Design of crystal oscillators

Willy Sansen
KULeuven, ESAT-MICAS
Leuven, Belgium
[Link]@[Link]

Willy Sansen 10-05 221

Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 222

 The Barkhausen criterion

Vout = A(jω) Vε
F(jω)
Vf
Vf = F(jω) Vout
Vin Vε = F(jω) A(jω) Vε
Vout
Σ A(jω)
Vf
= A(jω) F(jω)
Vε
Vf
Oscillation if Vin = 0 or if = |A(jω)| |F(jω)| ≥ 1.0
Vε
Positive FB !
Vf
= Φ A + ΦF = 0 o
Ref. Barkhausen, Hirzel, Leipzig, 1935 Vε
Willy Sansen 10-05 223
 Split analysis

Yres + Ycirc
Zcircuit Yres + Ycirc = 0
1 1
+ =0
Zresonator Zres Zcir

Zcirc + Zres
=0
Zres Zcirc

Oscillation if Re (Zcirc+Zres) = 0 sets the minimum gain !

Im (Zcirc+Zres) = 0 sets the frequency !
Willy Sansen 10-05 224
Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 225

Crystal as resonator
1.66 fs in MHz if d in mm
d fs =
d
ε0 εr
quartz Cp = A εr ≈ 4.5
d
1 1
ωs2 = fs =
Ls Cs Rs (series) Ls Cs 2π Ls Cs
1 1
Ls ωs = Q ωs =
Csωs RsCs
Cp (package, parallel)
1 Ls 1
Q= Rs =
Rs Cs Q Csωs
Willy Sansen 10-05 226
Crystal parameters

Ls Cs Rs Xtal : fs = 10.000 MHz

Q = 105
Cs = 0.03 pF
Cp Cp ≈ 6 pF (≈ 200 Cs)

1 1
Ls ωs = Ls ≈ 8.4 mH Rs = = 5.3 Ω
Csωs Q Csωs

fs Ls Cs Rs Cp Q

100.0 kHz 52 H 49 fF 400 Ω 8 pF 0.8 105

1.000 MHz 2H 6 fF 24 Ω 3.4 pF 5.3 105
10.00 MHz 10 mH 26 fF 5Ω 8.5 pF 1.2 105

Willy Sansen 10-05 227

Series and parallel resonance
1
fr = L
L C R 2π LC

C
R
|Z| Cap.
|Z|
Ind.
R Ind. Cap.
- 90o + 90o + 90o - 90o

fr f fr f

Willy Sansen 10-05 228

Crystal impedance

s2LsCs+ sRsCs+ 1
Zs (s) =
LsCsCp RsCsCp
s (Cs+Cp ) (s2 +s + 1)
Cs+Cp Cs+Cp

|Zs (s)|

1
Cps
Rs
fs fp
f

Willy Sansen 10-05 229

 Crystal impedance at resonance
|Z| fp fs = 1.998 MHz
100 kΩ
Cs = 12.2 fF
Ls ≈ 0.52 H
Cp = 4.27 pF
100 Ω fs Rs = 82 Ω

Φ(Z) 100o 90o induct.

Crystal operates in
0o inductive region
if circuit is capacitive !

-100o -90o capac.

1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 2.01 2.02 MHz

Willy Sansen 10-05 2210

Series and parallel resonance

-j ω2 - ωs2 1 1 1 1
Zs(ω) = ωs = 2 ωp = 2 ( + )
ωCp ω2 - ωp 2 Ls Cs Ls Cp Cs
series parallel
1
Zs(ω) = Rs + jωLs +
jωCs

j ω ωs
Zs(ω) = Rs + ( - ) Frequency pulling factor
ωsCs ωs ω ω - ωs
p=
2p ωs
Zs(ω) ≈ Rs + j
ωCs
Ref. Vittoz, JSSC June 88, 774-783

Willy Sansen 10-05 2211

Series or parallel resonance ?
fp Cs
= 1+
fp = 89.000 kHz fs Cp
pp = 0.25 %
Cs
Cp ≈ 1+
2Cp
fm = 88.850 kHz
pm = 0.125 %
fp- fs
fs = 88.700 kHz pp =
fs
kHz
ps = 0
Cs
fm- fs Cs = 0.25 %
pm = = = 0.125 % 2Cp
fs 4Cp
Willy Sansen 10-05 2212
Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 2213

