RF Module

User’s Guide
RF Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM021001

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the RF Module 14

What Can the RF Module Do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
What Problems Can You Solve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The RF Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 18
Selecting the Study Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The RF Module Modeling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 21

Overview of the User’s Guide 24

Chapter 2: RF Modeling

Preparing for RF Modeling 28

Simplifying Geometries 29
2D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Using Efficient Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Applying Electromagnetic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Meshing and Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Periodic Boundary Conditions 34

Scattered Field Formulation 36

Modeling with Far-Field Calculations 39

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Radiation Pattern Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

CONTENTS |3
 S-Parameters and Ports 48
S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field . . . . . . . . . 48
S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
S-Parameter Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Additional Variables for Periodic Structure Calculations . . . . . . . . 50
Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export . . . . . 51

Lumped Ports with Voltage Input 53

About Lumped Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Lumped Port Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Lumped Ports in the RF Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Jones Vectors and Polarization Plots 57

Jones Vectors for Polarization Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Polarization Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Jones Vector Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations 60

Eigenfrequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Mode Analysis and Boundary Mode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Connecting to Electrical Circuits 65

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . 65
Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings . . . . . . . 66
Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings . . . . . . . 66
Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Postprocessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

SPICE Import and Export 69

SPICE Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
SPICE Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Reduced-Order Modeling 71
Adaptive Frequency Sweep Using Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation
(AWE) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Frequency Domain, Modal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 | CONTENTS
 Part Libraries 75

Material Libraries 76

Chapter 3: Electromagnetics Theory

Maxwell’s Equations 80
Maxwell’s Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Special Calculations 89
S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Far-Field Calculations Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Electromagnetic Quantities 95

Chapter 4: Radio Frequency Interfaces

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface 98

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface . . . . . . 110
Wave Equation, Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Divergence Constraint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
External Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Far-Field Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Specific Absorption Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

CONTENTS |5
 Perfect Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Integration Line for Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Integration Line for Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Circular Port Reference Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Diffraction Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Orthogonal Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Periodic Port Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Lumped Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Uniform Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Matched Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Scattering Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Symmetry Axis Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Surface Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Surface Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Layered Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Layered Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Magnetic Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Two-Port Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Two-Port Network Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Three-Port Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Three-Port Network Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Four-Port Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Four-Port Network Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Mixed Mode S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Cable Shield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Symmetry Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6 | CONTENTS
Edge Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Magnetic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Line Current (Out-of-Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Effective Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface 185

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface . . . . . . . . . . 188
Wave Equation, Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Drude–Lorentz Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

The Transmission Line Interface 195

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Transmission Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Absorbing Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Incoming Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Open Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Terminating Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

The Transmission Line, Transient Interface 203

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line, Transient Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Transmission Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Absorbing Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Incoming Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Open Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Terminating Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

CONTENTS |7
 The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface 210
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Time Explicit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Electric Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Perfect Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Surface Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Scattering Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Flux/Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Background Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Far-Field Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

The Electromagnetic Waves, Asymptotic Scattering Interface 223

Asymptotic Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface 227

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface . . . . . . 236
Wave Equation, Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Electric Field Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

The Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM Interface 242

The Transmission Line, RLGC Parameters Interface 245

Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces 246

Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations . . . . . . . . . . 246

8 | CONTENTS
 Frequency Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Time Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Curl Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Eigenfrequency Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Gaussian Beams as Background Fields and Input Fields. . . . . . . . 256
Linearly Polarized Plane Wave as Background Field in 2D
Axisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Periodic Port Mode Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . . 260
Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . . . . 261
Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . 262
Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . 263
Archie’s Law Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Reference for Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Theory for the Transmission Line Interface 266

Introduction to Transmission Line Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 267

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Interface 270

Introduction to Transmission Line, Transient Theory . . . . . . . . 270
Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions . . . 271

Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit

Interface 274
The Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
In-Plane E Field or In-Plane H Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Absorbing Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Chapter 5: AC/DC Interfaces

The Electrical Circuit Interface 284

Ground Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Ampère Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

CONTENTS |9
 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Voltage-Controlled Current Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Current-Controlled Voltage Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Current-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Subcircuit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Subcircuit Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
NPN BJT and PNP BJT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
External I vs. U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
External U vs. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
External I-Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
SPICE Circuit Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
SPICE Circuit Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface 301

Electrical Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models . . . 301
Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
MOSFET Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Chapter 6: Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Microwave Heating Interface 312

Electromagnetic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

10 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 7: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 320

Index 323

CONTENTS | 11
12 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the RF Module, an optional add-on package for COMSOL
Multiphysics® with customized physics interfaces and functionality optimized for
the analysis of electromagnetic waves.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the RF Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

13
 About the RF Module
In this section:

• What Can the RF Module Do?

• What Problems Can You Solve?
• The RF Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Selecting the Study Type
• The RF Module Modeling Process
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

What Can the RF Module Do?

The RF Module solves problems in the general field of electromagnetic waves, such as
RF and microwave applications, optics, and photonics. The underlying equations for
electromagnetics are automatically available in all of the physics interfaces — a feature
unique to COMSOL Multiphysics. This also makes nonstandard modeling easily
accessible.

The module is useful for component design in virtually all areas where you find
electromagnetic waves, such as:

• Antennas
• Filters, couplers, and power dividers
• Planar circuits and passive devices
• RF interconnects and packages
• Waveguides and cavity resonators
• Frequency-selective surfaces
• Metamaterials

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The physics interfaces cover the following types of electromagnetics field simulations
and handle time-harmonic, time-dependent, and eigenfrequency/eigenmode
problems:

• In-plane, axisymmetric, and full 3D electromagnetic wave propagation

• Full vector mode analysis in 2D and 3D

Material properties include inhomogeneous and fully anisotropic materials, media with
gains or losses, and complex-valued material properties. In addition to the standard
postprocessing features, the module supports direct computation of S-parameters and
far-field radiation patterns. You can add ports with a wave excitation with specified
power level and mode type, and add PMLs (perfectly matched layers) to simulate
electromagnetic waves that propagate into an unbounded domain. For time-harmonic
simulations, you can use the scattered wave or the total wave.

Using the multiphysics capabilities of COMSOL Multiphysics you can couple

simulations with heat transfer, structural mechanics, fluid-flow formulations, and other
physical phenomena.

This module also has interfaces for circuit modeling, a SPICE interface, and support
for importing ECAD drawings.

What Problems Can You Solve?

QUASISTATIC AND HIGH FREQUENCY MODELING

One major difference between quasistatic and high-frequency modeling is that the
formulations depend on the electrical size of the structure. This dimensionless
measure is the ratio between the largest distance between two points in the structure
divided by the wavelength of the electromagnetic fields.

For simulations of structures with an electrical size in the range up to 1/10,

quasi-static formulations are suitable. The physical assumption of these situations is
that wave propagation delays are small enough to be neglected. Thus, phase shifts or
phase gradients in fields are caused by materials and/or conductor arrangements being
inductive or capacitive rather than being caused by propagation delays.

For electrostatic, magnetostatic, and quasi-static electromagnetics, use the AC/DC

Module, a COMSOL Multiphysics add-on module for low-frequency
electromagnetics.

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 15

 When propagation delays become important, it is necessary to use the full Maxwell
equations for high-frequency electromagnetic waves. They are appropriate for
structures of electrical size 1/100 and larger. Thus, an overlapping range exists where
you can use both the quasi-static and the full Maxwell physics interfaces.

Independently of the structure size, the module accommodates any case of nonlinear,
inhomogeneous, or anisotropic media. It also handles materials with properties that
vary as a function of time as well as frequency-dispersive materials.

The RF Module Physics Interface Guide

The physics interfaces in this module form a complete set of simulation tools for
electromagnetic wave simulations. Add the physics interface and study type when
starting to build a new model. You can add physics interfaces and studies to an existing
model throughout the design process. In addition to the core physics interfaces
included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license, the physics interfaces below
are included with the RF Module and available in the indicated space dimension. All
physics interfaces are available in 2D and 3D. In 2D there are in-plane formulations
for problems with a planar symmetry as well as axisymmetric formulations for problems
with a cylindrical symmetry. 2D mode analysis of waveguide cross sections with
out-of-plane propagation is also supported.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• Creating a New Model
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

AC/DC

Electrical Circuit cir Not space stationary; frequency

dependent domain; time dependent;
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Heat Transfer

Electromagnetic Heating

Microwave Heating1 — 3D, 2D, 2D frequency-stationary;

axisymmetric frequency-transient;
frequency-stationary,
one-way electromagnetic
heating;
frequency-transient,
one-way electromagnetic
heating
Radio Frequency

Electromagnetic Waves, ewas 3D, 2D frequency domain

Asymptotic Scattering
Electromagnetic Waves, embe 3D, 2D frequency domain
Boundary Elements
Electromagnetic Waves, emw 3D, 2D, 2D adaptive frequency sweep;
Frequency Domain axisymmetric boundary mode analysis;
eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; frequency domain,
modal; frequency domain,
RF adaptive mesh;
frequency domain source
sweep; mode analysis (2D
and 2D axisymmetric
models only); TEM
boundary mode analysis

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Electromagnetic Waves, ewte 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time

Time Explicit axisymmetric dependent with FFT
Electromagnetic Waves, temw 3D, 2D, 2D eigenfrequency; time
Transient axisymmetric dependent; time
dependent, modal; time
dependent with FFT
Transmission Line tl 3D, 2D, 1D eigenfrequency; frequency
domain
Transmission Line, tlt 3D, 2D, 1D time dependent
Transient
Electromagnetic Waves, 3D, 2D frequency domain
FEM-BEM1
Transmission Line, RLGC 2D frequency domain
Parameters1
1
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Selecting the Study Type
To carry out different kinds of simulations for a given set of parameters in a physics
interface, you can select, add, and change the Study Types at almost every stage of
modeling.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

COMPARING THE TIME DEPENDENT AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDIES

When variations in time are present there are two main approaches to represent the
time dependence. The most straightforward is to solve the problem by calculating the
changes in the solution for each time step; that is, solving using the Time Dependent
study (available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface). However, this
approach can be time consuming if small time steps are necessary for the desired
accuracy. It is necessary when the inputs are transients like turn-on and turn-off
sequences.

However, if the Frequency Domain study available with the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface is used, this allows you to efficiently simplify and assume
that all variations in time occur as sinusoidal signals. Then the problem is time
harmonic and in the frequency domain. Thus you can formulate it as a stationary
problem with complex-valued solutions. The complex value represents both the
amplitude and the phase of the field, while the frequency is specified as a scalar model
input, usually provided by the solver. This approach is useful because, combined with
Fourier analysis, it applies to all periodic signals with the exception of nonlinear
problems. Examples of typical frequency domain simulations are wave-propagation
problems like waveguides and antennas.

For nonlinear problems you can apply a Frequency Domain study after a linearization
of the problem, which assumes that the distortion of the sinusoidal signal is small.

Use a Time Dependent study when the nonlinear influence is strong, or if you are
interested in the harmonic distortion of a sine signal. It can also be more efficient to
use a Time Dependent study if you have a periodic input with many harmonics, like a
square-shaped signal.

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 19

 DEFAULT FREQUENCY
In the RF module, the Frequency Domain, the Frequency-Domain Modal, and the
Eigenfrequency study step have GHz as the default frequency unit and a default
frequency of 1[GHz].

The RF Module Modeling Process

The modeling process has these main steps, which (excluding the first step),
correspond to the branches displayed in the Model Builder in the COMSOL Desktop
environment.

1 Selecting the appropriate physics interface or predefined multiphysics coupling

when adding a physics interface.
2 Defining component parameters and variables in the Definitions branch ( ).
3 Drawing or importing the component geometry in the Geometry branch ( ).
4 Assigning material properties to the geometry in the Materials branch ( ).
5 Setting up the model equations and boundary conditions in the physics interfaces
branch.
6 Meshing in the Mesh branch ( ).
7 Setting up the study and computing the solution in the Study branch ( ).
8 Analyzing and visualizing the results in the Results branch ( ).

When using frequency related study steps, define the simulation

frequency in the Study branch first. The frequency in the Study node
will then be used for defining the physics-controlled mesh and in any
frequency-based physics features.

Even after a model is defined, you can edit to input data, equations, boundary
conditions, geometry — the equations and boundary conditions are still available
through associative geometry — and mesh settings. You can restart the solver, for
example, using the existing solution as the initial condition or initial guess. It is also

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
easy to add another physics interface to account for a phenomenon not previously
described in a model.

• Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
• The RF Module Physics Interface Guide
• Selecting the Study Type

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 21

 displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@[Link].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@[Link]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website [Link]

Contact COMSOL [Link]/contact
COMSOL Access [Link]/access
Support Center [Link]/support
Product Download [Link]/product-download
Product Updates [Link]/product-update
COMSOL Blog [Link]/blogs
Discussion Forum [Link]/forum
Events [Link]/events
COMSOL Application Gallery [Link]/models
COMSOL Video Gallery [Link]/videos
Learning Center [Link]/support/learning-center
Support Knowledge Base [Link]/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 23

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The RF Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how
to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

MODELING WITH THE RF MODULE

The RF Modeling chapter familiarize you with the modeling procedures. A number of
examples available through the Application Libraries window also illustrate the
different aspects of the simulation process. Topics include Preparing for RF Modeling,
Simplifying Geometries, and Scattered Field Formulation.

RF THEORY
The Electromagnetics Theory chapter contains a review of the basic theory of
electromagnetics, starting with Maxwell’s Equations, and the theory for some Special
Calculations: S-parameters, lumped port parameters, and far-field analysis. There is
also a list of Electromagnetic Quantities with their SI units and symbols.

RADIO FREQUENCY
Radio Frequency Interfaces chapter describes:

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface, which analyzes

frequency domain electromagnetic waves, and uses time-harmonic and
eigenfrequency or eigenmode (2D only) studies, boundary mode analysis and
frequency domain, modal.
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface, which supports the Time
Dependent study type.
• The Transmission Line Interface, which solves the time-harmonic transmission line
equation for the electric potential.

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface, which solves a transient wave
equation for both the electric and magnetic fields.
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface, which analyzes
time-harmonic electromagnetic waves using the boundary element method.

The underlying theory is also included at the end of the chapter.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
AC/DC Interfaces chapter describes The Electrical Circuit Interface, which simulates
the current in a conductive and capacitive material under the influence of an electric
field. All three study types (Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent) are
available. The underlying theory is also included at the end of the chapter.

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describes the Microwave Heating interface, which
combines the physics features of an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
interface from the RF Module with the Heat Transfer interface. The predefined
interaction adds the electromagnetic losses from the electromagnetic waves as a heat
source and solves frequency domain (time-harmonic) electromagnetic waves in
conjunction with stationary or transient heat transfer. This physics interface is based on
the assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal
time scale (adiabatic assumption). The underlying theory is also included at the end of
the chapter.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 25

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

RF Modeling

The goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the modeling procedure in the
RF Module. A number of models available in the RF Module Application Library
also illustrate the different aspects of the simulation process.

In this chapter:

• Preparing for RF Modeling

• Simplifying Geometries
• Periodic Boundary Conditions
• Scattered Field Formulation
• Modeling with Far-Field Calculations
• S-Parameters and Ports
• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input
• Jones Vectors and Polarization Plots
• Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations
• Connecting to Electrical Circuits
• SPICE Import and Export
• Reduced-Order Modeling
• Part Libraries and Material Libraries

27
 Preparing for RF Modeling
Several modeling topics are described in this section that might not be found in
ordinary textbooks on electromagnetic theory.

This section is intended to help answer questions such as:

• Which space dimension should I use: 3D, 2D axial symmetry, or 2D?

• Is my problem suited for time-dependent or frequency domain formulations?
• Can I use a quasi-static formulation or do I need wave propagation?
• What sources can I use to excite the fields?
• When do I need to resolve the thickness of thin shells and when can I use boundary
conditions?
• What is the purpose of the model?
• What information do I want to extract from the model?

Increasing the complexity of a model to make it more accurate usually makes it more
expensive to simulate. A complex model is also more difficult to manage and interpret
than a simple one. Keep in mind that it can be more accurate and efficient to use several
simple models instead of a single, complex one.

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

28 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Simplifying Geometries
Most of the problems that are solved with COMSOL Multiphysics are three-
dimensional (3D) in the real world. In many cases, it is sufficient to solve a two-
dimensional (2D) problem that is close to or equivalent to the real problem.
Furthermore, it is good practice to start a modeling project by building one or several
2D models before going to a 3D model. This is because 2D models are easier to
modify and solve much faster. Thus, modeling mistakes are much easier to find when
working in 2D. Once the 2D model is verified, you are in a much better position to
build a 3D model.

In this section:

• 2D Models
• 3D Models
• Using Efficient Boundary Conditions
• Applying Electromagnetic Sources
• Meshing and Solving

2D Models
The text below is a guide to some of the common approximations made for 2D
models. Remember that the modeling in 2D usually represents some 3D geometry
under the assumption that nothing changes in the third dimension or that the field has
a prescribed propagation component in the third dimension.

CARTESIAN COORDINATES
In this case a cross section is viewed in the xy-plane of the actual 3D geometry. The
geometry is mathematically extended to infinity in both directions along the z-axis,
assuming no variation along that axis or that the field has a prescribed wave vector
component along that axis. All the total flows in and out of boundaries are per unit
length along the z-axis. A simplified way of looking at this is to assume that the
geometry is extruded one unit length from the cross section along the z-axis. The total
flow out of each boundary is then from the face created by the extruded boundary (a
boundary in 2D is a line).

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 29
 There are usually two approaches that lead to a 2D cross-section view of a problem.
The first approach is when it is known that there is no variation of the solution in one
particular dimension.

This is shown in the model H-Bend Waveguide 2D, where the electric field only has
one component in the z direction and is constant along that axis. The second approach
is when there is a problem where the influence of the finite extension in the third
dimension can be neglected.

Figure 2-1: The cross sections and their real geometry for Cartesian coordinates and
cylindrical coordinates (axial symmetry).

H-Bend Waveguide 2D: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_2d

AXIAL SYMMETRY (CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES)

If the 3D geometry can be constructed by revolving a cross section around an axis, and
if no variations in any variable occur when going around the axis of revolution (or that
the field has a prescribed wave vector component in the direction of revolution), then
use an axisymmetric physics interface. The spatial coordinates are called r and z, where
r is the radius. The flow at the boundaries is given per unit length along the third
dimension. Because this dimension is a revolution all flows must be multiplied with r,
where  is the revolution angle (for example, 2 for a full turn).

Conical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/Antennas/

conical_antenna

30 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
 When using the axisymmetric versions, the horizontal axis represents the
radial (r) direction and the vertical axis the z direction, and the geometry
in the right half plane (that is, for positive r only) must be created.

POLARIZATION IN 2D
In addition to selecting 2D or 2D axisymmetry when you start building the model, the
physics interfaces (The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface or The
Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface) in the Model Builder offers a choice in
the Components settings section. The available choices are Out-of-plane vector, In-
plane vector, and Three-component vector. This choice determines what polarizations
can be handled. For example, as you are solving for the electric field, a 2D TM (out-
of-plane H field) model requires choosing In-plane vector as then the electric field
components are in the modeling plane.

3D Models
Although COMSOL Multiphysics fully supports arbitrary 3D geometries, it is
important to simplify the problem. This is because 3D models often require more
computer power, memory, and time to solve. The extra time spent on simplifying a
model is probably well spent when solving it. Below are a few issues that need to be
addressed before starting to implement a 3D model in this module.

• Check if it is possible to solve the problem in 2D. Given that the necessary
approximations are small, the solution is more accurate in 2D, because a much
denser mesh can be used.
• Look for symmetries in the geometry and model. Many problems have planes where
the solution is the same on both sides of the plane. A good way to check this is to
flip the geometry around the plane, for example, by turning it up-side down around
the horizontal plane. Then remove the geometry below the plane if no differences
are observed between the two cases regarding geometry, materials, and sources.
Boundaries created by the cross section between the geometry and this plane need
a symmetry boundary condition, which is available in all 3D physics interfaces.
• There are also cases when the dependence along one direction is known, and it can
be replaced by an analytical function. Use this approach either to convert 3D to 2D
or to convert a layer to a boundary condition.

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 31
 Using Efficient Boundary Conditions
An important technique to minimize the problem size is to use efficient boundary
conditions. Truncating the geometry without introducing too large errors is one of the
great challenges in modeling. Below are a few suggestions of how to do this. They
apply to both 2D and 3D problems.

