MODULE IV

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Lesson 1 Fundamental Concepts

Lesson 2 Straight Lines

Lesson 3 Circles

Lesson 4 Conic Sections

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MODULE IV
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

 INTRODUCTION

Analytic geometry is a mathematical subject in which algebraic symbolism

and methods are used to represent and solve problems in geometry. The
importance of analytic geometry is that it establishes a correspondence between
geometric curves and algebraic equations. This correspondence makes it possible
to reformulate problems in geometry as equivalent problems in algebra, and vice
versa; the methods of either subject can then be used to solve problems in the
other.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. form equations given enough properties of lines and conics

2. produce the graph of the given equation of the line and the equation of
the conic section
3. Analyze and trace completely the curve, given their equations in both
rectangular and polar coordinates, in two-dimensional space. Use the
concepts of trigonometry to solve applied problems.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.
In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor.

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Lesson 1

 Fundamental Concepts

1.1 Basic Concepts

Geometry is divided into two kinds, synthetic and analytic. Synthetic

geometry employs the straight edge and compass as its basic tools, while
analytic geometry uses algebra as its main tool. In 16377, however, a French
Mathematician and philosopher, Rene Descartes (1596-1650) published his La
Geometrie, which introduced a device that is now called analytic Geometry.

Descartes used a single horizontal axis and only positive values. At each
point on the axis, he imagined the construction of line segment whose length
represented the value of the related second coordinate. These segment were
not always perpendicular to the axis, but they were parallel to each other.

The basic feature of analytic geometry is the use of coordinate system

in the graphical representations of algebraic equations. Notice that algebra and
contribute to the study of geometry , but geometric interpretation of algebraic
equations and manipulations results in a fuller comprehension of many phases
of algebra.

1.1.1 Directed Line Segments

A direction line is defined as the line on which one direction is chosen

as positive (indicated ass arrowhead) and the opposite direction is negative. A
directed line segment is a segment of the line consisting of any two points and
the part between. Notice that two directed line segments lying in the same line
or in parallel lines are said to be equal if they have the same length and are
measured in the same direction.

Let the endpoints of a line segment be designated by A and b, which we

̅̅̅̅ or 𝐵𝐴
denote by 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ . We specify that the distance from A to B, measured in the
positive direction is positive; the distance from B to A measured in the negative
direction is negative. We call these two distances as directed distances. If the

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̅̅̅̅=5 and 𝐵𝐴
length of the line segment is 5, then 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅=-5. Hence, the distances on
̅̅̅̅ = −𝐵𝐴
a directed line segment satisfy the equation 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅.

Directed Line Segments

1.1.2 Cartesian Coordinate System

A number line is a directed line with its points corresponding to real
numbers. The number corresponding to a point is called the coordinate of a
point. The positive corresponds to points in the chosen positive direction from
the origin 0 and the negative numbers corresponds to points in the opposite or
negative direction from the origin.

Number Line
Let the horizontal number line be called the x-axis and the vertical
number line the y-axis. If the x-axis and the y-axis are interested at right angles
at the origin, together they are called cartesian coordinate axes and the plane
determined by the coordinate axes is called the cartesian coordinate system.
Points on the cartesian coordinates system are located by, means of
ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y). An ordered pair of coordinates is a set in
which the order of the elements is significance.
In ordered pair (x, y) , x is called the first coordinates (or abscissa) and
the y is called the second coordinates (or ordinate) of the point. Together they
are called coordinates of a point. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four
parts, called quadrants. The figure below shows the signs of x and y in the
corresponding quadrants.

Quadrants on the Cartesian Coordinate System

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1.1.3 Distance Between Two Points

You know that the distance ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 between two points in a plane
with Cartesian coordinates 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by the following
formula:

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

To calculate the distance ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 between point 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), first draw
a right triangle which has the segment ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 as its hypotenuse.

If the lengths of the sides are a and b, then by the Pythagorean Theorem,

̅̅̅̅)𝟐 + (𝑩𝑪
̅̅̅̅)𝟐 = (𝑨𝑪
(𝑨𝑩 ̅̅̅̅)𝟐

Solving for the distance AB, we have:

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = √̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ 2
𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶

Since AC is a horizontal distance, it is just the difference between the 𝑥-

coordinates: |(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )|

Similarly, BC is the vertical distance |(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )|.

Example 1. Find the distance between points A and B in the figure above.
In the above example, we have:

𝐴 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1,0) 𝐵 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (2,7)

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So,
̅̅̅̅ = √(2 − (−1))2 + (7 − 0)2
𝐴𝐵
= √32 + 72
= √9 + 49
= √58 = 7.6 units

1.2 Midpoint of a Line Segment

The midpoint is halfway between the two end points:
 Its 𝒙 value is halfway between the two x values
 Its 𝒚 value is halfway between the two y values
To calculate it:
 Add both "𝑥" coordinates, divide by 2
 Add both "𝑦" coordinates, divide by 2

The coordinates of a midpoint of a line

segment are
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑥=
2
and
𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦=
2

Example 2. Find the midpoint of the line with endpoints (-3,5) and (8,-1).

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Solution: Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−3,5) and

(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (8, −1)
Substituting the values to the midpoint
formula,
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 −3 + 8 5
𝑥= = = = 2.5
2 2 2
and
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 5 + (−1)
𝑦= = =2
2 2
Thus,
M(𝑥, 𝑦)= (2.5,2)
1.3 Slope of a Line

The gradient (also known as slope) of a line is defined as

𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡/𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛

Slope of the line joining the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

From the diagram above, that the slope (usually written m) is given by:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

The slopes of a line can be summarized in the following manner

i. A line rises to the right if it has a positive slope
ii. A line rises to the left if it has a negative slope.

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iii. A line is horizontal if it has a zero slope, that is, if 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 and 𝑥1 ≠

𝑥2
iv. A line is vertical if it has an undefined slope, that is, if 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and
𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2

Example 3. Find the slope of the line of the figure below.

