HUMAN PERFORMANCE

THE ATMOSPHERE
Constituent gases are;
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.9%
Carbon dioxide plus trace gases 0.30%
NB
These proportions of these gases remain the same at whatever altitude thus at;
34,000 ft 25%
18,000 ft 50%
8,000 ft 75%
Sea level 100%
Gas laws
Dalton's law • deals with hypoxia and night vision
• occurs at altitude
• explains the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the
sum of the partial pressure of the gases
Boyel’s law • deals with climb and descent
• is directly applicable in the case of the expansion of trapped
gases in the human body with increasing altitude
Henry’s law • deals with decompression sickness and bends
• explains bubbles of nitrogen coming out of solution in body
tissues due to a decrease in atmospheric pressure
Fick’s law • deals with diffusion of gases in lungs and cells
 RESPIRATION
Normal rate of breathing is;
• 20 to 30 cycles a minute
Hypoxia
is the;
• shortage of oxygen in the blood
Types of hypoxia include;
Anemic/Hypaemic hypoxia • Enough oxygen but there is not enough
hemoglobin to transport it
Caused by;
• carbon monoxide poisoning
• vitamin 12 deficiency
Stagnant hypoxia • Blood flow is reduced
Histotoxic hypoxia • Cell which need oxygen is unable to get it/utilize it
Hypoxic hypoxia • As a result of not enough oxygen/ sufficient partial
pressure of oxygen with altitude

Stages/zones of hypoxia
Indifferental stage • Below 10,000ft
• Little effect other than night vision
Compensatory stage • Between 10,000 – 15,000ft
• Impaired judgment
• Increased rate of breathing
• Formication
• Difficulty in completing tasks
• Short term memory loss
Disturbance stage • Between 15,000 – 20,000ft
• Euphoria
• Loss of judgment
• Sleepiness
• Eye sight may be tunneled
Critical stage • Above 20,000ft
• Death
• Disorientation
Symptoms of hypoxia
They include;
i. visual disturbances
ii. lack of concentration
iii. euphoria
iv. fatigue
v. impaired judgment
Symptoms of hyperventilation
• acidity level of the blood is reduced during hyperventilation
They include;
i. dizzy feeling
ii. muscular spasms
iii. visual disturbances (blurred vision)
iv. tingling sensation in the fingers and toes
Time of useful consciousness (TUC)
Is the;
• time available for a pilot to make vital decisions when his supply of oxygen has been
disconnected/ when decompression sickness occurs
Aggravating factors include;
i. obesity
ii. smoking
iii. sudden decompression
iv. fitness
v. workload
Alt (ft) Rapid decompression Progressive decompression
Sitting Moderate activity
43,000 12 sec 18 sec 12 sec
40,000 12 sec 25 sec 18 sec
35,000 20 sec 45 sec 30 sec
30,000 30 sec 1.5 min 45 sec
25,000 2 min 5 min 3 min
20,000 3 min 10 min 5 min
18,000 20-25 min About 40 min About 30 min
Time of effective performance
Shorter than TUC
At 40,000ft;
• time of effective performance is 50 seconds
 CIRCULATION
Pulmonary artery • carries de oxygenated blood from the heart (right ventricle) to the
lungs
• rich in carbon dioxide blood
Pulmonary vein • carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
• rich in oxygen blood
Alveloi • Its where carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood

The Heart
It is supplied with blood from;
• the coronary arteries
Left ventricle • Pumps oxygenated blood around the body
Right ventricle • Pumps de oxygenated blood to the lungs
Right atria • Its where de oxygenated blood returns after providing oxygen to
the body tissues
Left atria • Its where oxygenated blood returns after a gaseous exchange
process in the lungs
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Division of the nervous system
a) CNS
• consists of the brain and spinal chord
• responsible for issuing nerve impulses and analyzing data
b) PNS
• consists of motor nerves and sensory organs
• passes information from the sensory inputs to the CNS through sensory and motor
nerves
C) ANS
Independent nervous system which manages;
• glands of the body
• involuntary muscles of the internal organs and blood vessels
Controls;
i. breathing
ii. heart rate
iii. digestion
NB
Proprioceptor receptors • Sensory receptor which receives stimuli within the body,
especially one that responds to position and movement
Subcutaneous receptors • Situated/applied under the skin
(kinesthetic sense) • Are stimulated by the pressure created on the
corresponding body parts when sitting, standing or lying
down
 VISION
Cornea • Causes the convergence of light rays onto the retina
Iris • Controls the amount of light entering the eye
Retina • Converts light signals into electric impulses
• Has rods in its peripheral zone and cones in its central zone
• allows for the acquisition of the visual signal and its coding into
physiological data
Fovea • Most sensitive part of the retina and is full of cones
• The greatest visual acuity occurs at the fovea but rapidly decreases
towards the peripheral vision
Lens • Responsible for focus adjustment (accommodation) of the eye
• Enables a clear image to be obtained
Pupil • Controls the amount of light entering the eye