• Many models extend to infinity or can have regions where the solution only
undergoes small changes. This problem is addressed in two related steps. First, the
geometry needs to be truncated in a suitable position. Second, a suitable boundary
condition needs to be applied there. For static and quasistatic models, it is often
possible to assume zero fields at the open boundary, provided that this is at a
sufficient distance away from the sources. For radiation problems, special low-
reflecting boundary conditions need to be applied. This boundary should be in the
order of a few wavelengths away from any source.
A more accurate option is to use perfectly matched layers (PMLs). PMLs are layers
that absorbs all radiated waves with small reflections.
Another option is to truncate the model, using The Electromagnetic Waves,
Boundary Elements Interface for the infinite void domain.
• Replace thin layers with boundary conditions where possible. There are several types
of boundary conditions in COMSOL Multiphysics suitable for such replacements.
For example, replace materials with high conductivity by the perfect electric
conductor (PEC) boundary condition.
• Use boundary conditions for known solutions. For example, an antenna aperture
can be modeled as an equivalent surface current density on a 2D face (boundary) in
a 3D model.

Applying Electromagnetic Sources

Electromagnetic sources can be applied in many different ways. The typical options are
boundary sources, line sources, and point sources, where point sources in 2D
formulations are equivalent to line sources in 3D formulations. The way sources are
imposed can have an impact on what quantities can be computed from the model. For
example, a line source in an electromagnetic wave model represents a singularity and
the magnetic field does not have a finite value at the position of the source. In a
COMSOL Multiphysics model, the magnetic field of a line source has a finite but
mesh-dependent value. In general, using volume or boundary sources is more flexible

32 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
than using line sources or point sources, but the meshing of the source domains
becomes more expensive.

Meshing and Solving

The finite element method approximates the solution within each element, using some
elementary shape function that can be constant, linear, or of higher order. Depending
on the element order in the model, a finer or coarser mesh is required to resolve the
solution. In general, there are three problem-dependent factors that determine the
necessary mesh resolution:

• The first is the variation in the solution due to geometrical factors. The mesh
generator automatically generates a finer mesh where there is a lot of fine
geometrical details. Try to remove such details if they do not influence the solution,
because they produce a lot of unnecessary mesh elements.
• The second is the skin effect or the field variation due to losses. It is easy to estimate
the skin depth from the conductivity, permeability, and frequency. At least two linear
elements per skin depth are required to capture the variation of the fields. If the skin
depth is not studied or a very accurate measure of the dissipation loss profile is not
needed, replace regions with a small skin depth with a boundary condition, thereby
saving elements. If it is necessary to resolve the skin depth, the boundary layer
meshing technique can be a convenient way to get a dense mesh near a boundary.
• The third and last factor is the wavelength. To resolve a wave properly, it is necessary
to use about 10 linear (or five 2nd order) elements per wavelength. Keep in mind
that the wavelength depends on the local material properties.

SOLVERS
In most cases the solver sequence generated by COMSOL Multiphysics can be used.
The choice of solver is optimized for the typical case for each physics interface and
study type in this module. However, in special cases tuning the solver settings can be
required. This is especially important for 3D problems because they can require a large
amount of memory.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Meshing
• Studies and Solvers

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 33
 Periodic Boundary Conditions
The RF Module has a dedicated Periodic Condition. The periodic condition can
identify simple mappings on plane source and destination boundaries of equal shape.
The destination can also be rotated with respect to the source. There are three types
of periodic conditions available (only the first two for transient analysis):

• Continuity — The tangential components of the solution variables are equal on the
source and destination.
• Antiperiodicity — The tangential components have opposite signs.
• Floquet periodicity — There is a phase shift between the fields on the two parallel
boundaries. The phase shift is determined by a wave vector and the distance between
the source and destination. Floquet periodicity is typically used for models involving
plane waves interacting with periodic structures.
• Cyclic symmetry — There is a phase shift between the fields on the two sector
boundaries. The phase shift is determined by an azimuthal mode number and the
sector geometry angle.

Periodic boundary conditions must have compatible meshes. This can be done
automatically by enabling Physics-controlled mesh in the Sequence Type section in the
settings for the mesh or by manually setting up the correct mesh sequence.

If more advanced periodic boundary conditions are required, for

example, when there is a known rotation of the polarization from one
boundary to another, see Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for tools to define more
general mappings between boundaries.

To learn how to use the Copy Mesh feature to ensure that the mesh on
the destination boundary is identical to that on the source boundary, see
Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/
plasmonic_wire_grating.

For an example of how to use the Physics-controlled mesh, see Fresnel

Equations: Application Library path RF_Module/Verification_Examples/
fresnel_equations.

34 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Periodic Condition
• Periodic Boundary Conditions

PERIODIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS | 35

 Scattered Field Formulation
For problems where a known background field is illuminating an object in free space
it is possible to use the scattered field formulation. Since the equation of the
background field is known it can be entered as a model input and does not need to be
computed. Starting from the frequency-domain governing equation:

    –1   E  –  2 c E = 0

The total electric field, E, can be decomposed into two components:

E  Etotal  Ebackground  Erelative

The known background field becomes a source term and the scattered field
formulation thus solves for the relative electric field. A linearly polarized plane wave
background field, a paraxial-approximate Gaussian beam, or a user-defined
background field can be specified. When solving the scattered field formulation the
total, the background, and the relative electric fields are available. The relative field is
the difference between the background field and the total field. It is the relative field
that contributes to the far-field calculation. For more information about the Far-Field
computation, see Far-Field Calculations Theory. The benefit to this approach is that if
the background field is much larger in magnitude than the scattered field, the accuracy
of the simulation improves if the relative field is solved for. Another advantage is that
it becomes very easy to set up a perfectly matched layer surrounding the homogeneous
medium modeling domain.

The drawback to this approach is that the relative field requires some careful
interpretation. The relative electric field can conceptually be decomposed into:

Erelative  Escattered  Ecorrection  Ecancellation

The Escattered component is the scattered field from object. This is the field that is of
interest in a scattering problem. However, the relative field may also consist of a
component that represents a correction to the background field and a cancellation of
the background field. The Ecorrection component can be nonzero when the
background field does not exactly satisfy Maxwell’s equations, such as when the
paraxial Gaussian beam approximation is used for a tightly focused beam. For more
information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian Beams as Background
Fields and Input Fields. The Ecancellation component will be nonzero and equal to 
Ebackground wherever the total field should be zero, such as in the interior of any

36 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
perfectly shielded objects, or behind a relatively large shielding object. Note that this
decomposition is conceptual only, it is only the relative field that is available.

An alternative of using the scattered-field formulation, is to use ports with the Activate
slit condition on interior port setting enabled. Then the domain can be excited by the
interior port and the outgoing field can be absorbed by perfectly matched layers. For
more information about the Port feature and the Activate slit condition on interior port
setting, see Port Properties.

A default Electric Field, Background plot of the instantaneous background electric field
norm is automatically added to any model that uses the scattered–field formulation,
except when the Background wave type is set to Linearly polarized plane wave for 2D
Axisymmetry. For this case, a default plot is added of a component of the linearly
polarized plane wave background field.
TABLE 2-1: SCATTERED-FIELD FORMULATION VARIABLES

VARIABLE DESCRIPTION AVAILABLE COMPONENT

normEb Background electric field norm 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D

normEbi Instantaneous background 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
electric field norm
Ebx Background electric field, x- 2D, 3D
component
Eby Background electric field, y- 2D, 3D
component
Ebz Background electric field, z- 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
component
Ebr Background electric field, r- 2D Axisymmetric
component
Ebphi Background electric field, z- 2D Axisymmetric
component
relEx Relative electric field, x- 2D, 3D
component
relEy Relative electric field, y- 2D, 3D
component
relEz Relative electric field, z- 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
component
relEr Relative electric field, r- 2D Axisymmetric
component
relEphi Relative electric field, phi- 2D Axisymmetric
component

SCATTERED FIELD FORMULATION | 37

 TABLE 2-2: BACKGROUND FIELD INTENSITY AND POWER VARIABLES

VARIABLE DESCRIPTION BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE SELECTION

Ib Background plane wave Linearly polarized plane Global

intensity wave, Circularly
polarized plane wave
Ib Background Gaussian Gaussian beam Domain
beam intensity
Ib0 Background Gaussian Gaussian beam Global
beam maximum intensity
Pb0 Background Gaussian Gaussian beam Global
beam total power
Table 2-1 lists the most important variables related to the electric field, defined only
for the scattered-field formulation. Table 2-2 describes the intensity and power
variables, defined for different background wave types.

SCATTERED FIELDS SETTING

The scattered-field formulation is available for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain Interface under the Settings section. The scattered field in the analysis is called
the relative electric field. The total electric field is always available, and for the
scattered-field formulation this is the sum of the scattered field and the incident field.

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path RF_Module/

Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

38 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Modeling with Far-Field Calculations
The far electromagnetic field from, for example, antennas can be calculated from the
near-field solution on a boundary using far-field analysis. The antenna is located in the
vicinity of the origin, while the far field is taken at infinity but with a well-defined
angular direction , . The far-field radiation pattern is given by evaluating the
squared norm of the far field on a sphere centered at the origin. Each coordinate on
the surface of the sphere represents an angular direction.

In this section:

• Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface

• The Radiation Pattern Plots

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path RF_Module/

Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface supports far-field analysis.
To define the far-field variables use the Far-Field Calculation node. Select a domain for
the far-field calculation. Then select the boundaries where the algorithm integrates the
near field, and enter a name for the far electric field. Also specify if symmetry planes are
used in the model when calculating the far-field variable. The symmetry planes have to
coincide with one of the Cartesian coordinate planes. For each of these planes it is
possible to select the type of symmetry to use, which can be of either symmetry in E
(PMC) or symmetry in H (PEC). Make the choice here match the boundary
condition used for the symmetry boundary. Using these settings, the parts of the
geometry that are not in the model for symmetry reasons can be included in the far-
field analysis.

The Far-Field Domain and the Far-Field Calculation nodes get their selections
automatically, if the Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) feature has been defined before
adding the Far-Field Domain feature.

For each variable name entered, the software generates functions and variables, which
represent the vector components of the far electric field. The names of these variables

MODELING WITH FAR-FIELD CALCULATIONS | 39

 are constructed by appending the names of the independent variables to the name
entered in the field.

For example, the name Efar is entered and the geometry is Cartesian with the
independent variables x, y, and z, the generated variables get the names Efarx, Efary,
and Efarz.

If, on the other hand, the geometry is axisymmetric with the independent variables r,
phi, and z, the generated variables get the names Efarr, Efarphi, and Efarz.

In 2D, the software only generates the variables for the nonzero field components. The
physics interface name also appears in front of the variable names so they can vary, but
typically look something like [Link] and so forth.

To each of the generated variables, there is a corresponding function with the same
name. This function takes the vector components of the evaluated far-field direction as
arguments.

The vector components also can be interpreted as a position. For example, assume that
the variables dx, dy, and dz represent the direction in which the far electric field is
evaluated.

The expression

Efarx(dx,dy,dz)

gives the value of the far electric field in this direction. To give the direction as an angle,
use the expression

Efarx(sin(theta)*cos(phi),sin(theta)*sin(phi),cos(theta))

where the variables theta and phi are defined to represent the angular direction , 
in radians. The magnitude of the far field and its value in dB are also generated as the
variables normEfar and normdBEfar, respectively.

Far-Field Calculations Theory

The Radiation Pattern Plots

The Radiation Pattern plots are available with this module to plot the value of a global
variable (for example, the far field norm, normEfar and normdBEfar, or components
of the far-field variable Efar).

40 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
The variables are plotted for a selected number of angles on a unit circle (in 2D) or a
unit sphere (in 3D). The angle interval and the number of angles can be manually
specified. For 2D Radiation Pattern plots, the reference direction from which the angle
is measured and the normal to the plane the far field is computed for can also be
specified. For 3D Radiation Pattern plots, you also specify an expression for the surface
color.

The main advantage with the Radiation Pattern plot, as compared to making a Line
Graph, is that the unit circle or sphere that you use for defining the plot directions is
not part of your geometry for the solution. Thus, the number of plotting directions is
decoupled from the discretization of the solution domain.

Default Radiation Pattern plots of the far-field norm are automatically

added to any model that uses far-field calculation features combined with
a far-field domain feature. If a model is driven by ports or lumped ports,
an antenna realized gain plot is added instead. An Export Expressions
subfeature is also added under the default Radiation Pattern node to
include elevation and azimuth angle information. This subfeature is useful
when performing Add Plot Data to Export from the context menu.

TABLE 2-3: VARIABLES AND OPERATORS GENERATED BY FAR FIELD.

NAME DESCRIPTION AVAILABLE COMPONENT

Variables normEfar Far-field norm 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D

normdBEfar Far-field norm, dB 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
Efarx Far-field variable, 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
x component
Efary Far-field variable, 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
y component
Efarz Far-field variable, 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
z component
EIRP Effective isotropic radiated 3D
power
EIRPdB Effective isotropic radiated 3D
power, dB
gainEfar Far-field gain 3D
gaindBEfar Far-field gain, dB 3D
axialRatio Axial ratio 3D

MODELING WITH FAR-FIELD CALCULATIONS | 41

 TABLE 2-3: VARIABLES AND OPERATORS GENERATED BY FAR FIELD.

NAME DESCRIPTION AVAILABLE COMPONENT

axialRatiodB Axial ratio, dB 3D

bRCS3D Bistatic radar cross section 3D
mRCS3D Monostatic radar cross 3D
section
Efarphi Far-field variable, 3D
phi component
Efartheta Far-field variable, 3D
theta component
rGainEfar Far-field realized gain 3D
rGaindBEfar Far-field realized gain, dB 3D
TRP Total radiated power 3D
TRPdB Total radiated power, dB 3D
bRCS2D Bistatic radar cross section 2D
per unit length
mRCS2D Monostatic radar cross 2D
section per unit length
maxD Maximum directivity1 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
maxDdB Maximum directivity, dB1 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
maxGain Maximum gain1 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
maxGaindB Maximum gain, dB1 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
maxRGain Maximum realized gain1 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
maxRGaindB Maximum realized gain, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
dB1
Functions4 norm3DEfar 3D far-field norm2 2D Axisymmetric
2
normdB3DEfar 3D far-field norm, dB 2D Axisymmetric
af3 Uniform three dimensional 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
array factor3
af2 Uniform two dimensional 2D
array factor3
afhex Hexagonal uniform array 3D
factor3
1See Directivity via Global Evaluation.

2
See 3D Far-Field Norm Functions in 2D Axisymmetry.

42 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
3
See Array Factor Operators.
4
See Far-Field Analysis Using Functions and Operators.

FAR-FIELD ANALYSIS USING FUNCTIONS AND OPERATORS

The postprocessing far-field functions are available under Component > Definitions >
Functions. Below you find example models using these functions and some links to
more information.

• 2D example with a Polar Plot Group — Radar Cross Section:

Application Library path RF_Module/Scattering_and_RCS/
radar_cross_section
• 2D axisymmetric example with a Polar Plot Group and a 3D Plot
Group — Conical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/
Antennas/conical_antenna
• 3D example with a Polar Plot Group and a 3D Plot Group — Radome
with Double-Layered Dielectric Lens: Application Library path
RF_Module/Antennas/radome_antenna
• Uniform array factor operator used in a Polar Plot Group and a 3D Plot
Group — Microstrip Patch Antenna: Application Library path
RF_Module/Antenna_Arrays/microstrip_patch_antenna_inset

• Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface
• Radiation Pattern in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

3D Far-Field Norm Functions in 2D Axisymmetry

The functions norm3DEfar and normdB3DEfar calculate the 3D far-field norms, based
on field solutions in 2D axisymmetric geometry. These functions are available in these
cases:

• Far-field analysis using circular port excitation with a positive azimuthal mode
number
• Scattered field analysis excited by the predefined circularly polarized plane wave type

The function can be used in a 3D Radiation Pattern plot, where the input argument of
the function must be same as the Azimuth angle variable in the Evaluation section in the
Settings window.

MODELING WITH FAR-FIELD CALCULATIONS | 43

 The suffix of a function name varies based on the circular port mode type, port mode
number, and azimuthal mode number in the physics interface. For example, when
using azimuthal mode number 1 in the physics interface and transverse electric (TE)
mode with mode number 2 in the port settings, the generated operator name is
norm3DEfar_TE12.

When the function is used in a radiation pattern plot under a 1D or a polar plot group,
the value of input argument defines the plotting plane regardless of the normal and
reference direction in the Evaluation section in the Settings window. For example,
norm3DEfar_TE12(0)evaluates the norm of the electric far field for the TE12 mode
for a 0-degree azimuthal angle. This is equivalent to plotting this variable on the xz-
plane. Similarly, norm3DEfar_TE12(pi/2) is the evaluation at a 90-degree azimuthal
angle, which is equivalent to plotting the variable on the yz-plane.

The 3D far-field norm, the linear superposition of the positive and negative azimuthal
modes scaled by 0.5, is

2 2 2
E r cos m + E  sin m  + E z cos m ,

where  is the azimuthal angle.

Array Factor Operators

Uniform array factor The equation for the uniform three dimensional array factor
operator af3 is

nx ny
sin  -----  2d x sin  cos  +  x  sin  -----  2sd y sin  cos  +  y 
2  2 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- , --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2d sin  cos  +  2d sin  cos  + 
sin  --------------------------------------------------- sin  ---------------------------------------------------
x x y y
2 2

nz
sin  -----  2d z sin  cos  +  z 
2 
´ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ,
2d sin  cos  + 
sin  ---------------------------------------------------
z z
2

where  is the elevation angle and  is the azimuthal angle.

The uniform two-dimensional array factor operator af2 is simpler than the three-
dimensional version, as the third, the z-component factor, is unity.

44 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
 The number of input arguments for the array factor operators depends on the
dimension of model component, 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, or 3D.
TABLE 2-4: INPUT ARGUMENTS OF UNIFORM ARRAY FACTOR OPERATOR.

ARGUMENT DESCRIPTION UNIT COMPONENT

nx Number of elements along x-axis Dimensionless 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D

ny Number of elements along y-axis Dimensionless 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
nz Number of elements along z-axis Dimensionless 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
dx Distance between array elements Wavelength 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
along x-axis
dy Distance between array elements Wavelength 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
along y-axis
dz Distance between array elements Wavelength 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
along z-axis
alphax Phase progression along x-axis Radian 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
alphay Phase progression along y-axis Radian 2D, 2D Axisymmetric, 3D
alphaz Phase progression along z-axis Radian 2D Axisymmetric, 3D

Hexagonal uniform array factor When array elements are distributed not on a
conventional rectangular grid but on a triangular grid forming a hexagonal shape array,
the two-dimensional afhex operator is available in a 3D model.
TABLE 2-5: INPUT ARGUMENTS OF HEXAGONAL UNIFORM ARRAY FACTOR OPERATOR.

ARGUMENT DESCRIPTION UNIT COMPONENT

np Number of elements along Dimensionless 3D

diagonal axis
dx Distance between array elements Wavelength 3D
along x-axis
dy Distance between array elements Wavelength 3D
along y-axis
For an odd number of array elements, the number of elements on the diagonal axis is
also an odd number. For instance, when np is set to 15, the number of elements, n, on

MODELING WITH FAR-FIELD CALCULATIONS | 45

 a hexagonal array edge, (np  1)/2, evaluates to 8 and the total number of array
elements, 3n2  3n  1, is then 169.

Figure 2-2: Configuration for an odd number hexagonal array.

For an even number of array elements, the number of elements on the diagonal axis is
also an even number. The shape of the hexagon is uneven and configured with two
edge sizes. The number of elements on the smaller edge n is np/2 and the other edge
has n  1 elements. When np is set to 8, the total number of array elements, 3n2, is 48.

Figure 2-3: Configuration for an even number hexagonal array.

46 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
ANTENNA ANALYSIS USING FAR-FIELD VARIABLES
The directional properties of a radiation pattern described by variables, generated from
a far-field calculation feature, help to characterize the performance of antenna devices.

Directivity from a 3D Plot

While plotting a 3D radiation pattern, the maximum directivity can be calculated by
evaluating the ratio between the radiation intensity and the average value of the
radiation intensity. Since the radiation intensity is a function of power, the square of
the far-field norm has to be used in the Directivity expression in the Radiation Pattern
settings window for the antenna directivity calculation. For other physics interfaces,
such as in the Acoustics module, the expression is different.