Solution: Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (0, −0.5) and

(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (1, −3.5)
Substituting the values to the midpoint
formula,
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 −3.5 − (−0.5)
𝑚= = = −3
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 1−0

A. Slope of Perpendicular Lines

Perpendicular lines have the property that the product of their slopes is -1.
If we say that one line has a slope 𝑚1 and another is 𝑚2 then the lines
perpendicular if and only if their slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other.
𝒎𝟏 x 𝒎𝟐 = -1

Example 4. Prove that the triangle with vertices 𝐴(2,1), 𝐵(6,9) and 𝐶(−2,3) is a
right triangle and find its area.
Solution: Our goal is to find the angle whose sides have slopes that are
negative reciprocals of each other.
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Let m1 be the slope of side ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ,and m3 be the

𝐴𝐵 , m2 be the slope of side 𝐵𝐶
slope of side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 .

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 9−1 8
𝑚1 = = = =2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 6−2 4
𝑦3 − 𝑦2 3−9 −6 3
𝑚2 = = = =
𝑥3 − 𝑥2 −2 − 6 −8 4
𝑦3 − 𝑦1 3−1 2 1
𝑚3 = = = =−
𝑥3 − 𝑥1 −2 − 2 −4 2
Comparing the products of slopes we have
3 6
𝑚1 𝑚2 = (2) ( ) =
4 4
3 1 3
𝑚2 𝑚3 = ( ) (− ) = −
4 2 8
1
𝑚1 𝑚3 = (2) (− ) = −1
2

Since 𝑚1 𝑚3 = −1, then we conclude that < 𝐴 is a right angle and ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a
right triangle.

̅̅̅̅ , 𝐵𝐶
To find the area of the triangle we need to get the distance of 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ and
̅̅̅̅ .
𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(6 − 2)2 + (9 − 1)2 = 8.944
𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(−2 − 6)2 + (3 − 9)2 = 10
𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(3 − 1)2 + (−2 − 2)2 = 4.47

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Using Herons Formula,

𝐴∆ = √𝑠(𝑠 − ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ )(𝑠 − ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 )(𝑠 − 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 )

Where
8.944 + 10 + 4.47
𝑠= = 11.707
2
𝐴∆ = √11.707(11.707 − 8.944)(11.707 − 10)(11.707 − 4.47) = 19.99
≈ 20 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

B. Slope of Parallel Lines

Two nonvertical line are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.
If we say that one line has a slope 𝑚1 and another is 𝑚2 then the lines are
parallel if

𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎 𝟐

Parallel Lines

1.4 Angle Between Two Lines whose slopes are given

Angle Between Two Lines

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When two lines intersect at a point then the angle between them can be
expressed in terms of their slopes and is given by the following formula:

𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = | |,
1+𝑚1𝑚2

where 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the slopes of the ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 respectively.

𝑚2 − 𝑚 1
 If is positive then the angle between the lines is acute.
1+𝑚1𝑚2
𝑚2 − 𝑚 1
 If is negative then the angle between the lines is obtuse.
1+𝑚1𝑚2

Example 5. Find the measures of the angles between the diagonals of the
rectangle whose vertices are 𝐴 = (1, 0), 𝐵 = (0, 3), 𝐶 = (3, 4), and 𝐷 = (4, 1).

Solution:

From the figure above, we need to find the slopes of ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐶 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷
4−0 4
𝑚̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 = = =2
3−1 2
1 − 3 −2
𝑚𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅ = = = −0.5
4−0 4
(𝑚̅̅̅̅ 𝐵𝐷 ) = (2)(−0.5) = −1 (lines are perpendicular to each other)
𝐴𝐶 )( 𝑚̅̅̅̅

Thus, the diagonals meets at 90°.

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Learning Activity

1. Show that the triangle with vertices (−4, −3), (√27, −√48) and (4,3) is
equilateral.

2. A median of a triangle is a line segment from the vertex to the midpoint

of the opposite side. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle with
vertices (4,0), (2,1), (−1, −5).

3. Prove that the line segments joining the midpoints of the opposite sides
of a quadrilateral bisect each other.

4. The line segment joining 𝑃1 (1,3) and 𝑃2 (−2, −4) is extended through each
end by a distance equal to thrice its original length. Find the coordinates
of the new endpoints.

5. Find the slopes of the two diagonals of the quadrilateral with vertices at
the points (4,3), (−1,2) , (0, −3) , and (7,-1). Draw an identify the
quadrilateral.

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Lesson 2

 Straight Lines

2.1 The General and Standard Form

Every linear equation in 𝑥 and 𝑦 may be reduces to the general form 𝐴𝑥 +
𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are arbitrary constants. For an equation of the
form
𝐴 𝐶
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, slope 𝑚 = − 𝐵 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏 = − 𝐵

In addition the standard form can be written as 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, the slope of

the line is 𝑚, the coefficient of 𝑥. The intercept is (0, 𝑏)
Note:
1. The locus of every equation of first degree is a straight line
2. Every straight line may be represented by an equation of the first degree

Example 6. Write the standard equation of the line 12𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 54 = 0 and

determine the slope of the line and the intercept.
Solution:
12𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 54 = 0
−2𝑦 = −12𝑥 + 54
1
(− )(−2𝑦 = −12𝑥 + 54)
2
𝒚 =6x -27 -standard form
The slope 𝑚 = 6 and the intercept is (0, −27)

2.2 Slope-Point Form

𝑦2 −𝑦1
Since the slope of a nonvertical line is 𝑚 = , the two point form of
𝑥2 −𝑥1
the equation of the line can be transformed into the point-slope form, that is,
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

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 The point-slope form is most convenient in determining the equation of a

line when on a line and its slope are given.
 To draw a line, we make use of the point and the slope. Be sure that the
slope is expressed in fractional form to emphasize the rise and the run.
i. If the rise is positive, we go upward starting from the given point;
but, if the rise is negative, we go downward starting from the given
point.
ii. If the run is positive, we run to the right starting from the given
point where the rise ends: but, if the run is negative, we run to the
left where the rise ends.

