L), is a useful concentration unit for many

applications in chemistry. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute in exactly 1
liter (1 L) of the solution:

b- Mass concentration

Mass concentration ) (g/L), is defined as the weight of solute in exactly 1 liter (1 L) of the
solution:

c- Normality

Normality is defined as the number of equivalents per liter of solution, where the definition of
an equivalent depends on the reaction taking place in the solution.
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d- Mole and mass Fraction

- Fraction

If the solution has a solvent and the solute, a mole fraction gives a concentration as the ratio of
one component to the total components present in the solution. It is denoted by x. Suppose we
have a solution containing A as a solute and B as the solvent.

- Mole fraction

Let nA and nB be the number of moles of A and B present in the solution respectively. So, mole
fractions of A and B are given as:

- Mass fraction

Let mA and mB be the weight of A and B present in the solution respectively. So, mass fractions
of A and B are given as:

- Mole Percentage
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- Masse pourcentage

e- Mass by Volume Percentage (W/V)

It is defined as the mass of a solute dissolved per 100mL of the solution.

Mass of solute In 100 mL of solution

f- Mass Percentage (w/w):

It is defined as the mass of a solute contained in 100g of the solution.

Mass of solute (g) 100 g of solution

g- Volume Percentage (V/V)

It is defined as the volume of a solute contained in 100 mL of the solution

Volume of solute (mL) 100 mL of solution