Directivity via Global Evaluation

The maximum directivity can be computed through Results > Derived Values > Global
Evaluation. This calculation is based on the maximum and averaged intensity values on
the far-field calculation selection. It requires the selection for the far-field calculation
feature to be spherical for 3D and circular for 2D axisymmetric model components,
both centered at the origin.

Gain
The antenna realized gain is defined as

2
G realized = 4U normEfar
------------ = ---------------------------------
-
P in 60P in

where U is the radiation intensity, Re  E far  H far   2 = normEfar  240 , and

2

Pin is the total input power.

The antenna gain is

2
normEfar
G = ---------------------------------
-
60P delivered

where the delivered power, Pdelivered is Pin1  S112. The gain is available only when
the S-parameter calculation is valid, that is, for the single port excitation case.

MODELING WITH FAR-FIELD CALCULATIONS | 47

 S - P a r a m e te r s an d Port s
In this section:

• S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field

• S-Parameter Calculations
• S-Parameter Variables
• Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field

Scattering parameters (or S-parameters) are complex-valued, frequency dependent
matrices describing the transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves at
different ports of devices like filters, antennas, waveguide transitions, and transmission
lines. S-parameters originate from transmission-line theory and are defined in terms of
transmitted and reflected voltage waves. All ports are assumed to be connected to
matched loads/feeds, that is, there is no reflection directly at a port.

For a device with n ports, the S-parameters are

S 11 S 12 . . S 1n
S 21 S 22 . . .
S = . . . . .
. . . . .
S n1 . . . S nn

where S11 is the voltage reflection coefficient at port 1, S21 is the voltage transmission
coefficient from port 1 to port 2, and so on. The time average power reflection/
transmission coefficients are obtained as |Sij |2.

Now, for high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is

necessary to define the scattering parameters in terms of the electric field.

For details on how COMSOL Multiphysics calculates the S-parameters,

see S-Parameter Calculations.

48 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
S-Parameter Calculations
The RF interfaces have built-in support for S-parameter calculations. Use a Port
boundary feature for each port in the model. For connecting transmission lines and
other lumped feeds, use a lumped port that approximates a connecting transmission
lines or a voltage source with a known internal impedance. The lumped port should
only be used when the port width is much smaller than the wavelength.

• For more details about lumped ports, see Lumped Ports with Voltage
Input.
• See Port and Lumped Port for instructions to set up a model.

For a detailed description of how to model numerical ports with a

boundary mode analysis, see Waveguide Adapter: Application Library
path RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/waveguide_adapter.

S-Parameter Variables
This module automatically generates variables for the S-parameters. The port names
(use numbers for sweeps to work correctly) determine the variable names. If, for
example, there are two ports with the numbers 1 and 2 and Port 1 is the inport, the
software generates the variables S11 and S21. S11 is the S-parameter for the reflected
wave and S21 is the S-parameter for the transmitted wave. For convenience, two
variables for the S-parameters on a dB scale, S11dB and S21dB, are also defined using
the following relation:

S 11dB = 20 log 10  S 11 

The model and physics interface names also appear in front of the variable names so
they can vary. The S-parameter variables are added to the predefined quantities in
appropriate plot lists.

In addition to the S-parameter variables, variables are also added for voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR) when using a single port, two-port ABCD-parameters when using

S-PARAMETERS AND PORTS | 49

 two ports, and reflection coefficient with multiple excitation when all ports are excited,
as shown in the table below:

NAME DESCRIPTION

emw.VSWR_N VSWR, port N

[Link] ABCD-parameter, full 2-by-2 matrix
emw.ABCD_A ABCD-parameter, A
emw.ABCD_B ABCD-parameter, B
emw.ABCD_C ABCD-parameter, C
emw.ABCD_D ABCD-parameter, D
emw.Gamma_N Reflection coefficient with multiple excitation, port N

In the table above, emw is the tag for the physics interface. This tag can be different for
different physics interface instances. N is the name of the port (a number).

The VSWR variable is generated when a model uses and excites a single port.

The ABCD-parameters are produced when two ports are employed. When a port
sweep is conducted, the full 2-by-2 S-parameter matrix is transformed into the ABCD-
parameters using a 50  reference impedance. If not, the network is assumed to be
reciprocal, with S21 = S12 and S11 = S22. The hypothetical full S-parameters are then
converted to ABCD-parameters accordingly.

The reflection coefficient with multiple excitation variables are useful for examining
the inflow back to the excitation port, especially when multiple ports are excited
simultaneously, as seen in phased antenna array applications.

Additional Variables for Periodic Structure Calculations

The Port (of Periodic type), Diffraction Order, and Orthogonal Polarization nodes
also add additional global variables that describe the properties of the plane-wave
diffraction orders, used in periodic structure simulations.

NAME DESCRIPTION DIMENSION

emw.kModex_K Port mode wave vector, port K, x-component 2D, 3D

emw.kModey_K Port mode wave vector, port K, y-component 2D, 3D
emw.kModez_K Port mode wave vector, port K, z-component 2D, 3D

50 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
NAME DESCRIPTION DIMENSION

emw.Eamplx_K Electric mode field amplitude, port K, x- 2D, 3D

component
emw.Eamply_K Electric mode field amplitude, port K, y- 2D, 3D
component
emw.Eamplz_K Electric mode field amplitude, port K, z- 2D, 3D
component
emw.Emodex_K Electric mode field port K, x-component 2D, 3D
emw.Emodey_K Electric mode field port K, y-component 2D, 3D
emw.Emodez_K Electric mode field port K, z-component 2D, 3D
emw.alpha1Port_K Elevation angle, port K 2D, 3D
emw.alpha1R_M Elevation angle on reflection side, order M 2D
emw.alpha1T_M Elevation angle on transmission side, order M 2D
emw.alpha1R_M_N Elevation angle on reflection side, order 3D
[M,N]
emw.alpha1T_M_N Elevation angle on transmission side, order 3D
[M,N]
emw.alpha2Port_K Azimuth angle, port K 2D, 3D
emw.alpha2R_M Azimuth angle on reflection side, order M 2D
emw.alpha2T_M Azimuth angle on transmission side, order M 2D
emw.alpha2R_M_N Azimuth angle on reflection side, order [M,N] 3D
emw.alpha2T_M_N Azimuth angle on transmission side, order 3D
[M,N]
In the table above, K represents the port name and M and N are diffraction order mode
numbers.

Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

The Port Sweep Settings section in the Electromagnetic Waves interface describes how
to cycle through the ports, compute the entire S-matrix and export it to a Touchstone
file.

The Frequency Domain Source Sweep study is another way of making efficient port
sweeps. It is available as a preset study for the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain interface.

Exporting a Touchstone file can also be performed by right-clicking the Export node
under Results and selecting Touchstone or by selecting Touchstone under Data in the

S-PARAMETERS AND PORTS | 51

 Results ribbon toolbar (Windows users) or the Results context menu (Mac and Linux
users).

H-Bend Waveguide 3D: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_3d

52 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
L um pe d P o r t s wi t h Vol t age In p u t
In this section:

• About Lumped Ports

• Lumped Port Parameters
• Lumped Ports in the RF Module

About Lumped Ports

The ports described in the S-Parameters and Ports section require a detailed
specification of the mode, including the propagation constant and field profile. In
situations with the mode being TEM, a lumped port might be a better choice. It also
allows for connecting to an electrical circuit. It is not as accurate as the ordinary port
in terms of calculating S-parameters, but it is easier to use. Lumped ports are used to
model a connecting transmission line or as a voltage or current source applied between
electrodes. For example, apply a lumped port directly to a printed circuit board or to
the transmission line feed of a device. The lumped port must be applied between two
metallic objects separated by a distance much smaller than the wavelength, that is a
local quasi-static approximation must be justified. This is because the concept of port
or gap voltage breaks down unless the gap is much smaller than the local wavelength.

A lumped port specified as an input port calculates the impedance, Zport, and S11 S-
parameter for that port. The parameters are directly given by the relations

V port
Z port = ------------
-
I port
V port – V in
S 11 = ---------------------------
-
V in

where Vport is the extracted voltage for the port given by the electric field line integral
between the terminals averaged over the entire port. The current Iport is the averaged
total current over all cross sections parallel to the terminals. Ports not specified as input
ports only return the extracted voltage and current.

Lumped Port Parameters

LUMPED PORTS WITH VOLTAGE INPUT | 53

 Lumped Port Parameters
In transmission line theory voltages and currents are dealt with rather than electric and
magnetic fields, so the lumped port provides an interface between them. The
requirement on a lumped port is that the feed point must be similar to a transmission
line feed, so its gap must be much less than the wavelength. It is then possible to define
the electric field from the voltage as

V =  E  dl =   E  ah  dl
h h

where h is a line between the terminals at the beginning of the transmission line, and
the integration is going from positive (phase) V to ground. The current is positive
going into the terminal at positive V.

I
+V
Js E h
Ground

n
Lumped port boundary

The transmission line current can be represented with a surface current at the lumped
port boundary directed opposite to the electric field.

The impedance of a transmission line is defined as

Z = V
----
I

and in analogy to this an equivalent surface impedance is defined at the lumped port
boundary

E  ah
 = ------------------------
-
Js   –ah 

To calculate the surface current density from the current, integrate along the width, w,
of the transmission line

I =   n  Js   dl 
= –  J s  a h  dl
w w

54 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
where the integration is taken in the direction of ah × n. This gives the following
relation between the transmission line impedance and the surface impedance


 E  a h  dl   E  a h  dl
V h
Z = ---- = ----------------------------------- =  ------------------------------   ---- 
h h
I w

–  J s  a h  dl   E  a h  dl
w w
w
 = Z ----
h

where the last approximation assumed that the electric field is constant over the
integrations. A similar relationship can be derived for coaxial cables

2
 = Z ----------
b
ln ---
a

The transfer equations above are used in an impedance type boundary condition,
relating surface current density to tangential electric field via the surface impedance.

1 1
n   H 1 – H 2  + --- n   E  n  = 2 --- n   E 0  n 
 

where E is the total field and E0 the incident field, corresponding to the total voltage,
V, and incident voltage, V0, at the port.

When using the lumped port as a circuit port, the port voltage is fed as
input to the circuit and the current computed by the circuit is applied as
a uniform current density, that is as a surface current condition. Thus, an
open (unconnected) circuit port is just a continuity condition.

Lumped Ports in the RF Module

Not all models can use lumped ports due to the polarization of the fields and how
sources are specified. For the physics interfaces and study types that support the
lumped port, the Lumped Port is available as a boundary feature. See Lumped Port
for instructions to set up this feature.

LUMPED PORTS WITH VOLTAGE INPUT | 55

 LUMPED PORT VARIABLES
Each lumped port generates variables that are accessible to the user. Apart from the S-
parameter, a lumped port condition also generates the following variables.

NAME DESCRIPTION

Vport Extracted port voltage

Iport Port current
Zport Port impedance

For example, a lumped port with port number 1, defined in the first geometry, for the
Electromagnetic Waves interface with the tag emw, defines the port impedance variable
emw.Zport_1.

RF Coil: Application Library path RF_Module/Passive_Devices/rf_coil

56 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Jones Vectors and Polarization Plots
In this section:

• Jones Vectors for Polarization Analysis

• Polarization Plots
• Jones Vector Variables

Jones Vectors for Polarization Analysis

Periodic ports and Diffraction order ports launch and absorb plane waves propagating
in homogeneous domains (adjacent the port boundary). For a plane wave propagating
with the wave vector k, the polarization must be orthogonal to the wave vector. For
each wave vector, there are two possible orthogonal polarizations. We can select one
such set of orthogonal polarizations by first defining the out-of-plane polarization as
the field in the direction e1 = k  n, where n is the normal direction to the port. Then
the in-plane polarization direction is defined as e2 = e1  k.

Assuming now that e1 and e2 are normalized base vectors, the electric field can be
expanded as

E = E1 e1 + E2 e2 ,

where E1 and E2 are the elements of the Jones vector

 E 
 1.
 E 
 2

In COMSOL, the Jones vector elements are complex numbers and the
Jones vectors are not normalized.

If the Jones vector elements have the same phase or a  phase difference, the Jones
vector represents a linear polarization state. A phase difference of 2 between the

JONES VECTORS AND POLARIZATION PLOTS | 57

 two Jones vector elements defines a circular polarization state. For other phase
differences, the Jones vector represents elliptic polarization states.

For more details about the different types of periodic ports, see

• Periodic
• Diffraction Order
• Orthogonal Polarization

Polarization Plots
Default Polarization plots are automatically generated for Periodic ports in 3D and in
2D, if the Electric field components for setting in the Components section for the physics
interface is set to Three-component vector. The Polarization plot includes polarization
ellipses for each diffraction order. The polarization ellipses are generated by plotting
the in-plane Jones vector element versus the out-of-plane Jones vector element for a
phase change of 2.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual you can find more

information about the Polarization plot type.

For an example model including a Polarization plot, see Hexagonal

Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/hexagonal_grating.

Jones Vector Variables

This module automatically generates variables for the Jones vector elements. As for
Polarization Plots, the variables are created for Periodic ports in 3D and in 2D, if the
Electric field components for setting in the Components section for the physics interface
is set to Three-component vector. The variables are available for postprocessing as global
variables, with names based on what port boundary the variable is applicable for, the
polarization direction, and the mode number. The context above is encoded in a
variable name of the form tag.JXYYY_Z, where

• tag is the physics interface tag, for example emw.

• X is R if the port is located on the same side as the exciting port or otherwise T.

58 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
• YYY is OOP or IP for the out-of-plane and in-plane modes, respectively.
• Z is the mode number that in 2D is provided as a single signed integer and in 3D as
two signed integers separated by an underscore. The signed integers use the prefix
p for positive values and n for negative values.

Thus, the variable emw.JROOP_0_n1 represents the Jones vector element for the out-
of-plane mode in 3D with mode numbers m = 0 and n = 1 for a port located on the
same boundary as the exciting Periodic port.

There are also variables for the norm of the Jones vector, named as tag.normJX_Z,
where X and Z represents the boundary location and mode number, respectively. Thus,
the variable emw.normJR_0_n1 represents the Jones vector norm in 3D with mode
numbers m = 0 and n = 1 for a port located on the same boundary as the exciting
Periodic port.

The base vectors are available for evaluation on the port boundaries, with variable
names like [Link][xyz]_Z, where tag, X, YYY, and Z have the same meanings as
for the variables discussed above and [xyz] is one of the Cartesian components. Thus,
emw.eJTIPx_p1, is the x-component of the in-plane base vector for a 2D port, with
mode number m = +1, that is not located on the same boundary as the exciting port.

JONES VECTORS AND POLARIZATION PLOTS | 59

 Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations
In mode analysis and eigenfrequency analysis, it is usually the primary goal to find a
propagation constant or an eigenfrequency. These quantities are often real-valued
although it is not necessary. If the analysis involves some lossy part, like a nonzero
conductivity or an open boundary, the eigenvalue is complex. In such situations, the
eigenvalue is interpreted as two parts (1) the propagation constant or eigenfrequency
and (2) the damping in space and time.

In this section:

• Eigenfrequency Analysis
• Mode Analysis and Boundary Mode Analysis

Lossy Circular Waveguide: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/lossy_circular_waveguide

Eigenfrequency Analysis
The eigenfrequency analysis solves for the eigenfrequency of a model. The time-
harmonic representation of the fields is more general and includes a complex parameter
in the phase

˜  r e –  t 
˜  r e jt  = Re  E
E  r t  = Re  E T

where the eigenvalue, ()    j, has an imaginary part representing the
eigenfrequency, and a real part responsible for the damping. It is often more common
to use the quality factor or Q factor, which is derived from the eigenfrequency and
damping

-
Q fact = --------
2

60 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
VARIABLES AFFECTED BY EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS
The following list shows the variables that the eigenfrequency analysis affects:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

omega imag(-lambda) No Angular frequency

damp real(lambda) No Damping in time
Qfact 0.5*omega/abs(damp) No Quality factor
nu omega/(2*pi) No Frequency

NONLINEAR EIGENFREQUENCY PROBLEMS

For some combinations of formulation, material parameters, and boundary conditions,
the eigenfrequency problem can be nonlinear, which means that the eigenvalue enters
the equations in another form than the expected second-order polynomial form. The
following table lists those combinations:

SOLVE FOR CRITERION BOUNDARY CONDITION

E Nonzero conductivity Impedance boundary condition

E Nonzero conductivity at Scattering boundary condition
adjacent domain
E Analytical ports Port boundary condition

These situations may require special treatment, especially since it can lead to “singular
matrix” or “undefined value” messages if not treated correctly. Under normal
circumstances, the automatically generated solver settings should handle the cases
described in the table above. However, the following discussion provide some
background to the problem of defining the eigenvalue linearization point. The
complication is not only the nonlinearity itself, it is also the way it enters the equations.
For example the impedance boundary conditions with nonzero boundary conductivity
has the term

 0  0  rbnd
–  –   ------------------------------------------  n   n  H  
 bnd
 rbnd + ---------------- -
 –   0

where ()    j. When the solver starts to solve the eigenfrequency problem it
linearizes the entire formulation with respect to the eigenvalue around a certain
linearization point. By default this linearization point is set to the value provided to the
Value of eigenvalue linearization point field, for the three cases listed in the table above.
Normally, this should be a good value for the linearization point. For instance, for the

LOSSY EIGENVALUE CALCULATIONS | 61

 impedance boundary condition, this avoids setting the eigenvalue  to zero in the
denominator in the equation above. For other cases than those listed in the table
above, the default linearization point is zero.

If the default values for the linearization point is not suitable for your particular
problem, you can manually provide a “good” linearization point for the eigenvalue
solver. Do this in the Eigenvalue Solver node (not the Eigenfrequency node) under the
Solver Configurations node in the Study branch of the Model Builder. A solver
configurations can be generated first. In the General section, select the Transform
eigenvalue linearization point checkbox and enter a suitable value in the Value of
eigenvalue linearization point field. For example, if it is known that the eigenfrequency
is close to 1 GHz, enter the eigenvalue 1[GHz] in the field.

In many cases it is enough to specify a good linearization point and then solve the
problem once. If a more accurate eigenvalue is needed, an iterative scheme is necessary:

1 Specify that the eigenvalue solver only searches for one eigenvalue. Do this either
for an existing solver configurations in the Eigenvalue Solver node or, before
generating a solver sequence, in the Eigenfrequency node.
2 Solve the problem with a “good” linearization point. As the eigenvalue shifts, use
the same value with the real part removed from the eigenvalue or, equivalently, use
the real part of the eigenfrequency.
3 Extract the eigenvalue from the solution and update the linearization point and the
shift.
4 Repeat until the eigenvalue does not change more than a desired tolerance.

• For a list of the studies available by physics interface, see The RF

Module Physics Interface Guide
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Mode Analysis and Boundary Mode Analysis

In mode analysis and boundary mode analysis COMSOL Multiphysics solves for the
propagation constant. The time-harmonic representation is almost the same as for the
eigenfrequency analysis, but with a known propagation in the out-of-plane direction

˜  r e jt – z 
E  r t  = Re  E

62 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
The spatial parameter,   , can have a real part and an imaginary part. For mode
analysis the propagation constant, , is equal to the imaginary part and the real part,
z, represents the damping along the propagation direction. Thus,

 =  z + j = –  ,

where  is the eigenvalue.

In 2D axisymmetry, the complex propagation constant is given by

-
 = – --------- ,
r ave

where rave is the average radius of curvature for the geometry.

For boundary mode analysis, the propagation constant, , is complex,

 = j = –  .

VARIABLES INFLUENCED BY MODE ANALYSIS

The following table lists the variables that are influenced by the mode analysis:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

beta imag(alpha) No Propagation constant

dampz real(alpha) No Attenuation constant
dampzdB 20*log10(exp(1))* No Attenuation per meter in dB
dampz
neff -j*alpha/k0 Yes Effective mode index

In the table above, alpha=-lambda, lambda is the eigenvalue, and k0 is the vacuum
wave number.

VARIABLES INFLUENCED BY BOUNDARY MODE ANALYSIS

The table below lists the variables that are influenced by the boundary-mode analysis:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

beta_i j*lambda Yes Propagation constant

neff_i beta_i/k0 Yes Effective mode index

LOSSY EIGENVALUE CALCULATIONS | 63

 The name suffix indicates that the variables are defined for the port named i.