2
Example 7. Write the general equation of the line, whose slope is , and which
5
passes through point (1, −4). Draw the line.
Solution:
Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )=(1, −4) and 𝑚 = 2/5
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2
(𝑦 − (−4)) = (𝑥 − 1)
5
2
(𝑦 + 4) = (𝑥 − 1)
5
5𝑦 + 20 = 2(𝑥 − 1)
5𝑦 + 20 = 2𝑥 − 2
𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎

2.3 Slope-Intercept Form

The slope-intercept form of the equation of a line is a special case of the
slope-point form of the equation of a line. The given point in the slope intercept
form is a point on the 𝑦-axis called the 𝑦-intercept.
For the special case when 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is the 𝑦-intercept, denoted by (0,b),
the slope point form can be transformed into the slope intercept form of the
equation of a line.
Hence,
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0) → 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Now, the equation of the line is in general form, we reduce the equation to the
slope-intercept by solving for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥. That is
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𝑏 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 → 𝑏𝑦 = −𝑎𝑥 − 𝑐 → 𝑦 = − 𝑥 −
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑐
We have, 𝑚 = − 𝑎 and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = − 𝑏

Example 8. Reduce the equation 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12 to the slope-intercept form. Draw

the line.

Solution: to reduce the equation to intercept form, we solve the equation of 𝑦

in terms of 𝑥
𝟑
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 12 → 4𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 12 → 𝒚 = − 𝒙 + 𝟑
𝟒
3
Thus, the line has 𝑚 = − and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 3
4

To draw the line, we start from the y-intercept (0,3) , go down 3 units and run
4 units to the right. Then draw the line between the first point and the third
point.

2.4 Two-Point Form

The slope of a line is always constant and it can be determined using any
two distinct points on a line. We can use the facts to develop a formula for
obtaining the equation of a nonvertical line when the coordinates of two points
on a line are known.
Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two distinct points on a vertical line, so that
the slope 𝑚 of the line can be written as
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑚= 𝑥2 −𝑥1
(1)

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Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any other point on the line, 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) can also be used to
determine the slope 𝑚 of the line
𝑦−𝑦1
𝑚= (2)
𝑥−𝑥1

Substituting (1) and (2) or vice versa, we get the two-point form of the equation
of the line, that is,
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
= → 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

1
Example 9. Find the equation of the line passing through the points ( 2 , −3) and
2
(−2, 3). Draw the line.

Solution:
1 2
Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2 , −3) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2, 3); substituting these values into the
two-point form of the equation of a line, we get
2
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 − (−3) 1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 − (−3) = 3 (𝑥 − )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 1 2
−2 − 2
11
1 22 1
𝑦 + 3 = 3 (𝑥 − ) → 𝑦 + 3 = − (𝑥 − )
5 2 15 2
−2
1
15(𝑦 + 3) = −22 (𝑥 − ) → 𝟏𝟓𝒚 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎
2

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2.5 Intercept Form

For the special case when the point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is the 𝑦-intercept, denoted
by (0, 𝑏), where 𝑏 ≠ 0, and the point (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is the 𝑥-intercept, denoted
(𝑎, 0), where 𝑎 ≠ 0 then the two-point form of the equation of a line can be
written into the intercept form. Hence,
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 0−𝑏
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 − 𝑏 = (𝑥 − 0)
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑎−0
𝑏
𝑦 − 𝑏 = − (𝑥)
𝑎
Multiplying both sides of (1) by 1/𝑏, yields
𝑦 𝑥 𝒙 𝒚
−1=− → + =𝟏
𝑏 𝑎 𝒂 𝒃

Example 10. Find the equation of the line having intercepts (-3,0) and (0,3).
Draw the line.

Solution:
let 𝑎 = −3 and 𝑏 = 3
Thus,
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
+ =1→ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 −3 3
Multiplying both sides by -3, we get
𝒙 − 𝒚 = −𝟑 0𝑟 𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟑 = 𝟎

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2.6 Reduction to Normal Form

2.6.1 Change of Coordinates
Let a point 𝑃 have Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) and the polar
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃). In polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃); 𝑟 is the distance or radius)
of the point from the origin or pole, and 𝜃, an angle which the line
between the point and the pole makes with the positive 𝑥 −axis or polar
axis. Now, figure 2.6A, we obtain

𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 → 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = → 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑟
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = → 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥 𝑥

Change of Coordinates
A. The Normal Form
We will transform the polar equation of a line to Cartesian coordinates,
hence,
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛽 − 𝜃) = 𝑝 (1)
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From trigonometry, the cosine of the difference of two angles is

cos(𝛼1 − 𝛼2 ) = cos 𝛼1 cos 𝛼2 + sin 𝛼1 sin 𝛼2 (2)
with the aid of (2), we can write (1) in the following manner. That is
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 sin 𝜃 = 𝑝 (3)
Since 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, we can simplify (3) into
𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = 𝑝 (4)
Either 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 ≥ 0 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 1 since 0 ≤ 𝛽 < 180°. Thus, the coefficient of 𝑦 is
positive or the equation is 𝑥 = 𝑝. Notice that 4 is called the normal form of the
equation of the line.
Note: 𝑝 is the length of perpendicular from the origin on the line and is always
positive. 𝜃 is an angle with positive direction of 𝑥 − axis and the line
perpendicular from the origin to the given lines.
B. Reduction from general Form to Normal Form
Given the general form of the equation of the line
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 (1)
We will develop a method for putting (1) into its normal form
𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = 𝑝 (2)
We will consider two case in (1): Case I (when 𝐵 = 0), and Case II (when 𝐵 ≠ 0)
Case I. If 𝐵 = 0 in (1), the normal form is obtained immediately by solving
for x, that is,
𝑪
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶 = 0 → 𝒙 = − 𝑨 (3)