Single-transistor X-tal oscillator

Basic three-point oscillator

C3 C2

gm
C1

C3 C2 C3 C2 C3 C2

gm gm gm
C1 C1 C1
Pierce Colpitts : 1-pin X=D Santos : 1-pin X=G

Willy Sansen 10-05 2214

Single-transistor X-tal oscillator analysis
C3 = Cp + CDG

C3 Ls
C3
C2 Cs
gm Rs C2
C1 gm

Zs Zc C1
2p
Barkhausen : Zs + Zc = 0 Zs = Rs + j
ωCs
Re (Zc) = -Rs yields gm
2p
Im (Zc) = - yields f or p
ωCs Ref. Vittoz, JSSC June 88, 774-783
Willy Sansen 10-05 2215
Complex plane for 3-pt oscillator : Design crit.
Im
-Rs 0
Re
1
A gm = 0 Im0 ≈ -
C1C2
gm ω(C3 + )
2p C1+C2
ImA = - ≈ Im0
ωsCs Small p :
gmmax 1
Ø=
1 Large C1,2
ωC3 1 + C3 C1+C2
C1C2

1 Large circle:
B gm = ∞ Im∞ ≈ -
ωC3 Small C3
Willy Sansen 10-05 2216
Complex plane for 3-pt oscillator : Example
Im C1 = C2 = 3 pF
-6 kΩ -80 Ω -Rs 0 C3 = 0.5 pF
Re 20 MHz 80 Ω
A gm = 0 Im0 ≈ - 4 kΩ

2pA Cs
ImA = - pA =
ωCs C1C2
2 (C3 + )
gmmax C1+C2
≈ 3 mS Ø = 12 kΩ
gmA ≈ RsC1C2ωs2

≈ 11 µS
gmB ≈ 450 mS B gm = ∞ Im∞ ≈ - 16 kΩ

Willy Sansen 10-05 2217

Amplitude of oscillation

ids Ids

IDSA
t
Ids Ids IDSA Ids
Vgs = = Nonlinear (Bessel)
gmA IDSA gmA IDSA More spiked for
higher C1,2 !!!
2 V -V
… 2 GS T
π 2
kT
Vgs ≈ VGS - VT or 2n in wi
q
Large !
Willy Sansen 10-05 2218
Start-up of oscillation

τmin occurs at gm ≈ gmmax

Ls
τmin = Re (Zs) is half circle Ø
Re (Zs) + Rs
1 1
Re (Zs) = if C3<<C1
2 ωsC3
Rs << Re (Zs)
2 C3 400
τmin ≈ ≈ since C3 ≈ 200 Cs
ωsCs ωs

or also τmin ≈ 2Q Rs C3

Willy Sansen 10-05 2219

Power dissipation

In MOST : gmA ≈ ωs2RsC1C2 ≈ Rs(C1ωs)2

IDSA ≈ gmA VGS - VT ≈ 2 µA 6 µW
2
Vgs
In X-tal : Ic = = |Vgs| C1ωs ≈ |VGS - VT| C1ωs
ZC1
RsIc2 Rs
Pc = = |VGS - VT|2 (C1ωs)2
2 2
gmA
= |VGS - VT |2 ≈ 0.2 µW
2

Willy Sansen 10-05 2220

Design procedure for X-tal oscillators - 1

X-tal : fs fp Rs Cp (or fs Q Cs Cp ) (Q = 1/ ωsCs Rs)

1. Take : C3 > Cp but as small as possible

1 Cs 1 Cs C1 C2
Pulling factor p = ≈ CL = =
2 C + C1C2 2 CL 2 2
3
C1+C2
Cs
If p < it is a series oscillator (best !)
4Cp
If p > it is a parallel oscillator (not stable !)

Choose CL large (> C3 ), subject to power dissipation !