For an example of Boundary Mode Analysis, see the model Polarized

Circular Ports: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/
polarized_circular_ports.

• For a list of the studies available by physics interface, see The RF

Module Physics Interface Guide
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

64 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Connecting to Electrical Circuits
In this section:

• About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

• Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings
• Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings
• Solving
• Postprocessing

Connecting a 3D Electromagnetic Wave Model to an Electrical

Circuit: Application Library path RF_Module/
Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/coaxial_cable_circuit

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

This section describes the various ways electrical circuits can be connected to other
physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics. If you are not familiar with circuit
modeling, it is recommended that you review the Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface.

In general electrical circuits connect to other physics interfaces via one or more of three
special circuit features:

• External I vs. U
• External U vs. I
• External I-Terminal

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 65

 These features either accept a voltage measurement from the connecting noncircuit
physics interface and return a current from an Electrical Circuit interface or the other
way around.

The “External” features are considered “ideal” current or voltage sources

by the Electrical Circuit interface. Hence, you cannot connect them
directly in parallel (voltage sources) or in series (current sources) with
other ideal sources. This results in the error message The DAE is
structurally inconsistent. A workaround is to provide a suitable parallel
or series resistor, which can be tuned to minimize its influence on the
results.

Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings

In addition to these circuit features, interfaces in the AC/DC Module, RF Module,
MEMS Module, Electric Discharge Module, Plasma Module, and Semiconductor
Module (the modules that include the Electrical Circuit interface) also contain features
that provide couplings to the Electrical Circuit interface by accepting a voltage or a
current from one of the specific circuit features (External I vs. U, External U vs. I, and
External I-Terminal).

This coupling is typically activated when:

• A choice is made in the Settings window for the noncircuit physics interface feature,
which then announces (that is, includes) the coupling to the Electrical Circuit
interface. Its voltage or current is then included to make it visible to the connecting
circuit feature.
• A voltage or current that has been announced (that is, included) is selected in a
feature node’s Settings window.

These circuit connections are supported in Lumped Ports.

Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings

A more general way to connect a physics interface to the Electrical Circuit interface is
to:

• Apply the voltage or current from the connecting “External” circuit feature as an
excitation in the noncircuit physics interface.

66 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
• Define your own voltage or current measurement in the noncircuit physics interface
using variables, coupling operators, and so forth.
• In the Settings window for the Electrical Circuit interface feature, selecting the User-
defined option and entering the name of the variable or expression using coupling
operators defined in the previous step.

DETERMINING A CURRENT OR VOLTAGE VARIABLE NAME

To determine a current or voltage variable name, look at the Dependent Variables node
under the Study node. To do this:

1 In the Model Builder, right-click the Study node and select Show Default Solver.
2 Expand the Solver > Dependent Variables node and click the state node, in this
example, Current through device R1 ([Link]). The variable name is shown in
the Settings window for State.

Typically, voltage variables are named cir.Xn_v and current variables

cir.Xn_i, where n is the “External” device number — 1, 2, and so on.

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 67

 Solving

Some modeling errors lead to the error message The DAE is structurally
inconsistent being displayed when solving. This error typically occurs
from having an open current loop, from connecting voltage sources in
parallel, or connecting current sources in series.

In this respect, the predefined coupling features are also treated as (ideal)
voltage or current sources. The remedy is to close current loops and to
connect resistors in series with voltage sources or in parallel with current
sources.

Postprocessing
The Electrical Circuits interface, unlike most of the other physics interfaces, solves for
a relatively large number of global dependent variables (such as voltages and currents),
instead of solving for a few space-varying fields (such as temperature or displacement).
For this reason, the Electrical Circuit interface does not provide default plots when
computing a study.

The physics interface defines a number of variables that can be used in postprocessing.
All variables defined by the Electrical Circuit interface are of a global scope, and can
be evaluated in a Global Evaluation node (under Derived Values). In addition, the time
evolution or dependency on a parameter can be plotted in a Global plot (under a 1D
Plot Group node).

The physics interface defines a Node voltage variable for each electrical node in the
circuit, with name cir.v_name, where cir is the physics interface Label and <name>
is the node Name. For each two-pin component, the physics interface also defines
variables containing the voltage across it and the current flowing through it. For
resistors it adds a heat source variable as well.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Derived Values, Evaluation Groups, and Tables and Global Evaluation

• Plot Groups and Plots and Global

68 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
S P I C E I m po r t an d E xp ort
SPICE Import
The circuit definition in COMSOL Multiphysics adheres to the SPICE format
developed at the University of California, Berkeley (see Ref. 1 for further information
and references). SPICE netlists can be imported and the corresponding circuit nodes
are generated in the COMSOL Multiphysics model. Most circuit simulators can export
to this format or some version of it.

The Electrical Circuit interface supports the following device models:

TABLE 2-6: SUPPORTED SPICE DEVICE MODELS.

STATEMENT DEVICE MODEL

R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
V Voltage Source
I Current Source
E Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
F Current-Controlled Current Source
G Voltage-Controlled Current Source
H Current-Controlled Voltage Source
D Diode
Q NPN BJT and PNP BJT
M n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET
X Subcircuit Instance

Statements corresponding to multiple devices are resolved by parsing the associated

.model statement. The physics interface also supports the .subckt statement, which
is represented in COMSOL by a Subcircuit Definition node, and the .include
statement. SPICE commands are interpreted case-insensitively. The statement defining
each device is also interpreted as the Device name.

According to SPICE specification, the first line in the netlist file is assumed to be the
title of the netlist and it is ignored by the parser.

SPICE IMPORT AND EXPORT | 69

 SPICE Export
The SPICE Export functionality creates a SPICE netlist file containing a description of
the circuit represented by the physics interface. This functionality can be accessed from
the physics interface context menu (right-click the physics interface node and select
Export SPICE Netlist). After specifying a filename, the circuit is exported and messages
from the export process display in the Messages window. During the export process, a
series of operations are performed:

• In order to avoid conflicts, each component must be identified by a unique Device

name. If one or more components have the same device name, the export operation
fails and an error message is displayed. All characters in a Device name that are not
letters, digits, or underscores are replaced by underscores.
• According to the SPICE specification, each circuit must have a node with name 0,
which is assumed to be the only ground node. When exporting a circuit, any node
with name 0 that is not connected to a Ground component is exported with a
different node name. All nodes that are connected to a Ground components are
exported as a merged node with name 0. The Messages window shows a log message
if these operations are performed, showing the name of the renamed or merged
nodes.
• All characters in node names that are not letters, digits, or underscores are replaced
by underscores.
• Some components (most notably, the External components used to couple to other
physics interfaces) cannot be exported to a SPICE netlist. These components are
ignored during the export process, and a message is shown in the Messages window.
Note that this can change the exported circuit, since some components are then
missing.
• Subcircuit definitions are added as .subckt statements in the netlist.
Semiconductor devices (such as MOSFETs, BJTs, and diodes) are exported as a
SPICE device with a corresponding .model statement.

The title of the exported netlist file is the model’s filename, and the time, date, and
version of COMSOL Multiphysics is added as a comment in the netlist file.

Reference
1. [Link]

70 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Reduced-Order Modeling
When designing bandpass-filter type high-Q devices in the frequency domain, it may
be necessary to apply many frequency samples to describe the passband accurately. The
reduced-order modeling technique can help accelerate the modeling of such devices as
a fine frequency resolution can be used for a modest simulation time.

Two simulation methods: the asymptotic waveform evaluation (AWE) and frequency-
domain modal methods, both are designed to help overcome the conventional issue of
a longer simulation time when using a very fine frequency resolution or running a very
wideband simulation. The AWE is efficient when it comes to describing smooth
frequency responses with a single resonance or no resonance at all. The frequency-
domain modal method, meanwhile, is useful for quickly analyzing multistage filters or
filters of a high number of elements that have multiple resonances in a target passband.

In this section:

• Adaptive Frequency Sweep Using Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation (AWE)

Method
• Frequency Domain, Modal Method

Adaptive Frequency Sweep and Frequency Domain, Modal in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Adaptive Frequency Sweep Using Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation

(AWE) Method
The AWE method is very useful when simulating resonant circuits, especially single-
resonance bandpass-filter type devices with many frequency points. When using the
Adaptive Frequency Sweep study, the simulation time with a much finer frequency
resolution can be almost the same as a coarse resolution regular Frequency Domain
simulation.

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE ASYMPTOTIC WAVEFORM EVALUATION (AWE)

EXPRESSIONS
The simulation time may vary depending on the user input for the AWE expressions.
Any model variable works as an AWE expression, so long as it has a smooth curve shape

REDUCED-ORDER MODELING | 71
 like a Gaussian pulse as a function of frequency. The absolute value of S21,
abs([Link].S21), often works as the input for the AWE expression in the case of
two-port bandpass filters. For one-port devices like antennas, the absolute value of S11
is a good choice. If the frequency response of the AWE expression contains an infinite
gradient — the case for the S11 value of an antenna with excellent impedance matching
at a single frequency point — the simulation will take longer to complete because it
requires many data points to describe the sharp dip. When the loss in a one-port device
is negligible, an alternative expression such as sqrt(1-abs([Link].S11)^2) may
work more efficiently than using abs([Link].S11) directly.

DATA MANAGEMENT
With a very fine frequency step simulation, the solutions contain a lot of data. As a
result, the model file size will increase tremendously when it is saved. By selecting the
Store fields in output checkbox in the Values of Dependent Variables section of the
Frequency Domain study step settings, it is possible to define for what part of the model
the computed solution should be saved. When only S-parameters are of interest, it is
not necessary to store all of the field solutions. Instead, only store the field on the
selections for the port and lumped port boundaries, as those will be used for the S-
parameter calculations.

In the Values of Dependent Variables section, change the selection in the Store fields in
output combo box from All to For selections and then add the explicit selections that
include the port and lumped port boundaries. The explicit selection can be easily
created from the port and lumped port feature by clicking Create Selection icon in the
Boundary Selection settings once the selection is specified.

AWE CONFIGURATION IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDY STEP SETTINGS

The solver performs fast adaptive frequency sweeping using an AWE method. To
trigger the AWE in a Frequency Domain study, the following steps are required:

• Expand Study Extensions section in Frequency Domain study step settings.

• Click the Use asymptotic waveform evaluation checkbox in the Study Extensions
section.
• Specify the user input for the AWE expressions.

Evanescent Mode Cylindrical Cavity Filter: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/cylindrical_cavity_filter_evanescent

RF Coil: Application Library path RF_Module/Passive_Devices/rf_coil

72 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Frequency Domain, Modal Method
Bandpass-frequency responses of a passive circuit often result from a combination of
multiple resonances. Eigenfrequency analysis is used for capturing the resonance
frequencies of a device. In a subsequent step, the information from the Eigenfrequency
solutions can be reused in a Frequency Domain, Modal study to generate a solution for
the driven problem.

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDY STEP SETTINGS

To perform a Frequency Domain, Modal analysis, it is necessary to configure the
Eigenfrequency study step properly. As the output of the Eigenfrequency study may
include unphysical results (so called spurious modes), appropriate settings help refine
the Eigenfrequency study results.

• Set Eigenfrequency search method to Manual

• Adjust Desired number of eigenfrequencies if necessary
• Set Search for eigenfrequencies around to the estimate of the lowest passband
frequency
• Set Eigenfrequency search method around shift to Larger real part

DATA MANAGEMENT
The Store fields in output checkbox in the Values of Dependent Variables section can be
applied to the Frequency Domain, Modal study — if you are interested only in S-
parameters. By storing solutions only on port or lumped port boundaries, the saved
model file size will decrease a lot.

Note that the phase of the computed S-parameters in the Frequency

Domain, Modal study can be different from that of the regular frequency
sweep model due to that all relevant eigenmodes might not be included
in the simulation. It is recommended to perform an initial eigenfrequency
investigation, to find all relevant eigenfrequencies contributing to the
frequency response. If not all relevant eigenfrequencies are included in
the simulation, the results are compatible only for phase-independent S-
parameter values, such as dB-scaled, absolute value, reflectivity, or
transmittivity.

REDUCED-ORDER MODELING | 73
 Cascaded Rectangular Cavity Filter: Application Library path
RF_Module/Filters/cascaded_cavity_filter

Coupled-Line Bandpass Filter: Application Library path RF_Module/

Filters/coupled_line_filter

Coplanar Waveguide Bandpass Filter: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/cpw_bandpass_filter

74 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Part Libraries
In RF simulations, it is often necessary to set up identical geometry sequences, such as
connectors, multiple times. This can be conveniently accomplished using the Part
Library for the RF Module.

The Part Library contains complex shapes, frequently required for RF simulations,
including the following parts:

• Connectors
• Surface mount devices
• Waveguides

The parts are built from partially parameterized sequences of geometry instructions.
For example, you can load the connector_sma_flange2 part into a model and then
specify the outer and inner radii of the coaxial structure. RF parts usually include
selections for the conductive boundary that make it easy to apply PEC boundary
conditions while setting up the physics.

The following RF tutorials use the Part Library to create their geometry
sequences:

• Branch-Line Coupler: Application Library path RF_Module/

Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/branch_line_coupler
• SMA Connectorized Wilkinson Power Divider: Application Library
path RF_Module/Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/wilkinson_power_divider

Part Libraries in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PART LIBRARIES | 75
 Material Libraries
The RF Module features a Material Library with material properties for substrate
materials to assist in modeling RF, microwave, and millimeter-wave circuit boards.

The RF Material Library contains the material property data from following
companies’ products:

AVIENT CORPORATION
PREPERM® Standard Grades, PREPERM® Radome Grades, PREPERM® High-
temperature Grades, PREPERM® Flexible Grades, and PREPERM® H-series Grades

The foregoing materials are the property of Avient Corporation. For product
information concerning such materials, see [Link]
engineered-polymer-formulations/conductive-signal-radiation-shielding-
formulations/preperm-low-loss-dielectric-thermoplastics. For other questions
concerning such materials, please contact [Link]

CORNING INCORPORATED
Alumina Ribbon Ceramic

Material Data supplied by Corning Incorporated, [Link].

GARLOCK
WavePro® WP025LDf, WavePro® WP025, WavePro® WP030, WavePro® WP050,
WavePro® WP108, WavePro® WP120, WavePro® WP156, and WavePro® WP204

The foregoing materials are the property of Garlock Sealing Technologies, LLC
(“Garlock”). For product information concerning these materials, see https://
[Link]/. For other questions concerning the materials, please contact
WavePro@[Link]. Garlock makes no representations or warranties, express or
implied, with respect to its property as included in the RF Modules.

ISOLA GROUP
185HR, 370HR, Astra® MT77, DE104, FR406, FR406N, FR408HR, I-Speed®, I-
Tera® MT40, I-Tera® MT40 (RF/MW), IS400, IS410, IS420, IS550H, IS580G,
P25N, P95/P25, P96/P26, Tachyon® 100G, TerraGreen® 400G, TerraGreen®
400G2, TerraGreen® 400GE, and TerraGreen® 400G (RF/MW).

76 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
The foregoing materials are the property of Isola Group. For product information
concerning such materials, see [Link]
prepreg/. For other questions concerning such materials, please contact https://
[Link]/contact-us/.

ROGERS CORPORATION
RO4000® Laminates, RT/duroid® Laminates, RO3000® Laminates, XT/duroid®
Copper Clad Laminates, TMM® Laminates, TC Series® Laminates, Kappa® 438
Laminates, CuClad® & IsoClad® Series Laminate, DiClad® Series Laminates, CLTE
Series® Materials, AD Series® Laminates, Bondply/Prepreg, and Radix™ Printable
Dielectric

See [Link] for more information.

ZETAMIX
Zetamix  Filaments, White Zirconia Zetamix Filament, and Alumina Zetamix
Filament

The foregoing materials are the property of Nanoe. For product information
concerning such materials, see [Link] For other questions concerning
such materials, please contact contact@[Link].

MATERIAL LIBRARIES | 77
78 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
 3

Electromagnetics Theory

This chapter contains a review of the basic theory of electromagnetics, starting

with Maxwell’s equations, and the theory for some special calculations:
S-parameters, lumped port parameters, and far-field analysis. There is also a list of
electromagnetic quantities with their SI units and symbols.

In this chapter:

• Maxwell’s Equations
• Special Calculations
• Electromagnetic Quantities

See also:

• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

79
 Maxwell’s Equations
In this section:

• Maxwell’s Equations
• Constitutive Relations
• Boundary Conditions
• Potentials
• Electromagnetic Energy
• Material Properties
• Frequency Domain

Maxwell’s Equations
The problem of electromagnetic analysis on a macroscopic level is that of solving
Maxwell’s equations subject to certain boundary conditions. Maxwell’s equations are
a set of equations, written in differential or integral form, stating the relationships
between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These quantities are:

• Electric field intensity E

• Electric displacement field D
• Magnetic field intensity H
• Magnetic flux density B
• Current density J
• Electric charge density 

For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations in the differential form can be
written as

D =  Gauss law, electric

  E = – ------
B- Faradays law
t (3-1)
B = 0 Gauss law, magnetic
  H = J + -------
D Maxwell-Ampères law
t

80 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

Another fundamental equation, derived from Maxwell’s equations, is the equation of
continuity:

J = – ------ (3-2)

t

Constitutive Relations
To obtain a closed system, the equations include constitutive relations that describe
the macroscopic properties of the medium. They are given as

D = 0 E + P
B = 0  H + M  (3-3)

J = E
where 0 and 0 are the permittivity and permeability of vacuum, and  is the electric
conductivity. The constants 0 and 0 are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as
predefined physical constants. In the SI unit system, 0 has an approximate value of 1/
(36·109 F/m; 0 has an approximate value of 4·107 H/m.

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials can have a nonzero P when
there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, for instance,
have a nonzero M when there is no magnetic field present.

For linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field,
P  0 e E, where e is the electric susceptibility. Similarly in linear materials, the
magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, M  m H, where m is
the magnetic susceptibility. For such materials, the constitutive relations are:

D =  0  1 +  e E =  0  r E = E
B =  0  1 +  m H =  0  r H = H

The parameter r is the relative permittivity and r is the relative permeability of the
material. Usually these are scalar properties but can, in the general case, be 3-by-3

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS | 81
 tensors when the material is anisotropic. The properties  and  (without subscripts)
are the permittivity and permeability of the material, respectively.

GENERALIZED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

For nonlinear materials, a generalized form of the constitutive relationships is useful.
The relationship used for electric fields is D  orE + Dr, where Dr is the remanent
displacement, which is the displacement when no electric field is present.

Similarly, a generalized form of the constitutive relation for the magnetic field is

B = 0 r H + Br

where Br is the remanent magnetic flux density, which is the magnetic flux density
when no magnetic field is present.

For some materials, there is a nonlinear relationship between B and H such that

B = f H 

The relation defining the current density is generalized by introducing an externally

generated current Je. The resulting constitutive relation is J E + Je.

ENERGY- AND COENERGY-BASED MAGNETIC CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

Another general approach to define the constitutive relation of a magnetic material
stems from the conservation of magnetic energy density and magnetic coenergy
density. For nonlinear magnetic materials without hysteresis, these densities are
defined as follows.
B
dW m =  H  dB'
0
H
dW' m =  B  dH'
0

In this context, the magnetic field H can be derived from the magnetic flux density B
according to

dW m
H = ----------------
B

Equivalently, the magnetic flux density can be derived from the magnetic field as

82 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 dW m 
B = ----------------
-
H

Boundary Conditions
To get a full description of an electromagnetics problem, boundary conditions must
be specified at material interfaces and physical boundaries. At interfaces between two
media, the boundary conditions can be expressed mathematically as

n2   D1 – D2  = s
n2   E1 – E2  = 0
(3-4)
n2   B1 – B2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = Js

where s and Js denote surface charge density and surface current density, respectively,
and n2 is the outward normal from medium two.

n2

Medium 1

Medium 2

The boundary condition for the current density, derived from Equation 3-4, is
expressed as


n 2   J 1 – J 2  = – -------s-
t

INTERFACE BETWEEN A DIELECTRIC AND A PERFECT CONDUCTOR

A perfect conductor has infinite electric conductivity and thus no internal electric field.
Otherwise, it would produce an infinite current density according to the third
fundamental constitutive relation. At an interface between a dielectric and a perfect
conductor, the boundary conditions for the E and D fields are simplified. Assume that
subscript 1 corresponds to a perfect conductor; then D1  0 and E1  0 in the
relationships just given. If it is a time-varying case, then B1  0 and H1  0 as well, as

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS | 83
 a consequence of Maxwell’s equations. The result is the following set of boundary
conditions for the fields in the dielectric medium for the time-varying case:

–n2  D2 = s
–n2  E2 = 0
(3-5)
–n2  B2 = 0
–n2  H2 = Js

Potentials
Under certain circumstances, it can be helpful to formulate the problems in terms of
the electric scalar potential V and the magnetic vector potential A. They are given by
the equalities

B = A

E = – V – ------
A-
t

The defining equation for the magnetic vector potential is a direct consequence of the
magnetic Gauss’ law. The electric potential results from Faraday’s law.