Case II. If (𝐵 ≠ 0) in (1), we bear in mind that (1) and (2) represent the
same line so that coefficients in one equation must be proportional to those in
the order.
cos 𝛽 = 𝑘𝐴, sin 𝛽 = 𝑘𝐵, and 𝑝 = −𝑘𝐶 (4)
Taking the sum of the squares of the first two equations, we get
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 = 𝑘 2 𝐴2 + 𝑘 2 𝐵 2 → 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 = 𝑘 2 (𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) (5)
In trigonometry, we know 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 = 1. Hence,
1 1
1 = 𝑘 2 (𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) → 𝑘 2 = (𝐴2 +𝐵2 ) → 𝑘 = ± (𝐴2 +𝐵2 ) (6)

Since 𝑘𝐵 must be positive, the sign of k must be chosen the same as the sign of
B.

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Now to reduce the general equation of a line, 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0. But 𝐵 ≠

0 to its normal form, we divide through by ±√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) using the sign of 𝐵 in
front of the square root but transfer the constant term to the other side of the
equation. Hence,
𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐶
+ =
±√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) ±√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) ±√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 )

Example 11. Reduce 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 10 = 0 to the normal form, and find the distance
of the line from the origin. Draw the line.

Solution:
Transpose the constant term to the right side,
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 10
Here the coefficient of y is negative (-5). Solving for the divisor to our equation,
we get

−√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) = −√((2)2 + (−5)2 ) = −√4 + 25 = −√29

Substituting to the equation
𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐶 2𝑥 5𝑦 10
+ = → − =
−√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) −√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) −√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) −√29 −√29 −√29
𝟐𝒙 𝟓𝒚 𝟏𝟎
− + =−
√𝟐𝟗 √𝟐𝟗 √𝟐𝟗
10
Thus, the distance of the line from the given point is ≈ −1.856953382
−√29
Notice that the negative sign indicates that the line is below the given point

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Example 12. Find the distance between the two lines: 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 6 and 4𝑥 +
3𝑦 = 12
Solution:
Reducing the two lines to normal form, we have
For 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 6

√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) = √(32 + 42 ) = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5

3 4 6
𝑥+ 𝑦=
5 5 5
For 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12

√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) = √(42 + 32 ) = √16 + 9 = √25 = 5

4 3 12
𝑥+ 𝑦=
5 5 5
Now the distance between the two lines is
12 6 6
𝑝 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 → − =
5 5 5

2.7 Directed Distance from a Line to a Point

The directed distance from a line to a point can be found from the
equation of the line and the coordinates of the point. But for line parallel to
coordinate axes (i.e. vertical and horizontal lines), the distances are easily
determined.
The directed distance from the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 to a point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) not
on the line is
𝑑 = 𝑥1 − 𝑎 (1)
Notice that it is positive if the point is to the right of the vertical line, while it
is negative if the point is to the left of the vertical line.
A similar argument shows that the directed distance from the horizontal
line 𝑦 = 𝑏 to a point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is
𝑑 = 𝑦1 − 𝑏 (2)
Now, we will find the directed distance =from a slant line, 𝑙1 whose equation is
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 (3)
(i.e. neither vertical nor horizontal) to any point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) not on that line.
Writing the equation of the line 𝑙2 through 𝑃 parallel to 𝑙1 we get

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𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶 = 0 (4)

Reducing the equations of the line to normal form, we obtain the distances of
these lines from the origin as follows:
−𝐶 𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1
𝑝1 = and 𝑝2 = (5)
±√(𝐴2 +𝐵2 ) ±√(𝐴2 +𝐵2 )
Notice that the directed distance from the line to the point is
𝑑 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑄𝑃 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑆 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
𝑂𝑆 − 𝑂𝑅 (6)

𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 −𝐶 𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶

𝑑= − →𝑑= (7)
±√(𝐴2 +𝐵2 ) ±√(𝐴2 +𝐵2 ) ±√(𝐴2 +𝐵2 )

Where the sign is taken like the sign of B, or if B=0, like the sign of A. Notice
that the distance is positive if the point P is above the line, and negative if 𝑃 is
below the line.

Example 13. Find the distance from the line in 3x+4y=12 to the point (4,3)

Solution: writing the equation in standard form we have, 3x+4y-12=0

Let 𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = −12 , and 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (4,3) . Substituting the values
into the formula for finding the directed distance from a line to a point with
denominator positive (i.e. since B is positive), we get
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶 (3)(4) + (4)(3) − 12 12
𝑑= = =
√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) √42 + 32 5
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Example 14. Find the distance between the parallel line 3x+2y=12 and 3x+2y=4

Solution: Notice the distance between the lines can be found by computing the
distance from each line to a particular point. We will take the origin as the
particular point. Thus,
Let 𝑙1 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 12 = 0, 𝑙2 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0, and 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (0,0).
So that the directed distance from each line to the origin (see figure 2.7a)
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶 (3)(0) + (2)(0) − 12 12
𝑑1 = = =−
√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) √32 + 22 √13
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶 (3)(0) + (2)(0) − 4 4
𝑑2 = = =−
√(𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 ) √32 + 22 √13
The distance between the two lines can be computed as,
4 12 8
𝑑 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 = − − =− ≈ −2.219
√13 √13 √13
Notice that the negative sign indicates that 𝑙2 is below 𝑙1

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Learning Activity

1. Find the equation of a line parallel to 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3 and passing through

(4,6)
2. Find the equation of a line that passes through the points (3,1) and
(−1, −2)
3. Calculate the distance d from a line to a point
a. 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 5 = 0 and (−1,7)
b. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2 = 0 and (−1,2)
4. Calculate the distance d between two parallel lines
a. 8𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 24 = 0 and 8𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 50 = 0
b. 4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 16 = 0 and 4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 8 = 0
5. Find the equation of the line through (−3,2) with slope −1/3.