Visual defects
Hypermetropia (long sightedness) • eyeball is shorter than normal
• image forms behind the retina
• corrected by use of convex lens
Myopia (short sightedness) • eyeball is longer than normal
• image is in front of the retina
• corrected by use of concave lens
Presbyopia • is the normal deterioration of short sight with
(assw accommodation) age
• associated with accommodation
• due to loss of elasticity of the lens
• corrected for by use of plus lens (weak convex)
Astigmatism • associated with the cornea
(assw cornea) • due to misshaped cornea
• corrected for by use of cylindrical lens
Cataracts • associated with lens
(assw lens) • due to the aging process
• lens becomes cloudy causing loss of vision
Glaucoma • Eye disease which causes a pressure rise of the
liquid in the eye
Symptoms include;
i. acute pain in the eye
ii. blurred vision
iii. visual filed deterioration
NB
Lens
In order to focus on objects at different distances, the lens needs to change shape
Distant objects • Flat lens with a larger pupil
Close/near objects • Spherical/rounder lens with a smaller pupil

Visual acuity
Visual acuity during flight at high altitudes can be affected by;
1. anemia
2. smoking in the cockpit
3. hypoxia
4. carbon monoxide poisoning
Peripheral and Binocular vision
Peripheral • Important for detecting moving objects
Binocular vision • Due to visual perception of depth at
close to medium distance

Depth perception
Achieved through;
• seeing with two eyes (binocular vision) when objects are close
Accommodation
Is the;
• ability of the lens to change shape
 HEARING AND BALANCE (THE EAR)
Ear is divided in to three sections namely;
Outer ear • filled with air
Middle ear • filled with air
• consists of ossicles
• consists of a group of tiny bones
Inner ear • filled with liquid
• consists of the semi circular canals and the cochlea

Sound range depends on;

• intensity and is measured in decibels
Frequency of sound for a normal human being • 20Hz– 20,000Hz (20khz)
Audible range to human hearing • 16Hz – 20khz

Hearing impairment
Conductive deafness • Due to damage of the eardrum and ossicles
Noise induced hearing loss • due to damage of the cochlea
• depends on both intensity and duration of
noise above 90 decibels
• can lead to permanent hearing loss
• environmental noise pollution is the major
factor leading to NIHL
Presbycausis • Hearing loss due to age
• results in reduction in the perception of high
tones first

Vestibular apparatus
It reacts to;
i. linear/angular accelerations
ii. gravity
It is composed of;
a) the semicircular canals (channels)
b) the otoliths (a saccule and a utricle)
The semicircular canals • Detect angular accelerations
(cause turning illusions)
The otoliths • Detect linear accelerations
(cause climbing/descending illusions)
NB
Sacculus and Utriculus
Are part of the vestibular apparatus affected by;
• changes in gravity and linear acceleration.
Motion sickness
Caused by;
• the mismatch between the Vestibular apparatus and visual signals
Systems involved in motion sickness include;
i. the Vestibular system
ii. vision
iii. the proprioceptive senses ‘Seat-of-the-Pants-Sense’
One can cope with motion sickness in the following ways;
i. closing the eyes
ii. keep the head still if possible because any movement may aggravate the vestibular
system
iii. go for steady progress in aircraft manoeuvres

Eustachian tube • Equalizes the pressure between the middle ear and external
atmosphere
• connects the middle ear and the throat/pharynx
Cochlea • Is responsible for the perception of sound
• excessive exposure to noise can damage the sensitive membrane
in the cochlea
 SLEEP AND BODY RHYTHMS
Stages of sleep
Divided into
• 5 stages and these stages are further divided into 2 sections based upon the
occurrence of Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
Stage;
• 1-4 are referred to as non REM sleep
• 5 is referred to as REM sleep
Stage 1 • Sleep is very light
• Transition between being awake and asleep
• Lasts up to 10 minutes
Stage 2 • Lasts for about 20 minutes
Stage 3 and 4 • Also referred to as orthodox sleep
• Constitutes deep sleep
• Brain is semi active
• Eyes are stationary
• Muscles are relaxed
• Lasts for about 30 minutes
Stage 5 • Also referred to as paradoxical sleep
• There is great mental activity
• REM
• Lasts for about 70-90 minutes
Functions
• regeneration of mental and physical functions