Electromagnetic Energy
The electric and magnetic energies are defined as

D T
D
We = V  0 E  dD dV = V  0 E  -------
t 
dt dV

B T
 B
Wm =  0 H  dB dV =  - dt dV
 0 H  ------
V V t 

The time derivatives of these expressions are the electric and magnetic power:

D
Pe = V E  -------
t
dV

B
Pm = V H  ------
t
- dV

These quantities are related to the resistive and radiative energy, or energy loss,
through Poynting’s theorem (Ref. 3):

84 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 D B
– V  E  -------
t
+ H  ------- dV =  J  E dV +   E  H   n dS
t V S
where V is the computation domain and S is the closed boundary of V.

The first term on the right-hand side represents the resistive losses,

Ph = V J  E dV
which result in heat dissipation in the material. (The current density J in this
expression is the one appearing in Maxwell–Ampère’s law.)

The second term on the right-hand side of Poynting’s theorem represents the radiative
losses

Pr =
S  E  H   n dS
The quantity S  E × H is called the Poynting vector.

Under the assumption that the material is linear and isotropic, it holds that

D E
E  ------- = E  ------- =   --- E  E
1
t t t 2 
B B
H  ------- = --- B  ------- =   ------- B  B
1 1
t  t  t  2 

By interchanging the order of differentiation and integration (justified by the fact that
the volume is constant and the assumption that the fields are continuous in time), the
result is


V  --2- E  E + ------
- B  B dV =
1 1
–
t 2  V J  E dV + S  E  H   n dS
The integrand of the left-hand side is the total electromagnetic energy density:

1 1
w = w e + w m = --- E  E + ------- B  B
2 2

Material Properties
Until now, there has only been a formal introduction of the constitutive relations.
These seemingly simple relations can be quite complicated at times. There are four

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS | 85
 main groups of materials for which they require some consideration. A given material
can belong to one or more of these groups.

INHOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS
Inhomogeneous materials are the least complicated. An inhomogeneous medium is
one in which the constitutive parameters vary with the space coordinates so that
different field properties prevail at different parts of the material structure.

ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS
For anisotropic materials, the field relationships at any point differ for different
directions of propagation. This means that a 3-by-3 tensor is necessary to properly
define the constitutive relationships. If this tensor is symmetric, the material is often
referred to as reciprocal. In such cases, rotate the coordinate system such that a
diagonal matrix results. If two of the diagonal entries are equal, the material is
uniaxially anisotropic. If none of the elements have the same value, the material is
biaxially anisotropic (Ref. 2). Anisotropic parameters are needed, for example, to
examine permittivity in crystals (Ref. 2) and when working with conductivity in
solenoids.

NONLINEAR MATERIALS
Nonlinearity is the effect of variations in permittivity or permeability with the intensity
of the electromagnetic field. Nonlinearity also includes hysteresis effects where not
only the current field intensities influence the physical properties of the material, but
also the history of the field distribution.

DISPERSIVE MATERIALS
Dispersion describes changes in a wave’s velocity with wavelength. In the frequency
domain, dispersion is expressed with a frequency dependence of the constitutive
relations.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND THE MATERIAL BROWSER

All interfaces in the RF Module support the use of the COMSOL Multiphysics
material libraries. The typical electromagnetic material properties that can be stored
are:

• The electric conductivity

• The relative permittivity
• The relative permeability

86 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The physics-specific domain material properties are by default taken from the material
specification. The material properties are inputs to material laws or constitutive
relations that are defined on the feature level below the physics interface node in the
model tree. There is one editable default domain feature that initially represents a
linear isotropic material. Domains with different material laws are specified by adding
additional features. Some of the domain parameters can either be a scalar or a matrix
(tensor) depending on whether the material is isotropic or anisotropic.

In a similar way, boundary, edge, and point settings are specified by adding the
corresponding features. A certain feature might require one or several fields to be
specified, while others generate the conditions without user-specified fields.

For detailed information about Materials and Modeling Anisotropic

Materials, including the Electromagnetic Models, see the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Frequency Domain

PHASORS
Whenever a problem is time harmonic the fields can be written in the form

ˆ  r  cos  t +  
E  r t  = E

Instead of using a cosine function for the time dependence, it is more convenient to
use an exponential function, by writing the field as

ˆ  r  cos  t +   = Re  E
E  r t  = E ˆ  r e j e jt  = Re  E
˜  r e jt 

The field E ˜  r  is a phasor, which contains amplitude and phase information of the
field but is independent of t.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN FORMULATION

With the use of phasors, Maxwell’s equations can be formulated in the frequency
domain. One of the main advantages is that a time derivative corresponds to a
multiplication by j:

------ ˜  r e jt 
E- = Re  jE
t

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS | 87
 If the fields satisfy a linear time-dependent equation, then the corresponding phasors
must satisfy a similar equation in which the time derivatives are replaced by a factor j.
In this way, linear differential equations are converted to algebraic equations that are
much easier to solve.

For sake of simplicity, when writing variables and equations in the frequency domain,
the tilde is dropped from the variable denoting the phasor. However, it is important to
remember that the field that has been calculated is a phasor and not a physical field.
Also note that the phasor E ˜  r  is visualized in the plot as Re  E
˜  r   by default, which
is E at time t  0. To obtain the solution at a given time, specify a phase factor in all
results settings and in the corresponding functions.

The frequency domain formulation is only applicable for equations linear in the fields
and for one specific frequency. In general, it cannot be used with materials whose
properties depend on the fields themselves.

SIGN CONVENTION
The time dependency of a time-harmonic field can be written in two ways: ejt or
ejt. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the former sign convention ejt is used.

The time-harmonic sign convention dictates the sign convention for some material
coefficients in the frequency domain, such as complex permittivity, complex
permeability, and complex refractive index. For example, in the dielectric loss model,
the complex relative permittivity is defined as

 r = ' – j''

where ' and '' are two material parameters that are named as the real part and
imaginary part of the relative permittivity, respectively. Inserting the complex relative
permittivity in the frequency domain Maxwell–Ampère’s law gives

  H = j 0 'E +   0 '' +  E

where the term 0'' contributes to energy loss that is indistinguishable from the loss
quantified by the electric conductivity . With the sign convention used here, a positive
material parameter '' corresponds to a loss although the imaginary part of the complex
number ' – j'', evaluated as imag(' – j''), is negative. See Introducing Losses in the
Frequency Domain for details.

88 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

Special Calculations
In this section:

• S-Parameter Calculations
• Far-Field Calculations Theory
• References

Lumped Ports with Voltage Input

S-Parameter Calculations
For high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is necessary
to define the scattering parameters (S-parameter) in terms of the electric field. To
convert an electric field pattern on a port to a scalar complex number corresponding
to the voltage in transmission line theory an eigenmode expansion of the
electromagnetic fields on the ports needs to be performed. Assume that an eigenmode
analysis has been performed on the ports 1, 2, 3, … and that the electric field patterns
E1, E2, E3, … of the fundamental modes on these ports are known. Further, assume
that the fields are normalized with respect to the integral of the power flow across each
port cross section, respectively. This normalization is frequency dependent unless
TEM modes are being dealt with. The port excitation is applied using the fundamental
eigenmode, the mode with subscript 1. The computed tangential electric field ETc on
the port consists of the excitation plus the reflected field. That is, on the port boundary
where there is an incident wave, the computed tangential field can be expanded in
terms of the tangential mode fields as

ET c = ET 1 +  Si1 ET i ,
i=1

whereas on all other port boundaries, the computed field is given by

ETc =  Si1 ET i
i=1

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 89
 The S-parameter for the mode with index k is then given by multiplying with the
conjugate of the mode field for mode k and integrating over the port boundary S

1
---  E – E   H  n dS = 1
  Si1 S ET i  HT i  n dS .
* *
---
2 Tc T1 Ti 2
S i=1

Since the mode fields are orthogonal, the S-parameter is given by

  ET c – ET 1   HT i  n dS
*

S i1 = S
----------------------------------------------------------------------- .
S
*
E T i  H T i  n dS

Here, HTi is the tangential magnetic mode field for mode i. This expression is valid for
all reciprocal modes (modes that have the same propagation constant for both the
incoming and outgoing wave).

For pure TE, TM, and TEM modes, the expression above is reduced to


*
  E T c – E T 1   E T 1  dA 1
S 11 = port 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

*
 E T 1  E T 1  dA 1
port 1


*
 E T c  E T 2  dA 2
port 2
S 21 = ------------------------------------------------------
-

*
 E T 2  E T 2  dA 2
port 2


*
 E T c  E T 3  dA 3
port 3
S 31 = ------------------------------------------------------
-

*
 E T 3  E T 3  dA 3
port 3

and so on. To get S22 and S12, excite port number 2 in the same way.

POWER FLOW NORMALIZATION

The fields E1, E2, E3, and so on, should be normalized such that they represent the
same power flow through the respective ports. The power flow is given by the
time-average Poynting vector,

90 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 1 *
S av = --- Re  E  H 
2

The amount of power flowing out of a port is given by the normal component of the
Poynting vector,

1 *
n  S av = n  --- Re  E  H 
2

Below the cutoff frequency the power flow is zero, which implies that it is not possible
to normalize the field with respect to the power flow below the cutoff frequency. But
in this region the S-parameters are trivial and do not need to be calculated.

In the following subsections the power flow is expressed directly in terms of the electric
field for TE, TM, and TEM waves.

TE Waves
For TE waves it holds that

E = – Z TE  n  H 

where ZTE is the wave impedance

Z TE = 
-------


 is the angular frequency of the wave,  the permeability, and  the propagation
constant. The power flow then becomes

1 * 1 * 1 2
n  S av = --- n  Re  E  H  = – --- Re  E   n  H   = -------------- E
2 2 2Z TE

TM Waves
For TM waves it holds that

1
H = -----------  n  E 
Z TM

where ZTM is the wave impedance

-
Z TM = ------


and  is the permittivity. The power flow then becomes

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 91
 1 * 1 *
n  S av = --- n  Re  E  H  = ---------------  n  Re  E   n  E   
2 2Z TM
1 2
= --------------- n  E
2Z TM

TEM Waves
For TEM waves it holds that

1
H = ---------------  n  E 
Z TEM

where ZTEM is the wave impedance


Z TEM = ---


The power flow then becomes

1 * 1 2 1 2
n  S av = --- n  Re  E  H  = ------------------ n  E = ------------------ E
2 2Z TEM 2Z TEM

where the last equality holds because the electric field is tangential to the port.

Far-Field Calculations Theory

The far field from, for example, antennas can be calculated from the near field using
the Stratton–Chu formula. In 3D, this is:

jk

E p = ------ r 0   n  E – r 0   n  H   exp  jkr  r 0  dS
4
S

and in 2D it looks slightly different:

k
Ep =
4 
j ------ r 0   n  E – r 0   n  H   exp  jkr  r 0  dS
S

In both cases the integration is performed on a closed boundary. In the scattered field
formulation, where the total electric field is the sum of the background field and the
scattered field, the far field only gets contributions from the scattered field, since the
contributions from the background field cancel out when integrated over all parts of
the closed boundary.

92 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The Stratton–Chu formula is based on the assumption that the Green’s function for
the vector Helmholtz equation for the far-field domain is known. The Green’s
function used in COMSOL is based on the assumption that the far-field domain
material is homogeneous. Thus, if inhomogeneous materials are used in the far-field
domain an error will be displayed.

For scattering problems, the far field in COMSOL Multiphysics is identical to what in
physics is known as the “scattering amplitude”.

The antenna is located in the vicinity of the origin, while the far-field point p is taken
at infinity but with a well-defined angular position , .

In the above formulas,

• E and H are the fields on the “aperture” — the surface S enclosing the antenna.
• r0 is the unit vector pointing from the origin to the field point p. If the field points
lie on a spherical surface S', r0 is the unit normal to S'.
• n is the unit normal to the surface S.
•  is the impedance:

 = 

• k is the wave number.

•  is the wavelength.
• r is the radius vector (not a unit vector) of the surface S.
• Ep is the calculated far field in the direction from the origin toward point p.

Thus the unit vector r0 can be interpreted as the direction defined by the angular
position ,  and Ep is the far field in this direction.

Because the far field is calculated in free space, the magnetic field at the far-field point
is given by

r0  Ep
H p = ------------------
-
0

The Poynting vector gives the power flow of the far field:

* 2
r 0  S = r 0  Re  E p  H p   E p

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 93
 Thus the relative far-field radiation pattern is given by plotting Ep2.

For more information about to calculate the far field in certain points, see
the blog 2 Methods for Simulating Radiated Fields in COMSOL
Multiphysics®

References
1. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1991.

2. Jianming Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, 2nd ed.,

Wiley-IEEE Press, 2002.

3. A. Kovetz, The Principles of Electromagnetic Theory, Cambridge University Press,

1990.

4. R.K. Wangsness, Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1986.

94 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

Electromagnetic Quantities
Table 3-1 shows the symbol and SI unit for most of the physical quantities that are
included with this module.
TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES.

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT ABBREVIATION

Angular frequency  radian/second rad/s

Attenuation constant  meter-1 m-1
Capacitance C farad F
Charge q coulomb C
Charge density (surface) s coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Charge density (volume)  coulomb/meter3 C/m3
Current I ampere A
Current density (surface) Js ampere/meter A/m
Current density (volume) J ampere/meter2 A/m2
Electric displacement D coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Electric field E volt/meter V/m
Electric potential V volt V
Electric susceptibility e (dimensionless) 
Electric conductivity  siemens/meter S/m
3
Energy density W joule/meter J/m3
Force F newton N
Frequency  hertz Hz
Impedance Z,  ohm 
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic field H ampere/meter A/m
Magnetic flux  weber Wb
Magnetic flux density B tesla T
Magnetic potential (scalar) Vm ampere A
Magnetic potential (vector) A weber/meter Wb/m
Magnetic susceptibility m (dimensionless) 
Magnetization M ampere/meter A/m

ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES | 95
 TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES.

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT ABBREVIATION

Permeability  henry/meter H/m

Permittivity  farad/meter F/m
2
Polarization P coulomb/meter C/m2
Poynting vector S watt/meter2 W/m2
Propagation constant  radian/meter rad/m
Reactance X ohm 
Relative permeability r (dimensionless) 
Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) 
Resistance R ohm W
3
Resistive loss Q watt/meter W/m3
Torque T newton-meter Nm
Velocity v meter/second m/s
Wavelength  meter m
Wave number k radian/meter rad/m

96 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 4

Radio Frequency Interfaces

This chapter discusses the physics interfaces found under the Radio Frequency
branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
• The Transmission Line Interface
• The Transmission Line, Transient Interface
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Asymptotic Scattering Interface
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface
• The Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM Interface
• The Transmission Line, RLGC Parameters Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces
• Theory for the Transmission Line Interface
• Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface

97
 The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain (emw) interface ( ) is used to solve for
time-harmonic electromagnetic field distributions. It is found under the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

For this physics interface, the maximum mesh element size should be limited to a
fraction of the wavelength. The domain size that can be simulated thus scales with the
amount of available computer memory and the wavelength. The physics interface
supports the Frequency Domain, Eigenfrequency, Mode Analysis, and Boundary
Mode Analysis study types. The Frequency Domain study type is used for source driven
simulations for a single frequency or a sequence of frequencies. The Eigenfrequency
study type is used to find resonance frequencies and their associated eigenmodes in
resonant cavities.

This physics interface solves the time-harmonic wave equation for the electric field.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Wave Equation, Electric, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain to select
physics features from the context menu.

The Mode analysis study type is applicable only for 2D and 2D axisymmetric cross
sections of waveguides and transmission lines where it is used to find allowed
propagating modes. Boundary mode analysis is used for the same purpose in 2D, 2D
axisymmetry, and 3D and applies to boundaries representing waveguide ports.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node
(if the Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in free space. The physics-controlled mesh
automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes in

98 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

different dielectric and magnetic regions. If the model is configured by any periodic
conditions, identical meshes are generated on each pair of periodic boundaries.
Perfectly matched layers are built with a structured mesh, specifically, a swept mesh in
3D and a mapped mesh in 2D.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — From study (the default), User defined, Frequency, or
Wavelength. When From study is selected, 1/8 in 2D or 1/5 in 3D of the vacuum
wavelength from the highest frequency defined in the study step is used for the
maximum mesh element size. For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum
element size in free space. For example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller.
When Frequency is selected, enter the highest frequency intended to be used during the
simulation. The maximum mesh element size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D
of the vacuum wavelength for the entered frequency. For the Wavelength option, enter
the smallest vacuum wavelength intended to be used during the simulation. The
maximum mesh element size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D of the entered
wavelength.

The maximum mesh element sizes discussed above are used with quadratic shape
functions. When linear shape functions are used, 1/2 of the maximum mesh element
size for quadratic shape functions are used. Similarly, when cubic shape functions are
used, the maximum mesh element size is 2.25 times the maximum mesh element size
for quadratic shape functions.

Furthermore, for Port and Lumped Port features, the maximum mesh element size can
be slightly finer than what is discussed above.

When Resolve wave in lossy media is selected, the outer boundaries of lossy media
domains are meshed with a maximum mesh element size in free space given by the
minimum value of half a skin depth and 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength.

The maximum mesh element size in dielectric media is equal to the maximum mesh
element size in vacuum divided by the square root of the product of the relative
permittivity and permeability.

When Refine conductive edges is selected, the exterior edges of conductive boundaries,
configured by perfect electric conductors, transition boundary, or layered transition
boundary conditions, are meshed with a user-specified size. Adjust Angular tolerance
(SI unit: rad) to include not only edges on flat surfaces but also curved surfaces.
Choose Size type — Relative or User defined. For the option Relative, the mesh size on
the selected edges is defined relative to the default maximum mesh size. On the other

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 99

 hand, when the option User defined is selected, the mesh size is set by user-defined
value in the Size input field (SI unit: m).

When Add far-field boundary layers is selected, the far-field calculation boundaries
adjacent to the selection of scattering boundary conditions or perfectly matched layers
create a boundary layer mesh with a thickness of 1/40 to the default maximum mesh
size.

The material property can be defined by a function, if the function use a single input
argument, for example called freq, and this variable is also marked as a Frequency
Model input in the material property group node where the function is used.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Physics-

Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to define the
physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is emw.

FORMULATION
From the Formulation list, select whether to solve for the Full field (the default) or the
Scattered field.

For Scattered field select a Background wave type according to the following table:
TABLE 4-1: BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE BASED ON COMPONENT DIMENSION.

COMPONENT BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE

2D User defined (default), Gaussian beam

2D Axisymmetric User defined (default), Circularly polarized plane wave, Linearly
polarized plane wave
3D User defined (default), Gaussian beam, Linearly polarized plane wave

100 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

User Defined
Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field Eb (SI unit: V/m).
The entered expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

Gaussian Beam
For Gaussian beam select the Gaussian beam type — Paraxial approximation (the default)
or Plane wave expansion.

When selecting Paraxial approximation, the Gaussian beam background field is a

solution to the paraxial wave equation, which is an approximation to the Helmholtz
equation solved for by the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain (emw) interface.
The approximation is valid for Gaussian beams that have a beam radius that is much
larger than the wavelength. Since the paraxial Gaussian beam background field is an
approximation to the Helmholtz equation, for tightly focused beams, you can get a
nonzero scattered field solution, even if you do not have any scatterers. The option
Plane wave expansion means that the electric field for the Gaussian beam is
approximated by an expansion of the electric field into a number of plane waves. Since
each plane wave is a solution to the Helmholtz equation, the plane wave expansion of
the electric field is also a solution to the Helmholtz equation. Thus, this option can be
used also for tightly focused Gaussian beams.