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Lesson 3

 Circles

3.1 Standard Form of the Equation of a Circle

A circle is the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
point on the plane. The fixed point is called the center, and the distance from
the center to any point of the circle is called the radius.
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the circle 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) be the center of the circle
(not on the origin) and 𝑟 be the radius of the circle (see figure 3.1a). using the
distance formula, we can write the equation of the circle in standard form, that
is

√(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 (1)

Taking the square root, we get
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 (2)
Notice that in equation (2) above, if the right member becomes zero, then we
only have a single point (ℎ, 𝑘) which is called a point circle while if the right
member is negative then clearly, there is no circle.

P(x,y)

Figure 3.1a. Circle with center at (𝒉, 𝒌) and Radius 𝒓.

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Example 15. Find the standard form of the equation of the circle whose center
is at (2,1) and whose radius is 2.
Solution:
Let 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) = (2,1) and 𝑟 = 2
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 → (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 22
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4

3.2 Equations of a Circle with Center at the Origin

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is any point on the circle and the center of the circle is at the
origin, 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) = (0,0) then the equation of the circle is
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
Example 16. A circle centered at the origin whose radius is 2 units is inscribed
in a right triangle whose base is 8 units and altitude 6 units. Find,
a. The equation of a circle
b. The area and circumference of the circle
c. The area of the shaded region

a. The equation of a circle

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 (ℎ, 𝑘) = {0,0}, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 2, 𝑠𝑜
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 22
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4

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b. The area and circumference of the circle

Area of circle = 𝜋𝑟 2 (in the given problem, r = 2 units)
A = 𝜋(2)2
A = 4 𝜋 square units
Circumference of a circle = 2𝜋𝑟
C = 2 𝜋(2)
C = 4 𝜋 units
c. The area of the shaded region
Area of a Triangle − Area of Circle
Area of Triangle = ½ bh
= ½ (8)(6)
= 24 square units
Area of shaded region = 24 − 4𝜋
= 11.43 square units

3.3 General Form of the Equation of a Circle

The standard form of the equation of a circle where the center (not in
the origin) is 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘), 𝑟 is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 (1)
The standard form is convenient in that it shows at a glance the center
and radius of the circle. However, another form, is often the form in which the
equation is given. We often change an equation from general to standard form
in order to identify the center and radius of the circle. Thus, the general form
of the equation of a circle is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0, 𝐴 ≠ 0 (2)
Dividing (2) through A, we get the other general form of the equation of a
circle. Thus,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
It follows that the coefficient of the square terms can always be reduced to
unity by dividing through by 𝐴.
Center (h,k)
−𝐷 −𝐸
ℎ= 𝑘=
2𝐴 2𝐴

𝐷2 + 𝐸 2 − 4𝐴𝐹
𝑟= √
4𝐴2

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Remarks:
To get back to the standard form of the equation of a circle, we do it as
follows:
i. In (2), divide each term through by A, transpose the constant term to the
right side of the equation and complete the squares in x and y.
ii. In (3), transpose the constant term to the right side of the equation, and
complete the square in 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Example 17. Express 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −1 in standard form.

Solution:
We complete the square of the given equation by adding the square of the half
the coefficients of 𝑥 and 𝑦 to both sides of the equation then find their factors.
Hence,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −1
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + [ (−2)] + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + [ (−4)] = −1 + [ (−2)] + [ (−4)]
2 2 2 2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + [(−1)]2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + [(−2)]2 = −1 + 1 + 4
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = (2)2
Thus, the circle is centered at (−1,2) with radius, 𝑟 = 2

3.4 Circles Determined by Geometric Conditions

In the previous topic we have discussed the different forms of the equation
of a circle. Now, we will discuss how a circle is determined using some geometric
conditions in the cartesian coordinate system.

Example 18. Find the equation of the circle if the circle is tangent to the line
−𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4 = 0 at the point (3, −1) and the center is on the line 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0
Solution:
Let the center of the circle be (𝑥, 𝑦) and the radius of the circle 𝑟. Notice that
the line perpendicular to the line −𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4 = 0 through (3, −1) passes through
the center of the circle (see Figure below). Thus,

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𝑙: −𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4 = 0 → 𝑙⊥ : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 = 0 (1)
The point of intersection between 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 = 0 yields the
coordinates of the center of the circle. The point of intersection between these
two lines can be solved as follow:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0 → 𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑦 (2)
𝑥+𝑦−2=0→𝑥 =2−𝑦 (3)
Equating (2) and (3), we get
3 − 2𝑦 = 2 − 𝑦 → 𝑦 = 1 (4)
Substituting (4) into (1)
𝑥 = 3 − 2(1) → 𝑥 = 1 (5)
The circle is centered at (1,1). We can find the radius of the circle in two
methods.
Method 1 (Using the directed distance between −𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4 = 0 and the point
(1,1)
(−1)(1) + (1)(1) + 4
𝑟= = 2√2
√(−1)2 + (1)2

Method 2 (using the distance formula between (3, −1) and (1,1))

𝑟 = √(1 − 3)2 + (1 − (−1))2 = 2√2

Now we can find the equation of the circle centered at (ℎ, 𝑘) = (1,1) and radius
𝑟 = 2√2, we have
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 → (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = (2√2)2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0

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Learning Activity

1. Find the standard form of the equation of the circle that passes through
(0,1) and concentric with the circle centered at (2,1) and radius 3.

2. Find the equation of the circle with the center at the origin and tangent
to the line 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 15. Draw the figure.

3. Find the general form of the equation of a circle if the circle whose center
is at (-2,-2) and whose radius is 3. Draw the circle.

4. Find the general form of the equation of a circle if the circle is tangent to
both axes at (-2,0) and (0,2) respectively. Draw the circle.