NB
• the body is refreshed during non REM sleep
• the brain is refreshed during REM sleep
Vigilance and Hypo vigilance
a) Vigilance
• is the degree of activation of the CNS or how awake you are
Signs indicating loss of vigilance include;
i. decrease in sensory perception
ii. sensation of muscular heaviness
b) Hypo vigilance (low vigilance)
• used to describe low degree of alertness
 • may occur at any moment of the flight
Factors which bring about hypo vigilance include;
i. the monotony of the task
ii. a lack of stimulation
Solutions to manage hypo vigilance (low vigilance) are;
1. healthy living
2. organizing periods of rest during the flight
Effects of circadian rhythms on performance
• Sensorimotor performance is better in the evening whereas intellectual performance
is better in the morning
The physiological rhythms in a new time zone
They will re synchronize to the new time zone at a rate of;
• about 1-1.5 hours a day
Sleep cycle
The normal sleep cycle is approximately;
• 90 minutes (1.5 hours)
The sleep cycles repeat during the course of a night’s sleep thus
i. each succeeding cycle contains a greater amount of REM sleep
ii. frequent interruption of REM sleep can harm a human being in the long run
Time zone crossing
In order to minimize the effects of crossing more than 3-4 time zones with a layover of more
than 24 hours (jet lag), it is advisable to;
i. keep in swing with the rhythm of the departure country
ii. maintain regular living patterns
REM
REM sleep is;
1. important for the regeneration of mental and physical functions than all other stages
of sleep
 INFORMATION PROCESSING
Stages of information processing
i. sensory stimulation
ii. perception
iii. decisions are taken
iv. actions (responses are selected and executed)
v. feedback
Short and Long Term Memory
a) Short term memory
• attention mechanism selects what information is passed to the short term memory
• capacity is limited i.e stores about 7 items
• very sensitive to interruptions
b) Long term memory
• storage capacity is unlimited
• receives information from the short term memory which has been rehearsed and it
will be stored indefinitely
• information is stored there in the form of descriptive rule based and schematic
knowledge
• pre activation of necessary knowledge will allow for a reduction in access time.
Motor Programmes
Main features of motor programmes is;
• skill based behaviour
To develop a motor program, there are 3 phases involved namely;
Cognitive phase • Learner thinks consciously about each individual action
Associative phase • Separate components of the overall action become integrated
Automatic phase • Total manoeuvre can be executed smoothly without conscious
mental effort

Errors assw motor programmes are;

i. action slips (usually occur at the selection stage)
ii. environmental capture/habituation (occurs when action is frequently made in the
same environment)
Mental schema
Corresponds to;
• memorized representations of the various procedures and situations which can be
retrieved by the pilot at will.
Attention mechanism
Factors which guide attention include;
1. the level of automation of behaviour
2. the salience (importance) of the information
3. expectations

Types of attention include;

Divided attention • Occurs because our central decision making channel can time
share between a number of tasks
Selective attention • Occurs when one is monitoring several sources of input, with
great attention given to one or more resources which appear
more important
• it is required because of the limited capacity of the central
decision maker and working memory

Motivation
• leads to high and improved performance
• extremely high motivation in combination with excess stress will limit attention
management capabilities
• a high level of motivation is related to high levels of arousal
 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND ERROR
Average human error rate is;
Given reasonable training • expected to occur once in 1000 times (1 in 1000)
During repetitive task • expected to occur once in 10 times (1 in 10)