If the beam spot radius is smaller than the wavelength, evanescent plane waves need to
be included in the expansion. The evanescent waves decay exponentially in the
propagation direction, why it only makes sense to model such tightly focused beams if
the focal plane coincides with the input boundary. If the focal plane is located inside
the modeled domain, the field can be dominated by the exponentially decaying
evanescent waves. Those waves can have a very high field strength before the focal
plane even though they only provide a small contribution to the field at the focal plane.

For Plane wave expansion select Wave vector distribution type — Automatic (the default)
or User defined. For Automatic also check Allow evanescent waves, to include evanescent
waves in the plane wave expansion. For User defined also enter values for the Wave
vector count Nk (the default value is 13) and Maximum transverse wave number kt,max
(SI unit: rad/m, default value is (2*(sqrt(2*log(10))))/emw.w0). Use an odd
number for the Wave vector count Nk to make sure that a wave vector pointing in the
main propagation direction is included in the plane-wave expansion. The Wave vector

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 101

 count Nk specifies the number of wave vectors that will be included per transverse
dimension. So for 3D the total number of wave vectors will be Nk·Nk.

Evanescent waves are included in the plane wave expansion if the

Maximum transverse wave number kt,max is larger that the specified Wave
number k. When the Wave vector distribution type is set to Automatic,
evanescent waves are included in the expansion if the Allow evanescent
waves checkbox is selected.

A plane wave expansion with a finite number of plane waves included will make the
field periodic in the plane orthogonal to the main propagation direction. If the
separation between the transverse wave vector components, given by 2kt,max(Nk 
1), is too small, replicas of the Gaussian beam background field can appear. To avoid
that, increase the value for the Wave vector count Nk.

The number of plane waves included in the expansion can be quite large, especially for
3D. For instance, using the default settings, 2·13·13 = 338 plane waves will be
included (the factor 2 accounts for the two possible polarizations for each wave
vector). Thus, initializing the plane-wave expansion for the Gaussian beam
background field can take some time in 3D.

For more information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian Beams as
Background Fields and Input Fields.

Define the Gaussian beam background field using the parameters below:

• Select a Beam orientation: Along the x-axis (the default), Along the y-axis, or for 3D
components, Along the z-axis.
• Enter a Beam radius w0 (SI unit: m). The default is 20/emw.k0 m (10 vacuum
wavelengths).
• Enter a Focal plane along the axis p0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
• Select an Input quantity: Electric field amplitude (the default) or Power.
• Enter the component expressions for the Transverse background electric field
amplitude, Gaussian beam ETbg0 (SI unit: V/m) if the Input quantity is Electric field
amplitude. Notice that this is the transverse Gaussian beam amplitude in the focal
plane. When the Gaussian beam type is set to Paraxial approximation the background
field is always orthogonal (transverse) to Beam orientation. However, when the
Gaussian beam type is set to Plane wave expansion, the background field amplitude
can also have a component in the propagation direction. Specify here only the field

102 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 amplitude components that are orthogonal to the propagation direction. COMSOL
computes automatically the component in the propagation direction, if needed.
• If the Input quantity is set to Power, enter the Input power (SI unit: W in 2D
axisymmetry and 3D and W/m in 2D) and the component expressions for the
Nonnormalized transverse electric field amplitude, Gaussian beam ETbg0 (SI unit: V/
m).
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for all the domains the scattered
field is applied to. Setting the Wave number k to a positive value, means that the wave
is propagating in the positive x-, y-, or z-axis direction, whereas setting the Wave
number k to a negative value means that the wave is propagating in the negative x-,
y-, or z-axis direction.

Linearly Polarized Plane Wave

The initial background wave is predefined as E0exp(jkxx)z. This field is
transformed by three successive rotations along the roll, pitch, and yaw angles, in that
order. For a graphic representation of the initial background field and the definition of
the three rotations compare with Figure 4-1 below.

• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.
• Enter a Roll angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
x direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to polarization along the
z direction.
• Enter a Pitch angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to
the y direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to the initial direction of
propagation pointing in the x direction.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 103

 • Enter a Yaw angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
z direction.
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for the domains the scattered field
is applied to.

Figure 4-1: Schematic of the directions for the wave vector k, the electric field E0, and the
roll, pitch, and yaw rotations. The top image represents an initial wave propagating in the
x direction with a polarization along the z direction.

Circularly Polarized Plane Wave

The background wave is defined as

– jm
E b  r  z  = Ẽ b  r z e ,

where

– jkz
Ẽ b  r z  = E 0  r̂ – jm̂ e ,

m is the azimuthal mode number (1 or 1) varying depending on the Circular
polarization type and Direction of propagation settings, and r̂ and ̂ are the unit vectors
in the r and  directions, respectively.

• Select the Circular polarization type — Right handed or Left handed.

• Select the Direction of propagation — +z or -z.
• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.
• Enter an Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m.

104 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Linearly Polarized Plane Wave (2D Axisymmetry)
Linearly polarized plane wave can be written as the sum of an infinite number of
azimuthal modes in cylindrical coordinates. Thus, the Linearly polarized plane wave
option available for 2D axisymmetric components enables fast simulation of scattering
problem for body-of-revolution geometries. For a graphic representation of the initial
background field and the definition of the three rotations have a look at Figure 4-2
below. To define a linearly polarized plane wave with arbitrary angle of incidence  and
polarization :

• Enter an Incident angle with respect to z-axis (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
• Enter a Polarization angle (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
• Enter a Highest mode number. The default is 10.
• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m.
• Click the Set up Sweep button. This button creates a parameter modeNum, which will
be used as the azimuthal mode number, and a parameter highestMode, which is the
highest mode number used in the expansion. Then the auxiliary sweep in the first
frequency domain study step under the first study will be enabled and a sweep over
modeNum will be added.

Figure 4-2: Schematic of the directions for the wave vector k, the electric field E0, the
polarization angle, and the incident angle . The top image represents an initial wave
propagating in the -z direction with a polarization along the r direction.

Cloaking of a Cylindrical Scatterer with Graphene: Application Library

path RF_Module/Scattering_and_RCS/cylinder_graphene_cloak demonstrates
how to set up the Linearly polarized plane wave background field.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 105

 Select the Electric field components solved for — Three-component vector, Out-of-plane
vector, or In-plane vector. Select:

• Three-component vector (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector

for the electric field E.
• Out-of-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector component perpendicular to
the modeling plane, assuming that there is no electric field in the plane.
• In-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane.

OUT-OF-PLANE WAVE NUMBER

This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, when solving for
Three-component vector or In-plane vector.

For 2D components, assign a wave vector component to the Out-of-plane wave number
field. For 2D axisymmetric components, assign an integer constant or an integer
parameter expression to the Azimuthal mode number field.

When performing a mode analysis study (solving for the out-of-plane

wave number), the Out-of-plane wave number property is not used, as this
is now the variable solved for.

ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
From the Methodology options list, select one of three solver configurations: Robust,
Intermediate, or Fast (the default).

The settings of each methodology option are found in Solver Configurations and the
subsidiary nodes.

PORT SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Use manual port sweep checkbox to enable the port sweep. When selected,
this invokes a parametric sweep over the ports in addition to the frequency sweep
already added. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of an S-parameter
matrix.

For Use manual port sweep enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific name to
the parameter that controls the port number solved for during the sweep. Before
making the port sweep, the parameter must also have been added to the list of
parameters in the Parameters section of the Parameters node under the Global
Definitions node. This process can be automated by clicking the Configure Sweep

106 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Settings button. The Configure Sweep Settings button helps add a necessary port sweep
parameter and a Parametric Sweep study step in the last study node. If there is already
a Parametric Sweep study step, the sweep settings are adjusted for the port sweep.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Frequency

Domain Source Sweep section for a discussion of how to use the
Frequency Domain Source Sweep study type to perform efficient port
sweeps.

Select Export Touchstone file and the S-parameters are subject to Touchstone file export.
Click Browse to locate the file, or enter a filename and path. Select an Parameter format
(value pair): Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

Enter a Reference impedance for Touchstone file export Zref (SI unit: ) that is used only
for the header in the exported Touchstone file. The default is 50 .

It is also possible to export Touchstone files during postprocessing under

the Results node. In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see
the Touchstone section for more information on how to export
Touchstone files as a postprocessing step.

PORT OPTIONS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

The electric field on port boundaries is expanded as

E  r  = E inc  r  +  Si Ei  r  exp  –i n   r – r0   ,

i

where E, r, Einc, Si, Ei, i, n, and r0 are, respectively, the electric field on the port
boundary, the position vector, the incident electric field, the expansion coefficient (or
S-parameter), the mode field, the propagation constant for the mode, the normal
vector, and a position on the port boundary.

Select Weak formulation (the default value) from the Port formulation list. In this
formulation, the expansion coefficients (or S-parameters) are calculated by adding a
scalar dependent variable for each coefficient. The S-parameter and the tangential

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 107

 electric field on the port boundary are solved for by adding the following weak
expression for each port

j 0  J s i  test  E T  –  n  test   ij – S i  H i*   E T – E bnd    ,

where Js,i is the surface current density for the port

J s i = –   ij – S i n  H i ,

ET is the tangential electric field (the dependent variable) on the port boundary, ij is
the Kronecker delta


 ij =  1 i = j .
 0 else

Above, Hi is the magnetic mode field for the port, Ebnd is the expansion of the electric
field on the port boundary in terms of the electric mode fields, Ei,

E bnd =   ij + Si Ei ,

i

and test() is the test operator.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see the Built-In

Operators section for more information about the test operator.

When Constraint-based is selected from the Port formulation list, the expansion
coefficients (or S-parameters) are calculated by adding a scalar dependent variable for
each coefficient and then adding a constraint to enforce the series expansion above.

AVERAGE RADIUS
This section is available in 2D axisymmetry. To display this section, click the Show More
Options button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options
dialog.

Select Automatic (the default) or User defined for the Average radius type. When
Automatic is selected, the average radius is defined as the average radial position of the
geometry bounding box. Select User defined to enter a value for the Average radius r0
(SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m.

108 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The average radius is used in Mode analysis in 2D axisymmetry, where the relation
between the eigenvalue and the effective mode index and out-of-plane wave number
is given by


 = real  k 0 n eff  = – imag  ----- ,
r0

respectively. Here,  is the out-of-plane wave number, k0 is the vacuum wave number,
neff is the effective mode index, and is the eigenvalue.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field E and its components
(in the Electric field components fields). The name can be changed but the names of
fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

In 2D axisymmetry, for all studies except Mode Analysis and Boundary

Mode Analysis, the Covariant formulation is used. Thereby, Ephi is not a
dependent variable. To get the correct out-of-plane electric field
component, the variable [Link] should be used. Here, it is assumed
that the dependent variable has been given the name E and that the tag
for the physics interface is emw.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric field dependent variable — Linear, Linear type 2,
Quadratic (the default), Quadratic type 2, Cubic, Cubic type 2, Quartic, Quartic type 2,
Quintic, Quintic type 2, Sextic, Sextic type 2, Septic, or Septic type 2. For more
information about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization
Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

H-Bend Waveguide 3D: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_3d demonstrates
how to set up a port sweep.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 109

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface has these domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes and subnodes. The nodes are listed in
alphabetical order and are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN

• Archie’s Law • Impedance Boundary Condition

• Divergence Constraint • Initial Values
• Effective Medium • Perfect Electric Conductor
• External Current Density • Specific Absorption Rate
• Far-Field Domain • Wave Equation, Electric

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
With no surface currents present, the boundary conditions

n2   E1 – E2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because E is being solved for, the tangential component of the
electric field is always continuous, and thus the first condition is automatically fulfilled.
The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary condition

–1 –1
– n     r   E  1 –   r   E  2  = n  j 0  H 1 – H2  = 0

110 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

and is therefore also fulfilled. The following conditions are available (listed in
alphabetical order):

• Axial Symmetry • Orthogonal Polarization

• Diffraction Order • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Electric Field • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Far-Field Calculation • Periodic Condition
• Four-Port Network • Port
• Impedance Boundary Condition • Scattering Boundary Condition
• Layered Impedance Boundary • Surface Current Density
Condition • Surface Magnetic Current Density
• Layered Transition Boundary • Surface Roughness
Condition
• Symmetry Plane
• Lumped Element
• Three-Port Network
• Lumped Port
• Transition Boundary Condition
• Magnetic Field
• Two-Port Network
• Matched Boundary Condition

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 111

 EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR

• Circular Port Reference Axis • Magnetic Field

• Edge Current • Magnetic Point Dipole
• Electric Field • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Electric Point Dipole • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Electric Potential • Periodic Port Reference Point
• Ground • Reference Point
• Integration Line for Current • Surface Current Density
• Integration Line for Voltage • Surface Magnetic Current Density
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane) • Symmetry Axis Reference Point
• Magnetic Current

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Wave Equation, Electric

Wave Equation, Electric is the main feature node for this physics interface. The
governing equation can be written in the form

2
    r– 1   E  – k 0  rc E = 0

for the time-harmonic and eigenfrequency problems. The wave number of free space
k0 is defined as

-
k 0 =   0  0 = ----
c0

where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

In 2D the electric field varies with the out-of-plane wave number kz as

˜  x y  exp  – ik z  .
E  x y z  = E z

112 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The wave equation is thereby rewritten as

˜  – k2  E
  – ik z z     r–1   – ik z z   E ˜ = 0,
0 rc

where z is the unit vector in the out-of-plane z direction.

Notice that the ansatz above just explains how the wave equation is modified when the
out-of-plane wave vector component kz is not zero. As an example, for a plane wave
with a nonzero out-of-plane wave vector component, the electric field is of course
given by

˜  x y  exp  – ik z  = A exp  – i  k x + k y + k z   ,
E  x y z  = E z x y z

where A is a constant amplitude and kx, ky, and kz are the wave vector components.

In 2D axisymmetry, the electric field varies with the azimuthal mode number m as

˜  r z  exp  – im  .
E  r  z  = E

For this case, the wave equation is rewritten as

 – im
----- ̂   r–1   – i m
----- ̂  E
˜ – k2  E˜ = 0,
 r   r  0 rc

where ̂ is the unit vector in the out-of-plane  direction.

In 2D axisymmetry, for all studies except Mode Analysis and Boundary

Mode Analysis, a covariant formulation for the out-of-plane electric field
component is used. For more information, see Covariant formulation.

When solving the equations as an eigenfrequency problem the eigenvalue is the

complex eigenfrequency   j  , where  is the damping of the solution. The
Q factor is given from the eigenvalue by the formula

-
Q fact = --------
2

Using the relation r = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

2 2
     E  – k0 n E = 0

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 113

 When the equation is written using the refractive index, the assumption is that r = 1
and  = 0 and only the constitutive relations for linear materials are available. When
solving for the scattered field the same equations are used but E  Esc  Ei and Esc is
the dependent variable.

The Divergence Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, Debye dispersion model, or Wideband Debye model.

Note that the following material models can automatically be

synchronized to any of the other Electric displacement field model settings:

• Relative permittivity
• Refractive index
• Loss tangent, loss angle
• Loss tangent, dissipation factor
• Dielectric loss

As an example, the material can be specified to use a Refractive index

material model. Then the real and imaginary parts of the refractive index
can be synchronized to compute the complex relative permittivity, if the
Electric displacement field model is set to Relative permittivity.

When synchronizing to the Refractive index Electric displacement field

model, the source material model is assumed to be isotropic.

When synchronizing to the Loss tangent, loss angle and Loss tangent,
dissipation factor Electric displacement field models, the loss angle  and the
dissipation factor tan, respectively, must be converted to isotropic values.

Relative Permittivity
When Relative permittivity is selected, the default Relative permittivity r takes values
From material. Select Effective medium to add an Effective Medium subnode, or for User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in
the field or matrix.

114 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Refractive Index
When Refractive index is selected, the default Refractive index n and Refractive index,
imaginary part k take the values From material. To specify the real and imaginary parts
of the refractive index and assume a relative permeability of unity and zero
conductivity, for one or both of the options, select User defined then choose Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full. Enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. The
material parameters Refractive index n and Refractive index, imaginary part k form the
complex relative permittivity (n – ik)2.

The diagonal components of the input refractive index matrix correspond

to the semi-axes of the so called index ellipsoid. You can orient the index
ellipsoid by first creating a suitably oriented coordinate system below the
Definitions node for the model component. Then select the created
coordinate system in the Coordinate system setting in the Coordinate
System Selection section in the settings for the Wave Equation, Electric
feature.

Note that the time-harmonic Sign Convention requires a lossy material to

have a positive material parameter k (see Introducing Losses in the
Frequency Domain).

Loss Tangent, Loss Angle

When Loss tangent, loss angle is selected, the default Relative permittivity (real part) 
and Loss tangent, loss angle  take values From material. For User defined select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. Then
if User defined is selected for Loss tangent, loss angle , enter a value to specify a loss
angle for dielectric losses. This assumes a zero conductivity.

Loss Tangent, Dissipation Factor

When Loss tangent, dissipation factor is selected, the default Relative permittivity (real
part)  and Loss tangent, dissipation factor tantake values From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in
the field or matrix. Then if User defined is selected for Loss tangent, dissipation factor
tan, enter a value to specify a dissipation for dielectric losses. This assumes a zero
conductivity.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 115

 Dielectric Loss
When Dielectric loss is selected, the default Relative permittivity ' and Relative
permittivity (imaginary part) '' take values From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. The material parameters Relative permittivity ' and Relative permittivity
(imaginary part) '' form the complex relative permittivity r  ' – j''.

Note that the time-harmonic Sign Convention requires a lossy material to

have a positive material parameter '' (see Introducing Losses in the
Frequency Domain).

Drude–Lorentz Dispersion Model

The Drude-Lorentz dispersion model is defined by the equation

M 2
fj P
r    =  +  ---------------------------------------
2
 0j –  + i j 
2
-
j=1

where is the high-frequency contribution to the relative permittivity, P is the

plasma frequency, fj is the oscillator strength, 0j is the resonance frequency, and j is
the damping coefficient.

For the Drude-Lorentz dispersion model select User defined (default) or From material for
Relative permittivity, high frequency  (dimensionless). For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter a value or expression in the field or
matrix.

Enter a Plasma frequency  (SI unit: rad/s). The default is 0 rad/s.

In the table, enter values or expressions in the columns for the Oscillator strength,
Resonance frequency (rad/s), and Damping in time (rad/s).

Debye Dispersion Model

The Debye dispersion model is given by

 k
    =  +  ---------------------
1 + i k
-
k

where  is the high-frequency contribution to the relative permittivity, k is the

contribution to the relative permittivity, and k is the relaxation time.

116 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For the Debye dispersion model select User defined (default) or From material for Relative
permittivity, high frequency  (dimensionless). For User defined select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter a value or expression in the field or matrix.

In the table, enter values or expressions in the columns for the Relative permittivity
contribution and Relaxation time (s).

Wideband Debye Model

The Wideband Debye model is given by

  2 + j
    =   + ------------- ln ------------------
-
 2  1 + j
ln ------
1

where is the high-frequency contribution to the relative permittivity,  is the

variation of the real part of the relative permittivity, 1 is the lower angular frequency
limit, and 2 is the upper angular frequency limit.

For the Wideband Debye model select User defined (default) or From material for Relative
permittivity, high frequency  (dimensionless) and Relative permittivity contribution 
(dimensionless), respectively. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Full and enter a value or expression in the field or matrix.

Enter a Lower angular frequency limit  (SI unit: rad/s). The default is 105 rad/s.

Enter a Upper angular frequency limit 2 (SI unit: rad/s). The default is 1012 rad/s.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Select the Constitutive relation — Relative permeability (the default) or Magnetic losses.

• For Relative permeability the relative permeability r uses values From material. For
User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics
of the magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. If
Effective medium is selected, the Effective Medium subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.
• For Magnetic losses the default values for Relative permeability (real part)  and
Relative permeability (imaginary part)  are taken From material. For User defined
enter different values. The material parameters relative permeability (real part)  and

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 117

 Relative permeability (imaginary part) form the complex relative permeability
r    .