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Lesson 4

 Conic Sections

4.1 Parabola
The parabola is defined as the locus of a point which moves so that it is always
the same distance from a fixed point (called the focus) and a given line (called
the directrix).
In the following graph,
 The focus of the parabola is at (0, 𝑝)
 The directrix is the line 𝑦 = −𝑝
 The focal distance is |𝑝| (Distance from the origin to the focus, and from
the origin to the directrix. We take absolute value because distance is
positive.)
 The point (𝑥, 𝑦) represents any point on the curve.
 The distance 𝑑 from any point (𝑥, 𝑦) to the focus (0, 𝑝) is the same as the
distance from (𝑥, 𝑦) to the directrix.
 The axis of symmetry of this parabola is the 𝑦-axis.

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The Formula for a Parabola - Vertical Axis

Adding to our diagram from above, we see that the distance 𝑑 = 𝑦 + 𝑝

Now, using the Distance Formula on the general points (0, 𝑝) and (𝑥, 𝑦), and
equating it to our value 𝑑 = 𝑦 + 𝑝, we have

√(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑝)2 = 𝑦 + 𝑝

Squaring both sides gives:

(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑝)2 = (𝑦 + 𝑝)2
Simplifying gives us the formula for a parabola:
𝑥 2 = 4𝑝𝑦
In more familiar form, with "𝑦 = " on the left, we can write this as:
𝑥2
𝑦=
4𝑝
where 𝑝 is the focal distance of the parabola.

The eccentricity of the parabola is the ratio of the distance to the focus to the
distance to the directrix.
e=1
The Latus Rectum of a parabola is a line that passes through the focus and
perpendicular to the axis of the conic.
LR = 4a

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Example 19. Sketch the parabola

𝑥2
𝑦=
2
Find the focal length and indicate the focus and the directrix on your graph.
Solution:
The focal length is found by equating the general expression for 𝑦
𝑥2
𝑦=
4𝑝
and our particular example:
𝑥2
𝑦=
2
So we have:
𝑥2 𝑥2
= → 𝑝 = 0.5
2 4𝑝
So the focus will be at (0,0.5) and the directrix is the line 𝑦 = −0.5.

Parabolas with Horizontal Axis

We can also have the situation where the axis of the parabola is horizontal:

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In this case, we have the relation: (not function)

𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥
[In a relation, there are two or more values of 𝑦 for each value of 𝑥. On the
other hand, a function only has one value of 𝑦 for each value of 𝑥.]
The above graph's axis of symmetry is the 𝑥-axis.

Example 20. Sketch the curve and find the equation of the parabola with focus
(−2,0) and directrix 𝑥 = 2.
Solution: In this case, we have the following graph:

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After sketching, we can see that the equation required is in the following form,
since we have a horizontal axis:
𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥
Since 𝑝 = −2 (from the question), we can directly write the equation of the
parabola:
𝑦 2 = 4(−2)𝑥
𝑦 2 = −8𝑥

Shifting the Vertex of a Parabola from the Origin

This is a similar concept to the case when we shifted the centre of a circle from
the origin.

To shift the vertex of a parabola from (0, 0) to (ℎ, 𝑘), each 𝑥 in the equation
becomes (𝑥 − ℎ) and each 𝑦 becomes (𝑦 − 𝑘).

So if the axis of a parabola is vertical, and the vertex is at (h, k), we have
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘)

In the above case, the axis of symmetry is the vertical line through the point
(ℎ, 𝑘), that is 𝑥 = ℎ.

If the axis of a parabola is horizontal, and the vertex is at (ℎ, 𝑘), the equation
becomes
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ)

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In the above case, the axis of symmetry is the horizontal line through the point
(ℎ, 𝑘), that is 𝑦 = 𝑘.

Example 21. Find the equation of the parabola having vertex (0, 0), axis along
the x-axis and passing through (2, −1).
Solution: The curve must have the following orientation, since we know it has
horizontal axis and passes through (2, −1):

So we need to use the general formula for a parabola with horizontal axis:
𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥
We need to find 𝑝. We know the curve goes through (2, −1), so we substitute:
1
(−1)2 = 4(𝑝)(2) → 1 = 8𝑝 → 𝑝 =
8
𝑥
So the required equation is 𝑦 2 = 2

Example 22. Determine the vertex, focus, directric and axis for each parabola.
(a) 𝑦 2 = −8𝑥 (𝑏) 𝑥 2 = 6𝑦 (𝑐) (𝑦 − 3)2 = 5(𝑥 + 7)
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(a) 𝑦 2 = −8𝑥; 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 (ℎ, 𝑘) = (0,0). 4𝑝 = −8, 𝑠𝑜 𝑝 = −2, 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 (𝑝, 0) =

(−2,0), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = −𝑝, 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = −(−2) = 2, 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 0
3
(b) 𝑥 2 = 6𝑦; 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 (ℎ, 𝑘) = (0,0). 4𝑝 = 6, 𝑠𝑜 𝑝 = 2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 (0, 𝑝) =
3 3
(𝑜, 2) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = −𝑝, 𝑠𝑜 𝑦 = − 2 , 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 0
5
(c) (𝑦 − 3)2 = 5(𝑥 + 7); 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 (ℎ, 𝑘) = (−7,3). 4𝑝 = 5, 𝑠𝑜 𝑝 = 4 , 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 (ℎ +
5 23 5
𝑝, 𝑘) = (−7 + 4 , 3) = (− , 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑝 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = −7 − 4 =
4
33
− , 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑠𝑜 𝑦 = 3
4

Example 23. Write the equation of parabola with the given characteristics.
Vertex (4,6) and focus (4,8)
Since the vertex (4,6) and the focus (4,8) lie on the line x = 4 (see Figure
below), we have a parabola of the form (x-h)2 = 4p(y-k).

Since the vertex is (4,6) we have h = 4 and k = 6.

The focus is (h,k+p), so k+p = 8 and 6+p = 8, so p = 2.
The equation of the parabola is (x – 4)2 = 8(y – 6).