Types of error
SRK model
Skill based behaviour • It is automatic
(routine errors) • Based on routines/motor programmes by practice and
repetition and may be carried out without conscious
thought
Errors assw Skill based behaviour
i. action slips
ii. environmental capture (habituation)
Rule based behaviour • It is where a routine or procedures have been learned
(error of technical and are being followed
knowledge) • Requires a conscious decision to initiate a behaviour
• Involves the short and long term memory
• Most of the Rule based behaviour are stored in our
long term memory
Errors assw Rule based behaviour
i. error of commission (poor application of a good rule)
ii. departure from rules (application of a poor rule)
Knowledge based behaviour • Requires solving a problem for which no procedure
exists
Errors
i. confirmation bias
ii. frequency bias
Error
Faults/intentional errors • Action taken satisfies the operators intention but the
intention its self was incorrect
Violations • Are also intentional errors but they are as a result of
intentionally taking a wrong action
Slips/ lapses/ action errors • Are actions which are carried out incorrectly
• The action doesn’t satisfy the operator’s intent
although the intent was correct
Omissions • Simply missing out a step that should have been
included
• Interruptions are a frequent cause of omissions

NB
Environmental capture
It is a term used to describe;
• the tendency of a skill to be executed in an environment in which it is frequently
exercised, even if it is inappropriate to do so
• the tendency for a skill acquired in one aircraft type, to be executed in a new aircraft
type, even if it is inappropriate to do so
 STRESS
Stress;
• promotes an increase in physical strength rather than promoting mental performance
Stress reaction is the;
• non specific response of the body to every demand placed on a person.
Types of stress
Acute stress • Stressors which have just happened (forms over the short term)
Chronic stress • It is relentless/continuous (forms over the long term)

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches

1) Sympathetic branch
• provides the body with the resources to cope with a new and sudden source of
stress known as “The Flight or Flight Response”
• its purpose is to prepare the body and mind for immediate physical activity
2) Parasympathetic branch
• it prolongs the body’s mobilization, to give it time to find a solution to the stressful
situation and restores the body to normal functioning when the perceived danger
has passed
Stages in the GAS
There are 3 stages namely;
Stage Characteristics
Alarm stage Is the body’s immediate reaction to a stressor & characteristics include;
• a decrease in stress resistance
• increased arousal level as a result of adrenaline secretion
• increased heart rate, respiration and release of glucose
• increased blood pressure
• pupils dilate
Resistance stage • Parasympathetic system takes over
• Activation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• The appearance of psychosomatic disorders when lasting over a
prolonged time
• It uses a different type of hormone (cortisol) assisting the
conversion of fats into sugar
Exhaustion stage • Body has to be given time to eliminate the waste products which
have been generated during the preceding phases
Arousal
Is the;
• measure of a human being’s readiness to respond
Low arousal • Attention mechanism is not active
• Performance is slow and things may easily be missed
Optimum arousal • We are at our most efficient
• We are capable to deal with complex tasks
• Performance is high
High arousal • Performance starts to deteriorate
• Attention mechanism is narrowed

Categories of stress
Physiological stress External physiological factors (environmental stress)
• noise • humidity (low humidity)
• temperature • heat and cold
• vibrations
Internal factors
• hunger • lack of sleep
• thirst • pain
• fatigue
Cognitive stress Depends upon a person’s knowledge, experience or skill
Effects include
• excessive haste
• a complete block (action is impossible)
• a risk of focusing on a particular aspect
• an increase in the rate of mistakes
Organizational stress It can lead to
• fatigue • frustration
• absenteeism • lowered skill level
• high accident rate

Indications of stress
They include;
i. perspiration
ii. flushed skin
iii. dilated pupils
iv. fast breathing
NB
Psychosomatic;
• means that mental or emotional stressors can be manifested in organic/physical stress
reactions
 COGNITION
illusions
illusions occur in all phases of flight. They include the following;
Situation illusion Result
Wide runway Less height Higher approach than normal
Narrow runway Greater height Lower approach than normal
Bright approach lights Less distance to run Higher approach /steeper glide path
leading to an early flare
Low intensity lights More distance to run Lower approach /shallower glide path
leading to an overshoot
Up sloping runway Greater height Lower approach than normal
Down sloping runway Less height Higher approach than normal
Featureless terrain Greater height Lower approach than normal