Willy Sansen 10-05 2221

Design procedure for X-tal oscillators - 2

ωs
2. Calculate gmA ≈ RsCL2ωs2 (≈ CLCL)
CsQ
and take gmStart ≈ 10 gmA

3. Choose VGS - VT , which gives the amplitude Vgs

gm(VGS - VT ) W
and current IDS = and
2 L
2 gm
and power P = (VGS - VT )
2
4. Verify that biasing RB > 1/ (RsC32ωs2)

Willy Sansen 10-05 2222

Single-transistor X-tal oscillator

Basic three-point oscillator

C3 C2

gm
C1

C3 C2 C3 C2 C3 C2

gm gm gm
C1 C1 C1
Pierce Colpitts : 1-pin X=D Santos : 1-pin X=G

Willy Sansen 10-05 2223

 Pierce X-tal oscillator

IB

C3 C2
VB RB
gm
C1

32 kHz 1.2 V 78 nA

Willy Sansen 10-05 2224

Colpitts X-tal oscillator

IB

vOUT vOUT
C2
VB C3
gm C3
C2

C1
C1

Crystal grounded : single-pin : X = D

Willy Sansen 10-05 2225
 Santos X-tal oscillator

iOUT IB (AGC)
VB RB C1
gm vOUT
RB
C1 vOUT C2 gm
C3
IB (AGC) C3
C2

Crystal grounded : single-pin : X = G

Ref. Santos, JSSC April 84, 228-236 Ref. Redman-White, JSSC Feb.90, 282-288

Willy Sansen 10-05 2226

Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 2227

Practical Pierce X-tal oscillator

C1 Cc
M5 M1
C2
Cs = 0.5 fF
C3 = 0.6 pF
M4 C1 = C2 = 2.8 pF
2 MHz
M6 ≈ 100 MΩ

gmA = 2 µS
IDSA = 80 nA
M3 M2
IDS= 350 nA
Vgs = 300 mV
Ref. Vittoz, JSSC June 88, 774-783

Willy Sansen 10-05 2228

Full schematic

Ref. Vittoz, JSSC June 88, 774-783

Willy Sansen 10-05 2229
Single-pin oscillator with crystal to Gate

C1 C2

RB
OUT
M1

fs = 9.9956 MHz Cs = 24.3 fF p = 0.8 10-3

fp = 10.012 MHz Co = 7.4 pF C1 = C2 = 50 pF
L = 10.4 mH gmA = 350 µS
R = 7.2 Ω (?) IDSA = 90 µA (VGS-VT = 0.5 V)

Willy Sansen 10-05 2230

Single-pin oscillator - 1

gm gm1 gm2
+ 1 + + 2 3

- - -

C1 RB
Cload C2

gm = Rs (Csω0)2 Positive FB dominant

at crystal frequency !
DC unstable !
Ref. van den Homberg, JSSC July 99, 956-961

Willy Sansen 10-05 2231

Single-pin oscillator - 2

1 2

10 MHz, 3.3 V, 0.35 mA

Ref. van den Homberg, JSSC July 99, 956-961

Willy Sansen 10-05 2232

X-tal oscillators with CMOS inverters

Large current peaks !

Bad PSRR !!

Willy Sansen 10-05 2233

Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 2234

Pierce X-tal oscillator

R2 C3 RL
IB
vOUT
C1 C2
C3 C2
VB RB
gm
R1
C1

Willy Sansen 10-05 2235

Colpitts X-tal oscillator

IB
vOUT
vOUT
C2
VB C3 C3
gm C2

C1 C1

Crystal grounded : single-pin : X = D

Willy Sansen 10-05 2236
 Santos X-tal oscillator

VB RB
gm

C1 vOUT
C3
IB (AGC)
C2

Crystal grounded : single-pin : X = G

Buffered output Ref. Santos, JSSC April 84, 228-236
Ref. Redman-White, JSSC Feb.90, 282-288

Willy Sansen 10-05 2237

98 GHz VCO in SiGe Bipolar technology

Colpitts 0.55 x 0.45 mm

12 mA at - 5 V
-97 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz
Ref. Prendl BCTM Toulouse 03

Willy Sansen 10-05 2238

Positive feedback circuits - 1

RL

Q1 Q2

vOUT
T = gm1 RL
RL > Rs

Ref. Nordholt, CAS 90, 175-182

Willy Sansen 10-05 2239

Positive feedback circuits - 2

600 Ω 200

vOUT Buffered ouput !

