Biology

Cell Cycle and Cell Division

• The cell cycle is a process by which duplication of

genome, formation of other organelles and
subsequent division into two daughter cells takes
place.
• All these processes, that is cell division, DNA
replication and cell growth, are tightly regulated and
under genetic control.
Phases of Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle can be divided into two major phages
based on cellular activities that are readily visible
with a light microscope:
 • Interphase
• The interphase or the resting phase is the part of the cell
cycle during which a cell grows, replicates cell organelles
and DNA, assembles the “ machinery” of mitosis and
condenses its DNA. It is the period between two cell
divisions.
The interphase is divided into the following three phases:
1. Gap 1(G₁) phase: G₁ represents the time gap between
the last cell division and the start of DNA replication. It
is also known as the first growth phase, post-mitotic
phase and pre-synthetic phase. It may last from few
minutes to several days depending on the frequency of
division of the cell. It is also characterized by formation
of biochemical and cellular organelles like mitochondria,
Golgi complex, ribosomes, etc.
 2. Synthesis (S) phase: During the S stage of interphase, the
DNA of the cell is replicated in the nucleus in
preparation for cell division and its amount doubles. The
chromosome number, however, remains the same. The
centriole present in the cytoplasm also duplicates. It is
also known as invisible stage of M-phase, as replication
of chromosome occurs in this phase.
3. Gap 2 (G₂) phase: G₂ represents the time gap between
the end of DNA replication and the beginning of cell
division. It is also known as second growth phase,
pre-mitotic and post-synthetic phase. During the G₂ stage
of interphase, the supercoils of DNA condense into
tightly compacted bodies that become visible as
chromosomes during mitosis. Protein synthesis also
takes place in the G₂ phase which is required for
preparation of mitosis. It is also accompanied by cell
growth.
• Mitosis (M) Phase: In M phase, the duplicated chromosomes
are separated into two nuclei and this is followed by
cytokinesis during which the entire cell divides into two
daughter cells. These are diploid and contain identical set of
chromosomes and exactly the same information as parent cell.
The cells at completion of mitosis can enter the G₁ phase of
next cycle or are arrested at this stage (G₀).
• G₀ Phase: The cells that have stopped dividing, whether
temporarily or permanently, are said to be in the G₀ or
quiescent stage to distinguish them from the typical G₁ phase
cells that may soon enter S phase. The cells in G₀ stage are
metabolically active, but they must receive a growth promoting
signal to proceed from G₀ into G₁ phase and thus re-enter the
cell cycle.
Some cells, such as nerve cells, muscle cells or red blood cells
that are highly specialized lack the ability to divide. Cells that
normally do not divide (such as liver cells) can be induced to
begin DNA synthesis and divide when given appropriate
stimulus. Some cells, such as stem cells in adult tissues have
high level of mitotic activity.
 M Phase
In mitosis, the cell diverts its energy to chromosome
segregation. As a result, most metabolic activities of the
cell, including transcription (formation of RNA from
DNA) and translation (formation of protein from mRNA),
are curtailed during mitosis, and the cell becomes
relatively unresponsive to external stimuli.
Mitosis is generally divided into four stages:
1. Prophase: It is the longest stage of mitosis. During
prophase, the first stage of mitosis, the duplicated
chromosomes are prepared for segregation and the
mitotic machinery is assembled.
2. Metaphase: The dissolution of the nuclear envelop
marks the start of metaphase, the second phase of
mitosis, during which mitotic spindle assembly is
completed and the chromosomes are moved into position
at the centre of the cell.
3. Anaphase: The two main events of anaphase are the
splitting of sister chromatids of each chromosome
and their movement toward opposite poles. The
splitting of the chromosomes of the metaphase plate
takes place in synchrony at the onset of anaphase,
and the chromatids (now referred to as
chromosomes, because they are no longer attached
to their sisters) begin their poleward migration. The
movement of the chromosomes towards the poles is
referred to as anaphase.
4. Telophase: During telophase, daughter cells return
to the telophase condition, the mitotic splindle
disassembles, the chromosomes becomes more and
more dispersed, the nuclear envelop, Golgi complex
and endoplasmic reticulum reform and the nucleolus
disappears.
 Cytokinesis
Mitosis accomplishes the segregation of duplicated chromosomes
into daughter nuclei, but the cell is divided into two daughter
cells by a separate process called cytokinesis.
1. Cytokinesis in animal cells: In most animal cells, an
invagination of the cell surface appears during anaphase in a
narrow band around the cell. With time the indentation
deepens to form a furrow that completely encircles the cell.
This method is also known as cleavage method.
2. Cytokinesis in plant cells: The plant cells are enclosed by a
relatively inextensible cell wall and hence they undergo
cytokinesis by a very different mechanism. In contrast to
animal cells, which are constricted by a furrow that advances
inward from the outer surface, plant cells must construct an
extracellular wall inside a living cell. Wall formation starts in
the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing
lateral walls. The formation of the new cell wall begins with
the construction of a simpler precursor, which is called the
cell plate.
 Significance of Mitosis
Generally, mitosis takes place in diploid cells. But it is
also observed in haploid cells in fungi and some plant
gametophytes. The following points highlight the
significance of mitosis:
1. Genetic stability: Mitosis leads to production of
cells that are genetically identical to their mother
cell.
2. Growth: It also serves as the basis for producing
new cells and eventually results in the growth of
multicellular organisms such as animals and plants.
The ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm is
disturbed due to cell growth. So, mitosis becomes
essential to maintain this ratio. It also helps in cell
repair or replacement of tissues.
 Meiosis