Other forms of illusions include;

a) Atmospheric illusions (rain, haze and fog)
• will create an illusion that objects appear further away than they actually are
b) Somatogravic illusions
• are illusions of climbing or descending
c) Somatogyral illusions
• are due to a slow or prolonged turn
• may cause an illusion that you are flying S&L
d) Graveyard spin
• incorrect recovery from a spin caused by leans
e) Coriolis illusion
• can occur when a pilot turns his head in an aircraft which itself is turning
f) Vertigo
• loss of spatial awareness where an individual experiences a rotating, tumbling and
turning sensation
• in good weather conditions, vertigo can be prevented by looking at the horizon
• as a result of Coriolis effect
g)Pilots vertigo
• is the sensation of climbing caused by a strong linear acceleration
h) Cognitive illusion (illusions of interpretation)
• are assw the task of mental construction of the environment.
i) Autokinetic illusions
• can give an impression that a star is another aircraft
 FLYING AND HEALTH
Barotrauma
Is the pain caused by pressure changes
These pressure imbalances can occur in;
Sinuses • Are air spaces within the bones of the face
• acute pain occurs during descent if the sinuses are
affected by a cold/influenza
• can lead to watering of the eyes making vision
difficult and bleeding from the nose may occur
Treatment
• return to the altitude where the pain first became
apparent
Teeth • It is the toothache caused by expansion of air during
(aerodontalgia/barodontalgia) an ascent
• most common during the ascent
Treatment
• good dental care and hygiene
Intestines (gastro intestinal) • Most common during a rapid increase/decrease in
pressure and may cause severe pain/discomfort
Treatment
• venting the excess gases
• descending to a lower altitude
• not using chewing gum
• avoid eating food stuffs known to be gas producing
Ear (otic barotrauma) • Occurs during descent where there is a blockage in
the Eustachian tube
• it is more likely when the pilot is flying with a
respiratory infection and during a descent
• severity depends upon the ROC or ascent but it
occurs mainly at lower levels where pressure
changes are greatest
Tropical diseases
Transmitted through
Cholera • Food and water which is contaminated
Tetanus • Bacteria in the form of spores via a puncture in the skin
Yellow fever • A virus transmitted by infected mosquitoes
Tuberculosis • Airborne water droplets (normally through coughing and sneezing)
Typhoid • Infected milk, water or food
• affects the large intestines
Hepatitis • A virus that affects the liver causing its enlargement and damage
Hepatitis A • Food and water which is contaminated
Hepatitis B • Blood transfer, needle share, sexual contact, tattooing
• can result in chronic liver disease
Hepatitis C • Shared needles, maternal transmission, sexual contact

Accelerations
Transverse accelerations (+Gy) • Are rear during routine flights
Angular accelerations
Linear accelerations (+Gx) • Have slight physiological consequences
(assw the pitch axis) • Cause sensory illusions on the pitch axis
• Give the illusion of climbing in IMC
• Change blood pressure and blood volume
distribution in the body
Radial accelerations (+Gz) • Affect the pilot with inertia along the vertical body
upwards
• Has the most significant physiological effect upon
the pilot

g Forces
Effect of positive (+Gz) accelerations
1. a pooling of blood in the lower portions of the body, hence less blood available
2. drop in blood pressure above heart level
3. downward displacement or deformation of soft or mobile organs
Factors affecting the ability to withstand g forces include;
1. hypoxia
2. obesity
3. low blood sugar
Smoking
Nicotine • The chemical substance responsible for addiction to tobacco
Tar • Is a substance with the ability to produce modifications in cells which
develop a cancer
 MAN AND MACHINE
SHELL Model

Software • Procedures
• Manuals
• Checklist layout
• Symbology
• Computer programmes (warning systems)
Hardware • Design of flight decks
• The physic structure of the aircraft
• Presentation of instruments
• Positioning and operating sense of controls
Environment • The conditions both outside and inside the cockpit
Live wire First L
• at the center of the model is the pilot
(most valuable and flexible component if the system)
Second L
• represents other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft

Errors
1) Mode error
• error which is as a result of the pilot inputting incorrect data in to the FMS
2) Latent error
• remain undetected in the system for a certain length of time
• may only manifest themselves under certain conditions
• lull the pilots into security
3) Active error
• produced by the operator and can be rapidly detected via the effects and
consequences which it induces on the overall action.
Summary
Mode error • Results from a pilot inputting incorrect data
• Associated with automation
Latent error • Undetected for a certain length of time
Active error • Produced by the operator and rapidly detected
• are down to first line operators
• have rapid and direct consequences on the action in progress
• occur at the human/machine interface

Errors which occur during highly automated actions result from;

i. an action mode error
ii. the capture of a poor action subprogram
 INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS
Personality •
Attitude • Is the tendency to respond to people, things or events in a particular
manner
• Attitude is adaptable
Behaviour • Is the outward result of both personality
Role • Is the function and behaviour associated with a particular role