For magnetic losses, note that the time-harmonic Sign Convention

requires a lossy material to have a positive material parameter (see
Introducing Losses in the Frequency Domain).

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m) uses values From material.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the
characteristics of the current and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.
• For Linearized resistivity the default values for the Reference temperature Tref
(SI unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference
resistivity 0 (SI unit: m) are taken From material. For User defined enter other
values or expressions for any of these variables.
• When Effective medium is selected, the Effective Medium subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.
• When Archie’s law is selected, the Archie’s Law subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Divergence Constraint
The Divergence Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Wave Equation, Electric parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It
is used for numerical stabilization when the frequency is low enough for the total
electric current density related term in the wave equation to become numerically
insignificant. For The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and Heat
Transfer Interfaces the divergence condition is given by

J = 0

and for The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface it is

   A  = 0

DIVERGENCE CONSTRAINT
Enter a value or expression for the Divergence condition variable scaling 0.

118 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Microwave Heating
interfaces, the SI unit is kg/(ms3A)). The default is 1 kg/(ms3A).

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface (and the Microwave Plasma
interface available with the Plasma Module) the SI unit is A/m and the default is 1 A/
m.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric field that can serve as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics
toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m). The default values are 0 V/m.

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears in Ohm’s law

J = E + J e

and in the equation that the physics interface defines.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the components (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the External current density Je (SI unit: A/m2).

Far-Field Domain
To set up a far-field calculation, add a Far-Field Domain node and specify the far-field
domains in its Settings window. Use Far-Field Calculation subnodes (one is added by
default) to specify all other settings needed to define the far-field calculation. If a
Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) node has been added before adding the Far-Field
Domain, all of the domains in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface
adjacent to the PML are automatically selected by default. If there is no PML, all of
the domains are selected. The selection can be modified. In that case, select only a

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 119

 homogeneous domain or domain group that is outside of all radiating and scattering
objects and which has the material settings of the far-field medium.

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path RF_Module/

Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

Biconical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/Antennas/

biconical_antenna

Axial Symmetry
For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry
boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node to
the component that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

When Electric field components solved for in the Components property for The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interfaceis set to either Three-component
vector or Out-of-plane vector a constraint is added on the symmetry axis

 = 0,

For more information, see Covariant formulation. This formulation is used for all
study steps, except Mode Analysis and Boundary Mode Analysis.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see the Constraint

Settings for more information about this section.

Far-Field Calculation
A Far-Field Calculation subnode is added by default to the Far-Field Domain node and
is used to select boundaries corresponding to a single closed surface surrounding all
radiating and scattering objects. By default, all exterior boundaries of the Far-Field
Domain are selected. If a Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) node has been added before

120 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

adding the Far-Field Domain, all exterior boundaries of the Far-Field Domain adjacent
to the PML are selected. The selection can be edited, but only boundaries adjacent and
exterior to the Far-Field Domain are selectable. Symmetry reduction of the geometry
makes it relevant to select boundaries defining a nonclosed surface. Also use this
feature to indicate symmetry planes and symmetry cuts applied to the geometry, and
whether the selected boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far field
domain; that is, to say whether they are facing away from infinity or toward infinity.

FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name. The default is Efar.

Select the Symmetry settings — From symmetry plane(s) or User defined.

From Symmetry Plane(s)

When a model is reduced with Symmetry Plane features, use From symmetry plane(s)
option to adjust far-field calculation automatically. The symmetry plane features have
to coincide with one of the Cartesian coordinate planes.

User Defined
Select as needed the Symmetry in the x=0 plane, Symmetry in the y=0 plane, or
Symmetry in the z=0 plane checkboxes to use it your model when calculating the far-
field variable. The symmetry planes have to coincide with one of the Cartesian
coordinate planes.

When a checkbox is selected, also choose the type of symmetry to use from the
Symmetry type list that appears — Symmetry in E (PMC) or Symmetry in H (PEC). The
selection should match the boundary condition used for the symmetry boundary.
Using these settings, include the parts of the geometry that are not in the model for
symmetry reasons in the far-field analysis.

From the Boundary relative to domain list, select Inside or Outside (the default) to define
if the selected boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far-field domain (that
is, whether facing away from infinity or toward infinity).

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

Enter an Average operator integration order. The default is 2. The average operator is
used when calculating the maximum directivity or total radiated power.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 121

 Select the Maximum operator point type — Node point, Integration points, or Lagrange
points.

When selecting the Integration points, enter a Maximum operator integration order. The
default is 2. When selecting the Lagrange points, enter a Maximum operator Lagrange
order. The default is 2. The maximum operator is used when calculating the maximum
directivity, maximum gain, or maximum realized gain.

A higher operator order value improves accuracy with a longer time of computation.

If perfectly matched layers are added to the model after the Far-Field
Domain is configured, then it is necessary to press the Reset Far-Field
Boundaries button to reassign all exterior boundaries (and reset Boundary
relative to domain to Outside).

Dielectric Resonator Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/

Antennas/dielectric_resonator_antenna

Specific Absorption Rate

To calculate specific absorption rate (SAR), add a Specific Absorption Rate node and
specify the material density in its Settings window. The specific absorption rate is
calculated as

2
SAR =  E -.
-------------
2

Density
When using From material,  is defined from the material node where the domain
selection is common to this feature. Select User defined to enter the value directly.

Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the Human Brain: Application

Library path RF_Module/Microwave_Heating/sar_in_human_head

Perfect Electric Conductor

The Perfect Electric Conductor boundary condition

122 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 nE = 0

is a special case of the electric field boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the electric field to zero. It is used for modeling of a lossless metallic
surface (for example, a ground plane) or as a symmetry type boundary condition. It
imposes symmetry for magnetic fields and “magnetic currents” and antisymmetry for
electric fields and electric currents. It supports induced electric surface currents and
thus any prescribed or induced electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents)
flowing into a perfect electric conductor boundary is automatically balanced by
induced surface currents.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

Figure 4-3: The perfect electric conductor boundary condition is used on exterior and
interior boundaries representing the surface of a lossless metallic conductor or (on exterior
boundaries) representing a symmetry cut. The shaded (metallic) region is not part of the
model but still carries effective mirror images of the sources. Note also that any current
flowing into the boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents. The
tangential electric field vanishes at the boundary.

For a better option to work with symmetries, use Symmetry Plane.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Constraint
Settings section, see Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Perfect electric conductors can be applied to domains that deselect the

physics within those domains and instead apply the boundary condition
to exterior boundaries of the domains. Using the domain feature can
reduce the number of steps defining selections.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 123

 RF Coil: Application Library path RF_Module/Passive_Devices/rf_coil

Perfect Magnetic Conductor

The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition

nH = 0

is a special case of the surface current boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the magnetic field and thus also the surface current density to zero. On
external boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance” boundary
condition or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes symmetry for
electric fields and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or edge
currents) are not allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as that
would violate current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero,
which in addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the
tangential electric field discontinuous.

The Surface Current Density subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Js=0

I'
I
J=0

Figure 4-4: The perfect magnetic conductor boundary condition is used on exterior
boundaries representing the surface of a high impedance region or a symmetry cut. The
shaded (high impedance) region is not part of the model but nevertheless carries effective
mirror images of the sources. Note also that any electric current flowing into the boundary
is forbidden as it cannot be balanced by induced electric surface currents. The tangential
magnetic field vanishes at the boundary. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which in
addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential electric
field (and in dynamics the tangential electric field) discontinuous.

124 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For a better option to work with symmetries, use Symmetry Plane.

Magnetic Frill: Application Library path RF_Module/Antennas/

magnetic_frill

Port
Use the Port node where electromagnetic energy enters or exits the model. A port can
launch and absorb specific modes. Use the boundary condition to specify wave type
ports. Ports support S-parameter calculations but can be used just for exciting the
model. This node is not available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface.

A port assumes that the cross section’s geometry and material is constant in the normal
direction. Furthermore, the port boundary is assumed to be flat, resulting in a constant
normal across the boundary.

In 3D, the following subnodes are available from the context menu, by right-clicking
the Port node, or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu:

• Circular Port Reference Axis to determine a reference direction for the modes. This
subnode is selected from the Points submenu when Circular is selected as the type of
port.
• Periodic Port Reference Point to uniquely determine reciprocal lattice vectors. This
subnode is selected from the Points submenu when Periodic is selected as the type of
port.

When Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) is selected as the type of port, the following
subnodes are available from the context menu, by right-clicking the Port node, or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu:

• Ground to define zero potential boundaries for the port mode field calculation in
TEM Boundary Mode Analysis.
• Electric Potential to define positive or negative 1 V potential boundaries for the port
mode field calculation in TEM Boundary Mode Analysis.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Port name. Only nonnegative integer numbers can be used as Port name
as it is used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names
are also required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 125

 Select the Type of Port — User defined, Numeric, Transverse electromagnetic (TEM),
Rectangular, Coaxial, Circular, or Periodic.

Periodic ports are available in 3D and 2D. Circular and Coaxial ports are available in 3D
and 2D axisymmetry.

Numeric ports require a Boundary Mode Analysis study type. It should appear before the
frequency domain study node in the study branch of the model tree. If more than one
numeric port is needed, use one Boundary Mode Analysis node per port and assign
each to the appropriate port. Then, it is best to add all the studies; Boundary Mode
Analysis 1, Boundary Mode Analysis 2, …, Frequency Domain 1, manually. Numeric
ports are by default computed for the deformed mesh whereas other types of ports
compute the mode shape using geometry information.

The Boundary Mode Analysis study step stores the frequency fref and
propagation constant ref for which it was run. For a TE, TM, or TEM
mode, the propagation constant  for an arbitrary frequency f is given by

2 2 2 2
 =  ref + k  1 –  f ref  f   .

In addition, for TE, TM, and TEM modes, the mode field shape is
independent of the frequency. Thus, when making a frequency sweep
including only TE, TM, and TEM modes, the Boundary Mode Analysis
study steps can be done for just one frequency, with the propagation
constants obtained from the expression above for the other frequencies.
For waveguides consisting of multiple dielectric materials, like optical
fibers, where there are no TE, TM, or, TEM modes, the Boundary Mode
Analysis steps must be recomputed for each frequency.

It is only possible to excite one port at a time if the purpose is to compute

S-parameters. In other cases (for example, when studying microwave
heating) more than one inport might be wanted, but the S-parameter
variables cannot be correctly computed, so when several ports are excited,
the S-parameter output is turned off.

Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) ports require a TEM Boundary Mode Analysis study type.
It should appear before the frequency domain study node in the study branch of the
model tree. Add Ground and Electric Potential subnodes to compute the port mode
field and impedance. These subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click

126 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Enter a
Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 . The characteristic
impedance of a port is calculated using the square root of the ratio of the inductance
and capacitance. The electric mode field on a port boundary is scaled by the ratio
between the computed mode characteristic impedance and Zref.

Wave Excitation at this Port

To set whether it is an inport or a listener port, select On or Off from the Wave excitation
at this port list. If On is selected, enter a Port input power Pin (SI unit: W in 3D and
2D axisymmetry and W/m in 2D) or a Deposited power Pdep (SI unit: W in 3D and
2D axisymmetry and W/m in 2D) if the Enable active port feedback checkbox is
marked. When a Deposited power is specified, the input power is adjusted so that the
power that is not reflected equals the specified Deposited power. If Enable active port
feedback is marked this must be the only inport.

The Port Sweep Settings section in the Electromagnetic Waves,

Frequency Domain interface cycles through the ports, computes the
entire S-matrix and exports it to a Touchstone file. When using port
sweeps, the local setting for Wave excitation at this port is overridden by
the solver so only one port at a time is excited.

Activate Slit Condition

Select the Activate slit condition on interior port checkbox to use the Port boundary
condition on interior boundaries.

Then select a Slit type — PEC-backed (the default) or Domain-backed. The PEC-backed
type makes the port on interior boundaries perform as it does on exterior boundaries.
The Domain-backed type can be combined with perfectly matched layers to absorb the
excited mode from a source port and other higher order modes.

Click Toggle Power Flow Direction button to define the power flow for the port. For an
excited port, the power flow should point in to the excited domain and for a listener
port the power flow should point out from the excited domain. The power flow
direction is visualized with a red arrow on the port boundary in the Graphics window.

When the Slit type is set to Domain-backed, there must be no waves

reflected from the domain backing the port. Thus, the backing domain
must have homogeneous material and geometric properties and it should
be truncated by a PML domain or a nonreflecting boundary condition.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 127

 Analyze as a TEM Field
This checkbox is available for 3D components and when the Type of port is Numeric.

When analyzing an arbitrary shape of a port, if the port boundary consists of at least
two separate conducting parts, the port can support a (quasi-) TEM mode. In this case,
it is possible to calculate the port mode characteristic impedance from the results of a
Boundary Mode Analysis and include the impedance mismatch compared to the user-
specified reference impedance in the simulation by selecting the Analyze as a TEM field
checkbox. The Analyze as a TEM field requires an Integration Line for Voltage
subfeature to calculate the port mode impedance. The Integration Line for Current
subfeature is optional. The impedance is calculated using either the ratio of the voltage
and current when both Integration Line for Voltage and Integration Line for Current
are defined, or deduced from the voltage and power when only the Integration Line
for Voltage is defined. These subfeatures are available from the context menu (right-
click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Enter a reference Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 . The
mode field on a port boundary is scaled by the ratio between the computed
characteristic impedance and user-specified Zref.

Notch Filter Using a Split Ring Resonator: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/notch_filter_srr

PORT MODE SETTINGS

The input is based on the Type of Port selected above — User Defined, Rectangular,
Circular, or Periodic. No entry is required if Numeric or Coaxial are selected.

Set the Mode phase in (SI unit: rad) for the port mode field. The default is 0 radians.
For instance, if the inspected port mode field is polarized in the opposite direction
compared to the expected direction, a Mode phase of  (enter pi in the field) can be
used for polarizing the mode field in the expected direction. Notice that a change of
the Mode phase, either on the exciting or the listener port, changes also the S-parameter
coupling the exciting and the listener port. However, a change of the Mode phase on
the exciting port does not modify the reflection coefficient (normally denoted S11)
associated with the exciting port.

128 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

User Defined
For User defined specify the eigenmode of the outgoing wave at the port. Even if Wave
excitation at this port is set to On, the mode field should represent the outgoing wave.
The mode field can be entered with an arbitrary amplitude and is normalized internally.

• Enter the components of the Electric mode field E0 (SI unit: V/m) or the Magnetic
mode field H0 (SI unit: A/m). The entered expressions must be differentiable. The
default value is the tangent vector t1. However, if Electric field components solved
for, in the Settings for the physics interface, is set to Out-of-plane vector, only the out-
of-plane component is nonzero for E0. If Electric field components solved for is set
to In-plane vector, only the out-of-plane component is nonzero for H0.
• Enter the Propagation constant (SI unit: rad/m). The default value is emw.k. This
parameter is frequency dependent for all but TEM modes and a correct frequency-
dependent expression must be used.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see the Tangent

Variables for more information about the tangent vector t1.

Notice that for models saved before COMSOL 6.0, the mode field
represented the incoming (exciting) wave. When opening such a model,
the mode field is now automatically migrated to represent the outgoing
wave.

Rectangular
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Rectangular
waveguide port in a 3D model. The mode field is assigned to this selection.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 129

 For Rectangular specify a unique rectangular mode.

For 3D components, select a Mode type — Transverse electric (TE) or Transverse

magnetic (TM). Enter the Mode number, for example, 10 for a TE10 mode, or 11 for a
TM11 mode. When the port boundaries are parallel to one of the Cartesian coordinate
planes, click the Plot Analytical Port Mode Field button to inspect the mode field
instantly before running a simulation.

For 2D components, to excite the fundamental mode, select the mode type Transverse
electromagnetic (TEM), since the rectangular port represents a parallel-plate waveguide
port that can support a TEM mode. Only TE modes are possible when solving for the
out-of-plane vector component, and only TM and TEM modes are possible when
solving for the in-plane vector components. There is only a single mode number,
which is selected from a list.

Coaxial
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Coaxial waveguide
port in a 3D model. The mode field is assigned to this selection.

Coaxial only supports Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode type. When the port
boundaries are parallel to one of the Cartesian coordinate planes, click the Plot
Analytical Port Mode Field button to inspect the mode field instantly before running a
simulation.

In 2D axisymmetry, Coaxial does not support nonzero azimuthal mode number. The
Azimuthal mode number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

130 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Circular
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Circular
waveguide port in a 3D model. The mode field is assigned to this selection.

For Circular specify a unique circular mode.

• Select a Mode type — Transverse electric (TE) or Transverse magnetic (TM).

• Select the Mode number from the list.

For 3D components, enter the Mode number, for example, 11 for a TE11 mode, or 01
for a TM01 mode. When Circular is selected as the type of port in 3D, the Circular Port
Reference Axis subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It defines the orientation of fields
on a port boundary. When the port boundaries are parallel to one of the Cartesian
coordinate planes, click the Plot Analytical Port Mode Field button to inspect the mode
field instantly before running a simulation.

Periodic
For Periodic, specify parameters for the mode field. When Periodic is selected, the
Diffraction Order, Orthogonal Polarization, and Periodic Port Reference Point
subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Select a Polarization — Linear polarization, Circular polarization, or User defined (default

value).

For Linear polarization, select the polarization type — Transverse electric (TE) (default
value), Transverse magnetic (TM), or Mixed, where Transverse electric (TE) and Transverse
magnetic (TM) represent a polarization orthogonal or parallel to the plane of incidence
(spanned by the wave vector for the incident plane wave and the port normal),

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 131

 respectively, and Mixed represents a mixture of TE- and TM-polarization. For Mixed
Linear polarization also specify the P-polarization power fraction P. The default value is
0, meaning that the mode field will be TE-polarized.

Fresnel Equations: Application Library path RF_Module/

Verification_Examples/fresnel_equations

For Circular polarization, select the type of circular polarization — Right-handed (default
value) or Left-handed. The convention used here is from the point of view of the
source. That is, for right-handed circular polarization, when the thumb points in the
direction of wave propagation, the temporal field polarization curls in the direction the
right hand fingers. For left-handed circular polarization, the polarization curls
temporally also the left hand fingers, when the thumb is pointing in the wave direction.

For User defined Polarization, select an Input quantity — Electric field (default value) or
Magnetic field — and define the mode field amplitude for the outgoing wave at the
port. Even if Wave excitation at this port is set to On, the mode field amplitude should
represent the outgoing wave that corresponds to the actual incoming wave.

• For 2D components and if the Input quantity is set to Electric field, define the Electric
mode field amplitude. For example, for a TE wave set the x, y, and z components to
0, 0, 1. Similarly, if the Input quantity is set to Magnetic field, define the Magnetic
mode field amplitude. For a TM wave set the x, y, and z components to 0, 0, and 1.
The default value is the tangent vector t1. However, if Electric field components
solved for, in the Settings for the physics interface, is set to Out-of-plane vector, only
the out-of-plane component is nonzero for the Electric mode field amplitude. If
Electric field components solved for is set to In-plane vector, only the out-of-plane
component is nonzero for the Magnetic mode field amplitude.
• Define the Angle of incidence, if Wave excitation at this port is On.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see the Tangent

Variables for more information about the tangent vector t1.

For 3D components, if Wave excitation at this port is On, define the Elevation angle of
incidence and Azimuth angle of incidence. The Elevation angle of incidence 1 and Azimuth
angle of incidence 2 are used in the relations

k = k parellel + k perpendicular

132 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 k parallel = k F = k sin  1  a 1 cos  2 + n  a 1 sin  2 

where k is the wave vector, kparallel is the projection of k onto the port, kF is the k-
vector for Floquet periodicity, n is the outward unit normal vector to the boundary,
and a 1 is one of the normalized primitive unit cell vectors from the periodic structure
defined from Periodic Port Reference Point.

The Elevation angle of incidence 1 is the angle between n and k.

The Azimuth angle of incidence is the counterclockwise rotating angle from the
primitive vector a1 around the axis built with Periodic Port Reference Point and n.

For periodic ports with hexagonal port boundaries, the definition of the vector a1 is
slightly different from the default definition. In this case, the unit cell is actually a
rhomboid, with primitive vectors pointing in other directions than the side vectors of
the hexagon. Thus, for a hexagonal periodic port, the vector a1 is defined along one
of the sides of the hexagon, and it is not one of the primitive vectors of the hexagonal
point lattice. The Azimuth angle of incidence 2 is still measured from the vector a1,
even though this vector now refers to a side vector of the hexagonal port boundary and
not a primitive vector.