- 250 Ω

500 µA 250

Ref. Nordholt, CAS 90, 175-182

Willy Sansen 10-05 2240

Positive feedback circuits - 3

gmA = 8 mS

100 MHz

Ref. Nordholt, CAS 90, 175-182

Willy Sansen 10-05 2241

Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 2242

Voltage Controlled Oscillator

IB
RL L L RL 1
ωs =
LCD
CD Vc CD
gmA ≈ RL(CDωs)2
vOUT vOUT

dvout2 {∆ω} =
4 ωs 2
4kTRL(1 + ) ( ) df
3 ∆ω
Ref. Craninckx, ACD Kluwer 96, 383-400 ; JSSC May 97, 736-744

Willy Sansen 10-05 2243

Differential crystal Oscillator

R R

vOUT vOUT

IB IB

Willy Sansen 10-05 2244

Relaxation Oscillator

R R

vOUT vOUT

IB IB

Ref. Grebene, JSSC, Aug.69, 110-122; Gray, Meyer, Wiley, 1984.

Willy Sansen 10-05 2245
RC Oscillators : 3 x 60o = 180o
1
R R R fc =
2π RC
φ
C C C fc f
0
-45o
-90o
-60o at 1.73 fc

- Vout
+

Willy Sansen 10-05 2246

Wien Oscillator : 3 x Gain required

C R Vε 1 1 + 2τ s + τ2 s2
=
Vout 3 1 + 3τ s + τ2 s2
Vout
+ τ = RC
Vε
-
1
2R1 fosc =
φ 2π τ
C R
R1 f
0

Willy Sansen 10-05 2247

Voltage-controlled X-tal oscillator

± ∆C Res.

Wien bridge : R2 = 2 R1
Resonator 457 kHz
Tuning ± 5 kHz
Ref. Huang, JSSC June 88, 784-793

Willy Sansen 10-05 2248

Variable capacitance ± ∆C

Gm block ± ∆C
I2 Yin = sCd GmRd

25

RdCd block ± ∆Gm

with I2

Ref. Huang JSSC June 88, 784-793

Willy Sansen 10-05 2249

Gm block to generate ± ∆Gm

I1 = 90 µA
I2 = 0 … 180 µA Gm = B [(2βI1)1/2 - (2βI2)1/2]

Willy Sansen 10-05 2250

RdCd block as differentiator

Cd = 4 pF
Rd = 40 kΩ

Ref. Huang JSSC June 88, 784-793

Willy Sansen 10-05 2251

Table of contents

♦ Oscillation principles
♦ Crystals
♦ Single-transistor oscillator
♦ MOST oscillator circuits
♦ Bipolar-transistor oscillator circuits
♦ Other oscillators

Willy Sansen 10-05 2252

References X-tal oscillators -1
[Link], "Low-noise oscillators, PLL’s and synthesizers", in R. van de
Plassche, [Link], H. Huijsing, "Analog Circuit Design", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1997.
J. Craninckx, M. Steyaert, "Low-phase-noise gigahertz voltage-controlled
oscillators in CMOS", in H. Huijsing, R. van de Plassche, [Link], "Analog
Circuit Design", Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996, pp. 383-400.
Q.T. Huang, W. Sansen, M. Steyaert, [Link] Peteghem, "Design and
implementation of a CMOS VCXO for FM stereo decoders", IEEE Journal
Solid-State Circuits Vol. 23, No.3, June 1988, pp. 784-793.
E. Nordholt, C. Boon, "Single-pin crystal oscillators" IEEE Trans. Circuits.
Syst. Vol.37, No.2, Feb.1990, pp.175-182.
D. Pederson, [Link], “Analog integrated circuits for communications””,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991.