Example 24. Write the equation of parabola in standard form.

𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐𝒚 − 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 12𝑦 + 32 reorganize terms
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 12𝑦 + 32 + 4 complete the square of x
(𝑥 − 2)2 = 12𝑦 + 36 factor right-hand side of equation
(𝑥 − 2)2 = 12(𝑦 + 3) standard form

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4.2 Ellipses

Ellipses with Horizontal Major Axis

Ellipse with horizontal major axis (in blue) and showing the minor axis in magenta
color.

The standard forms for the central ellipsed are:

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
+ =1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
where 𝑎 is the length from the center of the ellipse to the end the major axis,
and 𝑏 is the length from the center to the end of the minor axis.
The larger denominator is always a2 for an ellipse. If the numerator for a 2 is x2
then the major axis lies on the x-axis. If the numerator for a2 is y2 then the major
axis lies on the y-axis.
The foci (plural of 'focus') of the ellipse (with horizontal major axis)
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
are at (−𝑐, 0) and (𝑐, 0), where c is given by:

𝑐 = √𝑎 2 − 𝑏 2
The vertices of an ellipse are at (−𝑎, 0) and (𝑎, 0).

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Ellipse with Vertical Major Axis

Ellipse with vertical major axis (in blue) and minor axis in magenta.

A vertical major axis means the ellipse will have greater height than width.

If the major axis is vertical, then the formula becomes:

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑏 2 𝑎2
We always choose our 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑎 > 𝑏. The major axis is always
associated with 𝑎.

Eccentricity
The eccentricity of an ellipse is a measure of how elongated it is. If the
eccentricity approaches value 0, the curve becomes more circular, and if it
approaches 1, the ellipse becomes more elongated.

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We can calculate the eccentricity using the formula:

𝑐
𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎
The Latus Rectum of an ellipse is a line that passes through the focus and
perpendicular to the axis of the conic.
2𝑏2
LR =
𝑎
Ellipses with Centre Other Than the Origin
Like the other conics, we can move the ellipse so that its axes are not on the 𝑥-
axis and 𝑦-axis. We do this for convenience when solving certain problems.

For the horizontal major axis case, if we move the intersection of the major and
minor axes to the point (ℎ, 𝑘), we have:
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
The ellipse is as follows:

For the vertical major axis case, if we move the intersection of the major and
minor axes to the point (ℎ, 𝑘), we have:
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑏2 𝑎2

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V – vertices
F – foci
C - Center
B - covertices

Example 25. Determine the center, foci, vertices and covertices for each ellipse.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
(a) + =𝟏
𝟐𝟓 𝟗
Since a2 is the greater denominator, a2 = 25 and b2 = 9, so a = 5 and b = 3. From
a2 = b2+c2, we get 25 = 9+c2 and c = 4.
The center is at (0,0). The vertices are at (a,0) and (-a,0) , so V(5,0) and V’(-
5,0). The foci are at (c,0) and (-c,0), so F(4,0) and F(-4,0). The covertices are at
(0,b) and (0,-b), so B(0,3 and B’(0,-3).

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
(b) + =𝟏
𝟑 𝟏𝟎
a2 = 10 and b2 = 3, so a =√10, b = √3, and since a2 = b2+c2 , c = √7
Since y2 is over the larger denominator, the vertices and foci are on the y-axis.
The center is (0,0).
Vertices (0,a) and (0, -a) V(0,√10), 𝑉′(0, −√10)
Foci (0,c) and (0,-c) F(0,√7), F’(0,−√7),
Covertices (b,0) and (-b,0) B(√3, 0) 𝐵′(−√3, 0)

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(𝒙−𝟑)𝟐 (𝒚−𝟒)𝟐
(c) + =𝟏
𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟖𝟗

𝑎2 = 289 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 2 = 225, 𝑠𝑜 𝑎 = 17 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

c = 8.
Since (y-4)2 is over a2, the vertices and foci are on a line parallel to the y-axis.
Center (h,k) = (3,4)
Vertices (h,k+a) and (h, k-a) V(3,21), V’(3, -13)
Foci (h,k+c) and (h, k-c) F(3,12), F’(3,-4)
Covertices (h+b,k) and (h-b,k) B(18,4), B’(-12,4)
Example 26. Write the equation of the ellipse having the given characteristics.
(a) Central ellipse, foci at (±4,0) and vertices at (±5,0)
A central ellipse has its center at the origin, so (h,k) = (0,0). Since the vertices
are on the x-axis and the center is at (0,0), the form of the ellipse is
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
From a vertex at (5,0) and the center at (0,0), we get a = 5.
From a focus at (4,0) and the center at (0,0), we get c=4.
Since a2 = b2 + c2, 25 = b2 + 16, so b2 = 9 and b = 3.
The equation of the ellipse is
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
25 9

Example 27.
(b). Center at (0,3) , major axis of length 12, foci at (0,6) and (0,0)
Since the center is at (0,3) , h = 0 and k = 3. Since the foci are on the y-axis, the
form of the equation of the ellipse is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
The foci are (h, k+c) and (h, k – c) , so (0,6) = (h, k+c) and 3+c = 6 and c = 3.
The major axis length is 12, so we know 2a = 12 and a = 6.

From a2 = b2 + c2 , we get 36 = b2 + 9 and b2 = 27.