The offspring is produced by sexual reproduction as a result of the union of

two gametes. Each of these gametes contains a haploid set of
chromosomes. Fertilization leads to the doubling of the chromosome
number. This takes place through a process known as meiosis. It is the
process that includes two sequential nuclear divisions, producing haploid
daughter nuclei that contain only one member of each pair of homologous
chromosomes, thus reducing the number of chromosomes to half. It is
often called reduction division. It takes place in the reproductive cells. The
cell in which meiosis takes place is called a meiocyte.
The process of meiosis involves two cell divisions. Chromosome
duplication does not occur between the two divisions but occurs prior to it.
Meiosis I is called heterotypic or reduction division as the chromosome
number is halved. Meiosis II is called hemotypic or equatorial division
because chromosome number is same as that after meiosis I.
Meiosis occurs in diploid parent cells each containing pairs of
chromosomes. These pairs are referred to as homologous chromosomes or
homologues. The two chromosomes in a pair contain the same linear
sequence of genes and the corresponding genes on the two chromosomes
are called alleles (alternative forms of the same gene).
The process of meiosis consists of two sets of stages, called Meiosis I
and Meiosis II. In these two cycles of nuclear and cell division, there is
only one cycle of DNA replication.
 Meiosis I
Meiosis I reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to
haploid condition. It is therefore known as heterotypic division.
It consists of four phases.
1. Prophase I: It is further divided into five stages: leptotene,
zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis. The important
characteristics of each stage is listed below:
(a) Leptotene: Chromosomal compaction.
(b) Zygotene: Chromosome pairing or synapsis and formation
of synaptonemal complex (SC).
(c) Pachytene: Recombination nodules and crossing over
between non-sister chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes.
(d) Diplotene : Chiasmata formation, separation of
homologous chromosomes.
(e) Diakinesis: Termination of chiasmata, assembly of
meiotic spindle, recompaction of the chromosomes,
breakdown of the nuclear envelop and the movement of
tetrads to the metaphase plate.
2. Metaphase I: It is characterized by alignment of bivalent
chromosomes on the equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase I: It is characterized by separation of homologous
chromosome. But, the sister chromatids still remain attached to one
another as they move together.
4. Telophase I: It shows nucleoplasm formation and appearance of
nuclear envelop.
Interkinesis is the short-lived stage between two meiotic divisions.