Willy Sansen 10-05 2253

References X-tal oscillators - 2
W. Redman-White, R. Dunn, R. Lucas, P. Smithers, "A radiation hard AGC
stabilised SOS crystal oscillator", IEEE Journal Solid-State Circuits Vol. 25,
No.1, Feb. 1990, pp. 282-288.
J. Santos, R. Meyer, "A one pin crystal oscillator for VLSI circuits", IEEE
Journal Solid-State Circuits Vol. 19, No.2, April 1984, pp. 228-236.
M. Soyer, "Design considerations for high-frequency crystal oscillators",
IEEE Journal Solid-State Circuits Vol. 26, No.9, June 1991, pp. 889-893.
E. Vittoz, M. Degrauwe, S. Bitz, "High-performance crystal oscillator circuits:
Theory and application", IEEE Journal Solid-State Circuits Vol. 23, No.3,
June 1988, pp. 774-783.
V. von Kaenel, E. Vittoz, D. Aebischer, " Crystal oscillators", in H. Huijsing,
R. van de Plassche, [Link], "Analog Circuit Design", Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1996, pp. 369-382.

Willy Sansen 10-05 2254

Appendix: Polar diagrams

Willy Sansen

[Link]@[Link]

Willy Sansen 10-05 2255

Amplitude, phase, Real & Imaginary

Im

| |= Re 2 + Im 2
| |
Im
φ tg(φ) =
Re Re

Re = | | cos (φ)
Im = | | sin (φ)

Willy Sansen 10-05 2256

Polar diagram of RC network - 1
Z R Im

0
R
Re
ω=∞
Z C 1
Cω
ω=0
Im 1
Z=R+
0 Cjω
Z C R Re
ω=∞

1
ω=
RC
ω=0

Willy Sansen 10-05 2257

Polar diagram of RC network - 2

Im
Z C
0 R
Re
ω=∞
R
1
ω=
RC
ω=0
Im
1
Z=R+ 0
Cjω Re
1
R=
ωC R=∞
R=0

Willy Sansen 10-05 2258

Polar diagram of RC network - 3
Im
0 R
Z Re
ω=∞ ω=0

R C
1
Im ω=
RC
0 R=0
Re
R
Z=
1 + RCjω 1
R=
ωC
1
-
ωC R=∞
Willy Sansen 10-05 2259
Polar diagram of RC network - 4
Im
Z 0 R
Re
R C ω=∞ ω=0

R 1
Z r Z=
1 + RCjω
0 r R+r
R Re
C ω=∞ ω=0

R 1
Z=r+ ω=
RC
1 + RCjω
Ref. Sansen, JSSC Dec.72, 492-498
Willy Sansen 10-05 2260
Polar diagram of RC network - 5

Z
R C Im Im
0 R=0 Re 0 Re
1 R=0
R -
Z= ωC2
Z C2 1 + RCjω
1
R=
ωC1
R C1
1
-
ωC R=∞ C1+C2
-
1 R ωC1C2 R = ∞
Z= +
jωC2 1 + RC1jω
Willy Sansen 10-05 2261
Circuit input impedance Zc

gm + 2 jωC1
Zc ≈
C1 C3
jωC3 (gm + jωC1)
C3
C2
if C3 << C1 = C2 gm = C1
Zc C1
For gm ≈ 0 Zc0 ≈ 2 /ωC1

For gm ≈ ∞ Zc∞ ≈ 1/ωC3

Willy Sansen 10-05 2262

Complex plane for 3-point oscillator
Im C2
-Rs 0 C3
C1
Re
1
A gm = 0 Im0 ≈ -
C1C2
gm ω(C3 + )
2p C1+C2
ImA = - ≈ Im0
ωsCs
gmmax 1 1
Ø=
ωC3 1 + C3 C1+C2
C1C2 C3
-
1 +
B gm = ∞ Im∞ ≈ -
ωC3
Willy Sansen 10-05 2263
 Calculation of gmA

Zc C3 1 gm + (C1+C2)s
= Zc =
C3s C1C2
RS gm + (C1+C2 + )s
C3
gmA C2 = C1

C1 Re (Zc) = Rs
2C3
For small gm : gmA ≈ Rs (Ceff ωs )2 Ceff = C1 (1 + )
C1
≈ C1
C1
Maximum negative resistance is 1/ 2ωC3 at gmmax = ωC1
C3
Willy Sansen 10-05 2264