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(𝑦−3)2 𝑥2
The equation of the ellipse is + =1
36 27

Example 28.
Write the equation of the ellipse 18x2 + 12y2 – 144x + 48y + 120 = 0 in standard
form.
18x2 + 12y2 – 144x + 48y + 120 = 0
(18𝑥 2 − 144𝑥) + (12𝑦 2 + 48𝑦) = −120 reorganize terms
18(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥) + 12(𝑦 2 + 4𝑦) = −120 factor to get x2 and y2
18(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16) + 12(𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4) = −120 + 18(16) + 12(4) complete
square on x and
y
18(𝑥 − 4)2 + 12(𝑦 + 2)2 = 216 simplify
18(𝑥−4)2 12(𝑦+2)2
+ =1 divide by 216
216 216
(𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑦 + 2)2
+ =1
12 18

4.3 Hyperbola
The hyerbola is the locus of all points in a plan such that for any point of the
locus the difference of the distances from two fixed points, the foci, is a
constant.
Central hyperbolas have their center at the origin and their vertices and
focu on one axis, and are symmetric with respect to the other axis. The
standard form equations for central hyperbolas are:
𝑥2 𝑦2
2
− =1
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑦2 𝑥2
and 2
− =1
𝑎 𝑏2
The distance from the center to a vertex is denoted by a and the distance from
the center to a focus is c. For a hyperbola, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and b is a positive
number. The line segment between the vertices is called the transverse axis.
The denominator of the positive fraction for the standard form is always a2.

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If the center of the hyperbola is at (h,k) the standard forms are:

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2

− = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
The eccentricity of a hyperbola is the ratio of the distance to the focus to the
dsitance to the directrix.
e> 1
The Latus Rectum of hyperbola is a line that passes through the focus and
perpendicular to the axis of the conic.
2𝑏2
LR =
𝑎
See figures below:

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Example 29. Find the coordinates of the center, vertices and foci for each
hyperbola.
(𝒙−𝟒)𝟐 (𝒚−𝟓)𝟐
(a) − =𝟏
𝟗 𝟏𝟔

Since a2 = 9 and b2 = 16 we have a = 3 and b = 4

From c2 = a2+b2, we get c = 5
Center is (h,k) = (4,5)
Vertices are V(h+a,k) and V’(h-a,k) V(7,5) and V’(1,5)
Foci are F(h+c,k) and F’(h-c,k) F(9,5) and F’(-1,5)
(𝒚+𝟓)𝟐 (𝒙+𝟗)𝟐
(b) − =𝟏
𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟒

Since a2 = 25 and b2 = 144 we have a = 5 and b = 12

From c2 = a2+b2, we get c = 13
Center is (h,k) = (-9,-5)
Vertices are V(h,k+a) and V’(h,k-a) V(-9,0) and V’(-9,-10)
Foci are F(h,k+c) and F’(h,k-c) F(-9,8) and F’(-9,-18)

Example 30. Write the equation of the hyperbola that has the given
characteristics.
(a) Foci are at (2,5) and (-4,5) and transverse axis has length 4.
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The foci are on a line parallel to the x-axis, so the form is

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
The center is halfway between the foci, so c = 3 and the center is at C(-1,5).
The transverse axis joins the vertices, so its length is 2a, so 2a = 4 and a = 2.
Since, c2 = a2+b2 , c = 3 and a = 2, so b2 = 5.
The equation of the hyperbola is,
(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑦 − 5)2
− =1
4 5

(b) Center at (1,-3), a focus is at (1,2) and a vertex is at (1,1).

The distance from the focus (1,2) to the center (1,-3) is c, so c = 5.
Since, c2 = a2+b2 , c = 5, so b2 = 9.
Since the center, vertex and focus lie on a line parallel to the y-axis, the
hyperbola has the form
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
The center is at (1,-3), so h=1 and k=-3
The equation of the hyperbola is,
(𝑦 + 3)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
− =1
16 9

Example 31. Write the equation of each hyperbola in standard form.

(a) 25𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 − 100𝑥 − 72𝑦 − 269 = 0
(25𝑥 2 − 100𝑥) + (−9𝑦 2 − 72𝑦) = 269 Rearrange terms

25(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) − 9(𝑦 2 + 8𝑦) = 269 Factor to get x2 and y2

25(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) − 9(𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 16) Complete square for x
= 269 + 25(4) and y
− 9(16)

25(𝑥 − 2)2 − 9(𝑦 + 4)2 = 225 Simplify then divide by

225
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(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑦 + 4)2 Standard form

− =1
9 25

(b) 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 − 24𝑥 − 90𝑦 − 153 = 0

(4𝑥 2 − 24𝑥) + (−9𝑦 2 − 90𝑦) = 153 Reorganize terms
4(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥) − 9(𝑦 2 + 10𝑦) = 153 Factor to get x2 and y2
4(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) − 9(𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 25) Complete square for x and y
= 153 + 4(9) − 9(25)
4(𝑥 − 3) − 9(𝑦 + 5)2 = −36
2 Simplify then divide by -36
(𝑥 − 3)2 (𝑦 + 5)2 Simplify signs
− =1
−9 −4
(𝑦 + 5)2 (𝑥 − 3)2 Standard form
− =1
4 9

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LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Determine the vertex, focus, directric and axis for each parabola.
(𝑥 − 1)2 = −4(𝑦 + 4)

2. Write the equation of parabola with the given characteristics.

focus(3,5) and directrix y=3
3. Determine the center, foci, vertices and covertices for the ellipse given
(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑦 − 2)2
+ =1
100 64
4. Find the coordinates of the center, vertices, and foci for the hyperbola,
(𝑥 + 3)2 (𝑦 − 4)2
− =1
225 64

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 MODULE SUMMARY

In module IV, you have learned the Analytic Geometry which shows the
principles and operations of the subject.

There are four lessons in module IV. Lesson 1 deals with the Fundamental
Concepts of Analytic Geometry as an Introduction for the Subject.

Lesson 2 deals with Family of Lines and its distance to a point. It is the vital
concept of mathematics and enters into our daily experiences in numerous
interesting and useful ways.

Lesson 3 deals with Circles. The method used in solving straight lines will also
serve for finding the equation of families of circles passing through the
intersections of two circles.

Lesson 4 is all about the Conic Sections compose of Parabola, Ellipses and
Hyperbolas. The interest in conic sections is enhanced by numerous important
theoretical and practical applications.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module IV.

Module IV