Meiosis II
Meiosis II also consists of four phages:
1. Prophase II: It is characterized by breakdown of nuclear envelop and
recompaction of chromosomes.
2. Metaphase II: It is characterized by lining up of chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
3. Anaphase II: Synchronous splitting of the centromeres occurs in
anaphase II leading to the separation of sister chromatids and their
movement towards the opposite poles.
4. Telophase II: It is characterized by formation of nuclear envelop and
followed by cytokinesis leading to the formation of tetrad cells.
 Significance of Meiosis
The points of significance of meiosis are as follows:
1. Conservation of chromosome number: The haploid
cells formed as a result of meiosis either directly
becomes gametes or divide to produce cells that later
become gametes. Meiosis, therefore, plays a key role in
reproduction among eukaryotes.
2. Genetic Variability : The haploid cells are different
because the homologous chromosomes pair and separate
from each other during meiosis I. Half the daughter cells
produced by the first meiotic division receive the
maternally inherited homologue, and the other half
receives the paternally inherited homologue. Thus, from
the end of first meiotic division, the products of meiosis
are destined to be different. These differences are
compounded by the number of chromosome pairs that
separate during meiosis I. Each of the pairs separate
independently.
Cell Death
• Necrosis is when cells die accidentally due to, say, trauma (ex.
a poisonous spider bite), or lack of nutrients (ex. lack of blood
supply).
• Necrosis begins with cell swelling, the chromatin gets
digested, the plasma and organelle membranes are disrupted,
the ER vacuolizes, the organelles break down completely and
finally the cell lyses, spewing its intracellular content and
eliciting an immune response (inflammation).
• Apoptosis can constitute cell suicide or cell murder. Cells will
commit suicide when they lack any incoming survival signal in
the form of trophic factors, or when they detect extensive
DNA damage in their own nucleus. Cells will murder other
cells to clear out unneeded cells or to eliminate potentially
self-attacking immune cells.
• Either of these processes constitutes programmed cell
death. During embryonic development, people have webbed
hands and feet and tails; the cells that constitute those parts
later apoptize. Apoptosis also goes on constantly in many
tissues including the intestines.
• Major steps of apoptosis:
• Cell shrinks
• Cell fragments
• Cytoskeleton collapses
• Nuclear envelope disassembles
• Cells release apoptotic bodies
• Notably absent from this list is ‘send out a
signal.’ Apoptotic cells do not send out any signal,
with one exception: they release apoptotic bodies
and ‘engulfment proteins’ to induce other cells
(‘phagocytic’ cells) to engulf the apoptotic bodies
and and break them down in their lysosomes, but
this is not much of an immune response.
Cell Differentiation
• Cell differentiation is the process through which
unspecialized cells become more complex and
specialized in structure and function.
• For example, a fertilized human egg developing an
embryo would involve 250 distinct types of
differentiated cells.
• These cells can be found as art of a particular
digestive gland, a large skeleton muscle, a bone and
so on.
Stem Cells
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are capable of
self-renewal, are multi-potent, and are capable of
differentiating into two or more mature cell types.
• Most of the organs in a human adult contain stem cells
which can replace any particular cells of the tissue in
which they are found.
• For instance, an isolated stem cell present in an adult
skeleton muscle is called “satellite cells” which divides
and differentiate as needed for the repair of injured
skeleton muscle.
• The stem cells differentiate and generate a population
of healthy new blood cells in the patient’s body.
 • New generative medicines with the aid of stem cells have power to
create living and functional tissues that can regenerate and repair
tissues and organs in the body that could have been damaged due to
age, disease or congenital defects.
• Stem cell possess the power to go to particularly these damaged
areas and regenerate new cells and tissues by repair and a
renewable process, thus restoring their functionality.
• Stem cell can be of two types:
1. Embryonic stem cells: They are undifferentiated cells extracted
from the embryo. They have the potential to tune into a variety of
specialized cell types. They are also called as hES (human
Embryonic Stem Cells). These cells are derived from the inner
cell mass of developing blastocysts. A hES is self-renewing and I
thus pluripotent. They can turn into any 220 different cell types
found in the human body.
2. Adult stem cells: These are the stem cells that are found in
different tissues of the developed, adult organism. These are the
cells that remain in an undifferentiated or unspecialized state.
These cells can give rise to specialized cell types. They are
generally derived from the adult human blood located in the bone
marrow and are re-infused back into the same donor.