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DNA: The Molecule of Heredity
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
2 functions: Hold genetic information and make identical
copy of itself
Is a type of nucleic acid
What chromosomes (and genes) are made of
Made up of repeating nucleotide subunits
1 nucleotide looks like:
Nitrogenous
Phosphate Deoxyribose
Base
Group Sugar
4 types: Adenine (A)
2 strands so bases can pair up Guanine (G)
o A binds T only Cytosine (C)
o C binds G only Thymine (T)
Strand 1 Strand 2
Remember
P P
S A T S DNA is like an Oreo
s
P P
S C G S Phophates + sugars = cookies
Bases = cream filling
Phosphates + sugars Bases on the inside (Bases fit
on the outside like puzzle pieces)
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Shape is a double helix
o Double helix: 2 spirals wound around each other
o Rosalind Franklin took an X-ray photo of DNA
o James Watson and Francis Crick interpreted the
photo and discovered the double helix structure
(They won the Nobel Prize)
Codon: Group of 3 bases
Genes: stretch of DNA that codes for a trait
o The code is the order of the bases (letters)
o Genes are hundreds or thousands of bases long
Eye color gene Hair color gene
Dimples gene
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Chargaff’s Rule
In DNA, the amount of A = the amount of T
the amount of C = the amount of G
Purines: adenine and guanine ( double ringed)
Pyrimidines : are thymine and cytosine (single ring)
DNA is complementary
Complementary: bases on one strand match up with the
bases on the other strand (A-T and G-C)
Example: Strand 1- ATG GGC CTA
Strand 2- TAC CCG GAT
Replication
Process by which DNA copies itself. Occurs during S phase
of interphase.
Happens when chromosomes copy themselves before
mitosis and meiosis
Starts when DNA helicase attaches to a DNA molecule and
unzips the two strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds
between nitrogen bases.
Free floating nucleotides in nucleus bind to complementary
bases on opposite strands.
DNA polymerase binds the sugar to phosphate bonds and
proofreads for any errors. If base pair is wrong than the
enzyme will remove it and replace with correct base.
About 100 sections get replicated simultaneously per
strand on both sides.
Takes about 8-10 hrs to replicate entire strand of DNA
which consists of about 3-4 billion base pairs.
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Semiconservative replication: Each new piece of DNA is
made up of 1 old strand and 1 new strand
Original DNA
DNA unzips
Each original strand
grows a new strand
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DNA never ever leaves the nucleus
DNA is the master copy of the directions a cell needs to
live so it needs to be protected
DNA in But DNA in
the the cytoplasm
nucleus is can be
safe destroyed
RNA is a copy of DNA that goes out into the cytoplasm to tell
the cell what to do in order to stay alive
RNA: ribonucleic acid
You can always make more RNA so it’s ok if it gets
destroyed (You can’t make more DNA!!!)
DNA RNA
How many 2 1
strands?
Nucleotide Nitro- Nitro-
subunit Phos-
phate
Deoxyribose gen Phos- Ribose
gen
Sugar Base phate Sugar Base
Group Group
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Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Bases Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
T–A U–A
Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
G–C G–C
Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)
Transcription
Definition: RNA is made from 1 gene in DNA
The type of RNA made is called mRNA (messenger RNA)
because it sends a message from DNA to the cytoplasm
Uses mRNA To send a
DNA safe in the
message to the
nucleus
cytoplasm
Transcription: begins at the
promoter region
o Unzip one gene in DNA done
by RNA Polymerase
o Match up bases to one side of
a gene in DNA
o mRNA detaches from the
DNA when reaches terminator
region.
o mRNA moves out of the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm
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DNA: GAG AAC TAG TAC
RNA: CUC UUG AUC AUG
For figuring out RNA:
A binds U
C binds G
DNA mRNA
mRNA
Cytoplasm
of cell
Nucleus
Transcription Then the mRNA Once in the
happens in the that has been cytoplasm, the
nucleus. An made moves out mRNA is used to
RNA copy of a of the nucleus make a protein
gene is made. into the
cytoplasm
RNA editing: Before the mRNA leaves the nucleus the mRNA
must be edited. That is the introns (non-coding regions) must
be cut out and the exons (coding regions) must be spliced back
together.
How does mRNA tell the cell what to do?
mRNA is a message that codes for a protein
Proteins are made in the cytoplasm and then work to keep
the cell alive
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Translation (protein synthesis): Process of making a
protein or polypeptide.
Proteins are made up of amino acids (small building blocks)
There are 20 different types of amino acids
Protein
Amino Acids
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Nucleus
Process of Translation
1. mRNA moves out of
nucleus and into
cytoplasm Cytoplasm
2. mRNA attaches
to a ribosome
Ribosome
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
decodes the mRNA
and brings amino acids
to build up the protein
tRNA
Amino
acid
Anticodon (3 bases on
tRNA): Matches up to
codons on mRNA
4. Protein (chain of amino acids
connected by peptide bonds)
detaches from ribosome and
goes off to work in the cell
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Genetic Code
Code that matches codons in mRNA to amino acids on
tRNAs
mRNA
codons
(3 bases)
Amino Stop codon – codes for the
acids end of the mRNA (no amino
acid added)
1. Read your mRNA codon ACU
2. Find 1 base on the left, 2 base on the top, 3rd base on
st nd
the right. Find where they all cross in the chart.
3. Read your amino acid. Threonine
Different codons code for different amino acids!!!
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Central dogma of molecular biology
Transcription Translation
RNA Protein
DNA
Directions to Carries the
make proteins are directions to Work to keep
safely stored in the cytoplasm the cell alive
the nucleus
Mutation
a change in the DNA sequence
It’s a mistake that’s made during replication or
transcription
can be harmful: diseases or deformities
helpful: organism is better able to survive
neutral: organism is unaffected, Most are these
if a mutation occurs in a sperm or egg cell, that mutation is
passed onto offspring
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if a mutation occurs in a body cell, that mutation affects
only the organism and is not passed onto offspring
Types of mutations
1. Point mutations: Bases are mismatched (usually a
substitution mutation, one base gets replaced by another.
Harmful when: a mistake in DNA is carried into
mRNA and results in the wrong amino acid
Correct DNA Correct mRNA Correct amino acid
GAG
CTC CUC Leucine
Point mutation in DNA Mutated mRNA Wrong amino acid
GCG
CTC CGC Arginine
A should pair with T, but instead C is mismatched to T
Not harmful when: a mistake in DNA is carried into
mRNA but still results in the correct amino acid
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2. Frameshift mutations: bases are inserted or deleted
Are usually harmful because a mistake in DNA is
carried into mRNA and results in many wrong amino
acids which makes the wrong protein or none at all.
Correct DNA: ATA CCG TGA
TAT GGC ACT
Correct mRNA: UAU GGC ACU
Correct amino acids: Tyrosine Glycine Threonine
Extra inserted base shifts how we read the codons (3
bases), which changes the amino acids
Frameshift mutation ATG ACC GTG A
in DNA: TAC TGG CAC T
Mutated mRNA: UAC UGG CAC U
Wrong amino acids: Tyrosine Tryptophan Histadine
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3. Chromosomal mutations
Deletion: Part of or entire chromosome is missing
Inversion: Piece of chromosome breaks off and reattaches
in the reverse order.
Translocation: Piece of chromosome breaks off and
attaches on a another chromosome.
Causes of mutations
mutagens: anything that causes a change in DNA
examples: X rays, UV light, nuclear radiation, asbestos,
cigarette smoke