Hexagonal Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/

hexagonal_grating

For 2D components define the Angle of incidence. The Angle of incidence  is defined
by the relation

k  n = k sin z

where k is the projection of the wave vector in the xy-plane, n is the normalized
normal vector to the boundary, k is the magnitude of the projected wave vector in the
xy-plane, and z is the unit vector in the z direction.

Notice that for models saved before COMSOL 6.0, the mode field
represented the incoming (exciting) wave. When opening such a model,
the mode field is now automatically migrated to represent the outgoing
wave.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 133

 Notice that the mode field defined for the Periodic port assumes
homogeneous isotropic material properties in the domain adjacent to the
selected port boundary.

For more details about the periodic port mode fields, see Periodic Port
Mode Fields

The propagation directions for listener Periodic ports are deduced from
the angle setting(s) for the source Periodic port and the refractive indices
defined for the source and the listener ports. Thus, adding source Periodic
ports with different propagation angles will give ambiguous propagation
directions for the listener Periodic ports.

Default Polarization plots are automatically generated for Periodic ports in 3D and in
2D, if the Electric field components solved for setting in the Components section for the
physics interface is set to Three-component vector. The Polarization plot includes
polarization ellipses for each diffraction order. The polarization ellipse line graphs are
generated by plotting the in-plane Jones vector element versus the out-of-plane Jones
vector element.

For more information about Jones Vectors and Polarization plots, see
Jones Vectors and Polarization Plots.

AUTOMATIC DIFFRACTION ORDER CALCULATION

This section is only available for Periodic ports to provide parameter settings that are
used when automatically adding Diffraction Order subnodes to Periodic ports.

• Select the Include in automatic diffraction order calculation checkbox to add

Diffraction Order subnodes to the selected Periodic port, when the Add Diffraction
Orders button is clicked from the exciting Periodic port.
• Define the Refractive index, real part — From adjacent domain (the default) or User
defined. When From adjacent domain is selected, the Refractive index, real part is
taken from the domain adjacent to the port. For User defined, enter the Refractive
index, real part n (SI unit: 1). The default value is 1.
• Define the Diffraction order specification — From current parameters (the default) or
All angles. When From current parameters is selected, clicking the Add Diffraction
Orders button, creates Diffraction Order ports that represents propagating waves for

134 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 the present parameter values. When All angles is selected, clicking the Add Diffraction
Orders button, creates Diffraction Order ports that represents propagating waves at
least for some angles of incidence. Here, the angle of incidence could be any angle
from the incident hemisphere.
• Define the Maximum frequency — From study (the default) or User defined. When
From study is selected, the Maximum frequency is taken from the study step associated
with the physics interface. For User defined, enter the maximum frequency fmax (SI
unit: Hz). The default value is 0 Hz. If a single frequency is used, insert the
frequency, or if a frequency sweep is performed, insert the maximum frequency of
the sweep. This parameter is only available when Wave excitation at this port is On.
When all parameters are defined, click the Add Diffraction Orders button from the
exciting Periodic port to automatically create Diffraction Order ports as subnodes to all
Periodic ports having the Include in automatic diffraction order calculation checkbox
selected.

Perform the same action as when clicking the Add Diffraction Orders
button, using the COMSOL API, with the Java code

[Link]("comp1").physics("ewfd").feature("port1")
.runCommand("addDiffractionOrders");

where “comp1”, “ewfd”, and “port1” are the tags for the model
component, the physics interface, and the excited port, respectively, and
model is a model object.

CUTOFF FREQUENCY CALCULATOR

This utility is available for Rectangular and Circular port types. Enter a Relative
permittivity (default is 1) of the material fully filled in a waveguide and then click the
Compute Waveguide Cutoff Frequency button ( ) to compute the cutoff frequency for
the particular waveguide geometry and the selected Mode type. The result is displayed
in the Messages window.

DE-EMBEDDING PORT
Set the Port Offset doffset (SI unit: m) for the de-embedded S-parameter calculation.
The default is 0 m. The phase of the de-embedded S-parameters is adjusted from the
calculated S-parameters with the propagation constant and the value of doffset. The full
expression for the de-embedded S-parameter is given by

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 135

 dS nm = S nm exp  j n d n  exp  j m d m 

where m is the source port name, n is the listener port name,  is the propagation
constant, and d is the offset distance from the port boundary. The generated variables
are typically denoted by emw.dS11 and emw.dS21.

The de-embedding functionality is triggered when doffset is set to a nonzero value. It

is assumed that the domain between the port boundary and the boundary projected
by the doffset is straight, while maintaining a constant cross-sectional shape.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Constraint
Settings section, see Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• S-Parameter Variables

3D model with numeric ports — Waveguide Adapter: Application Library

path RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/waveguide_adapter

2D model with rectangular ports — Three-Port Ferrite Circulator:

Application Library path RF_Module/Ferrimagnetic_Devices/circulator

2D model with periodic ports — Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application

Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

3D model using slit conditions — Frequency Selective Surface, Periodic

Complementary Split Ring Resonator: Application Library path
RF_Module/EMI_EMC_Applications/frequency_selective_surface_csrr

Integration Line for Current

The Integration Line for Current is available only in 3D from the context menu (right-
click the Port node) when the Analyze as a TEM field checkbox is selected under the Port
Properties section for the Port node.

136 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Integration Line for Voltage
The Integration Line for Voltage is available only in 3D from the context menu (right-
click the Port node) when the Analyze as a TEM field checkbox is selected under the Port
Properties section for the Port node. The characteristic impedance of a Numeric port is
defined by the ratio between the voltage and current.

Ground
The Ground subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Port node)
when Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) is selected as the type of port. Zero potential is
assigned on the boundary selection in the port mode field calculation.

Electric Potential
The Electric Potential subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Port
node) when Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) is selected as the type of port. Either
positive or negative 1 V is assigned on the boundary selection in the port mode field
calculation.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Select the Electric mode potential — Positive electric potential (the default) or Negative
electric potential to specify positive or negative 1 V on the boundary selection.

Circular Port Reference Axis

The Circular Port Reference Axis is available only in 3D. When the Type of port is set to
Circular under Port Properties, the Circular Port Reference Axis subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. Two points are used to define the orientation of fields on a port
boundary. If there are more than two points on the selection list, the first and last
points are used. For the fundamental TE11 mode, the direction of the reference axis
corresponds to the polarization of the electric field at the port center.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 137

 The following figure shows an example of a selection of two points for defining the
Circular Port Reference Axis.

Diffraction Order
The Diffraction Order port is available in 3D and 2D. When the Type of Port is set to
Periodic under Port Properties, this subnode is available from the context menu (right-
click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Diffraction Order port to define diffraction orders from a periodic structure.
Normally a Diffraction Order node is added automatically during the Periodic port
setup. Additional Diffraction Order ports subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Port name. Only nonnegative integer numbers can be used as Port name
as it is used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names
are also required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

The Diffraction Order port is a listener port feature.

PORT MODE SETTINGS

These settings define the diffracted plane wave.

Components
Select the Components setting for the port — In-plane vector (the default) or Out-of-
plane vector.

138 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Diffraction Order
Specify an integer constant or an integer parameter expression for the Diffraction order
m (the default is 0) and in 3D n (the default is 0).

Note that In-plane vector and Out-of-plane vector are based on the plane of diffraction
which is constructed with the diffraction wave vector and the outward normal vector
of the port boundary. The diffraction wave vector is defined by

k diffraction,parallel = k F + mG 1 + nG 2

k diffraction = k diffraction,parallel + nk diffraction,perpendicular

2 2
k diffraction,perpendicular = k – k diffraction,parallel

where m and n are diffraction orders, k  kdiffraction,parallel, k is the magnitude of the

wave vector and kdiffraction,parallel is the magnitude of kdiffraction,parallel. The reciprocal
lattice vectors, G1 and G2 are defined from Periodic Port Reference Point.

In-plane vector lies on the plane of diffraction while Out-of-plane vector is normal to the
plane of diffraction.

For a 2D component, In-plane vector is available when the settings for the physics
interface is set to either In-plane vector or Three-component vector under Components.
Out-of-plane vector is available when the settings for the physics interface is set to either
Out-of-plane vector or Three-component vector under Components.

In 2D, the diffraction wave vector is defined by

k diffraction,parallel = k F + mG 1 ,

where the reciprocal lattice vector is defined by

2
G 1 = ------ n  z ,
a

where n is the port boundary normal and z is the unit vector in the out-of-plane
direction. Since the normal n points in opposite directions for the exciting port
boundary and the transmission side port boundary, G1 will point in different directions
on the two opposing port boundaries. Thereby, also the mode numbers for the two
port boundaries will be different. For example, mode m = 1 on the excitation side,
corresponds to mode m = -1 on the transmission side.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 139

 Enter a value or expression for the Mode phase in (SI unit: rad). The default is
0 radians. The Mode phase setting is further discussed for the Port feature.

Notice that the mode field defined for the Periodic port assumes
homogeneous isotropic material properties in the domain adjacent to the
selected port boundary.

For more details about the periodic port mode fields, see Periodic Port
Mode Fields

• S-Parameters and Ports

• S-Parameter Variables

Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/

plasmonic_wire_grating

Orthogonal Polarization
The Orthogonal Polarization port is available in 3D and 2D. When the Type of Port is
set to Periodic under Port Properties, this subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Orthogonal Polarization port to define port with a mode that is orthogonal to
the mode of the parent Periodic Port. Normally a Orthogonal Polarization node is added
automatically during the Periodic port setup, but the Orthogonal Polarization port
subnode is also available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Only one Orthogonal Polarization node can be
added per parent Periodic Port.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Port name. Only nonnegative integer numbers can be used as Port name
as it is used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names
are also required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

The Orthogonal Polarization port is a listener port feature.

140 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

PORT MODE SETTINGS

Diffraction Order
The Orthogonal Polarization port represent a zero-order mode (same as assumed for the
parent Periodic port). Thus, the Diffraction order settings are just for information and
cannot be edited.

Enter a value or expression for the Mode phase in (SI unit: rad). The default is
0 radians. The Mode phase setting is further discussed for the Port feature.

Notice that the mode field defined for the Periodic port assumes
homogeneous isotropic material properties in the domain adjacent to the
selected port boundary.

For more details about the periodic port mode fields, see Periodic Port
Mode Fields

• S-Parameters and Ports

• S-Parameter Variables

Periodic Port Reference Point

The Periodic Port Reference Point subnode is available only in 3D. When the Type of
Port is set to Periodic under Port Properties, this subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Periodic Port Reference Point is used to uniquely identify two primitive unit cell
vectors, a1 and a2, and two reciprocal lattice vectors, G1 and G2. These reciprocal
vectors are defined in terms of the unit cell vectors, a1 and a2, tangent to the edges
shared between the port and the adjacent periodic boundary conditions. G1 and G2
are defined by the relation

a1  a2
---------------------
- = n
a1  a2

a2  n n  a1
G 1 = 2 --------------------------- and G 2 = 2 ---------------------------
a1  a2  n a1  a2  n

where n is the outward unit normal vector to the port boundary.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 141

 POINT SELECTION
The primitive unit cell vectors, a1 and a2 are defined from two edges sharing the
Periodic Port Reference Point on a port boundary. The two vectors can have unequal
lengths and are not necessarily orthogonal. They start from the Periodic Port Reference
Point.

For listener (passive, observation, and not excited) ports, if the outward normal vector
on the listener port boundary is opposite to that of the source port, the listener port
reference point needs to be mirrored from the source port reference point based on
the center coordinate of the model domain. For example, if the source port reference
point is at {1,1,1} in a cubic domain around the origin, the mirrored listener port
reference point is {1,1,1}. In this example, if the first and second primitive unit cell
vectors are a1 and a2 on the source port, the first and second primitive unit cell vectors
on the listener port will be a2 and a1, respectively, as the cross product between the
first and second primitive unit cell vectors must point in the direction of the port
normal. On the listener port, the normal points in the opposite direction to the normal
on the source port. With the sign changes and the primitive unit cell vector index
swaps, between the source and the listener ports, also the grating vectors change sign
and swap indices, comparing the source and listener ports. Thus, the mode numbers
will also be different on the listener port compared to the mode numbers on the source
port.

For periodic ports with hexagonal port boundaries, the definition of the vector a1 is
slightly different from the default definition. In this case, the unit cell is actually a
rhomboid, with primitive vectors pointing in other directions than the side vectors of
the hexagon. Thus, for a hexagonal periodic port, the vector a1 is defined along one
of the sides of the hexagon, and it is not one of the primitive vectors of the hexagonal
point lattice. The Azimuth angle of incidence 2 is still measured from the vector a1,
even though this vector now refers to a side vector of the hexagonal port boundary and
not a primitive vector.

If the lattice vectors are collinear with two Cartesian axes, then the lattice vectors can
be defined without the Periodic Port Reference Point. For the port where n points along
a positive Cartesian direction, a1 and a2 are also assigned to point along positive
Cartesian directions. Conversely, for the port where n points along a negative
Cartesian direction, a1 and a2 are assigned to point along negative Cartesian

142 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

directions. The condition a1  a2 || n is true on both ports. For example, if n  z, then
a1|a1|  x and a2|a2| = y and if n  z, then a1|a1|  y and a2|a2|  x.

Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/

plasmonic_wire_grating

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation of a model or to
connect to a circuit. A lumped port is a simplification of the port boundary condition.

A Lumped Port condition can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance
Boundary, Transition Boundary, Layered Transition Boundary, or Cable Shield
(Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface only) conditions apply —
separated by a distance much smaller than the wavelength.

LUMPED PORT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped port name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is
used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export (for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface).

Type of Lumped Port

Select a Type of lumped port — Coaxial, Multielement uniform, Reference-edge controlled,
Uniform, User defined, or Via.

Select User defined for nonuniform ports, for example, a curved port and enter values
or expressions in the fields — Height of lumped port hport (SI unit: m), Width of lumped
port wport (SI unit: m), and Direction between lumped port terminals ah. In 2D
axisymmetry, Coaxial does not support a nonzero azimuthal mode number. The
Azimuthal mode number should be set to zero in the Out-of-Plane Wave Number section

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 143

 in the settings for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface. When it
is modeled in 3D, its geometry has to be a full coaxial shape.

Notice that the input field for Direction between lumped port terminals ah
is not shown in 2D, when Electric field components solved for is set to Out-
of-plane vector in the Components section for the physics interface. In this
case the Direction between lumped port terminals ah is defined to be in the
out-of-plane direction.

A partial geometry can also be analyzed with proper symmetry conditions

such as symmetry planes or perfect magnetic conductors on the cut
boundaries parallel to the electric field polarization. However, if
symmetry planes are not used, then the characteristic impedance needs to
be adjusted proportionally to the ratio between the full and partial
geometry areas. For instance, the user-specified characteristic impedance
of a half coaxial cable should be twice that of the full geometry.

Select Multielement uniform for multiexcitation or termination of, for example, a

coplanar waveguide port or a differential port. The direction of the field in each
subelement of the Multielement uniform lumped port is defined by the subnodes,
Uniform element.

Select Via for excitation or termination of a cylindrical shape of a structure used in a

metalized via that is a plated through hole.

Select Reference-edge controlled to define the Direction between lumped port terminals
ah. The selected edge represents the voltage drop line.

Terminal Type
Select a Terminal type — a Cable port for a voltage driven transmission line and S-
parameter calculation, a Current driven port, or a Circuit port.

For Cable, select On or Off from the Wave excitation at this port list to set whether it is
an inport (excitation) or a listener port (observation).

SETTINGS

Source Type
If On is selected for the Wave excitation at this port, select Voltage or Power from the
Source type. For the Voltage source type, enter a Voltage V0 (SI unit: V), and Port phase

144 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

in (SI unit: rad). For the Power source type, enter a Power P0 (SI unit: W) that is the
average input power to the lumped port.

Note it is only possible to excite one Cable port at a time if the purpose is to compute
S-parameters. In other cases, for example, when studying microwave heating, more
than one inport might be wanted, but the S-parameter variables cannot be correctly
computed so if several ports are excited, the S-parameter output is turned off.

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Microwave Heating

interfaces, the Port Sweep Settings cycles through the ports, computes the entire S-
matrix, and exports it to a Touchstone file. When using port sweeps, the local setting
for Wave excitation at this port is overridden by the solver so only one port at a time is
excited.

No entry is required if a Circuit terminal type is selected above.

• For a Cable terminal type enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ). When
using a lumped port on a partial geometry combined with symmetry plane features,
enter the value for the full geometry if the Characteristic impedance adjustment by
symmetry plane checkbox is marked.
• For a Current terminal type enter a Terminal current I0 (SI unit: A).

Coaxial
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Coaxial lumped
port in a 3D model.

COAXIAL LINE IMPEDANCE CALCULATOR

Enter a Relative permittivity (default is 1) for the dielectric material between the coaxial
inner and outer conductor and then click the Compute Coaxial Line Impedance button

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 145

 ( ) to compute the impedance for the coaxial lumped port. The result is displayed
in the Messages window.

Multielement Uniform
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a
Multielement uniform lumped port in a 3D model.

Uniform
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Uniform lumped
port in a 3D model.

146 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Via
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Via lumped port
in a 3D model.

Calculate S-parameter
The Calculate S-parameter checkbox needs to be selected for S-parameter calculation
with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient and Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit
interfaces, while the Cable port in the Electromagnetic Wave, Frequency Domain
calculates S-parameters automatically.

Voltage Source Type

When Calculate S-parameter is selected, select Voltage source type from the list (default
Modulated Gaussian pulse). The Modulated Gaussian pulse is defined as

 t – 2  f0 
2

2f 0 – -------------------------
2   2f 0 
2
-
----------
-e  sin  2   1 +  f   f 0 t 
2

where the Center frequency f0 defines the location as 2f0, the standard deviation as
1(2f0), and the modulation frequency f0. f is the upshift ratio for the sinusoidal
modulation frequency.

The modulating sinusoidal function can be slightly shifted from the center frequency
f0 by a factor of 1  f to improve the frequency responses.

Center Frequency
When Calculate S-parameter is selected, enter a Center frequency f0 for the input
modulated Gaussian pulse (SI unit: Hz).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 147

 Modulation Frequency Upshift Ratio
When Calculate S-parameter is selected, enter a Modulation frequency upshift ratio f for
the input modulated Gaussian pulse.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input

As a multiport device example, Branch-Line Coupler: Application

Library path RF_Module/Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/branch_line_coupler

For example of how to use the Multielement uniform lumped port,

Coplanar Waveguide Bandpass Filter: Application Library path
RF_Module/Filters/cpw_bandpass_filter

Current Pulse Type

In the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface, when Terminal type is set to Current,
select Current Pulse Type from User defined (the default), Electrostatic discharge, and
Lightning.

Enter pulse model parameter values and click the Plot Pulse Shape button to inspect the
current pulse instantly as a function of time before running a simulation.

Electrostatic Discharge Pulse Model

When Current Pulse Type is set to Electrostatic discharge, select Electrostatic Discharge
Pulse Model from Human body model (the default), Extended human body model, Machine
model, and Charged device model.

SPLIT BY CONNECTIVITY
Split by Connectivity ( ) operation is accessible by right-clicking the feature node or
using a toolbar button in the settings window. This operation is useful for managing
multiple lumped port boundaries that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the
toolbar button will automatically generate Lumped Port features corresponding to
each separate group of selections where each group is geometrically connected.

ELECTRIC FIELD DIRECTION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. When the lumped port boundaries are
parallel to one of the Cartesian coordinate planes, click the Plot Electric Field Direction
button to inspect the electric field direction in the mode field instantly before running

148 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

a simulation. Default mode field direction can also be switched to the opposite direction
by selecting Reverse mode field direction.

Lumped Element
Use a Lumped Element node to mimic the insertion of a capacitor, inductor, or general
impedance between two metallic boundaries. A Lumped Element condition is a passive
lumped port boundary condition which cannot be used as a source. Unlike a Lumped
Port, it does not generate S-parameters. The sign of the current and power of a Lumped
Element is opposite to that of a Lumped Port.

It can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two metallic boundaries —
that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance Boundary, Transition
Boundary, Layered Transition Boundary, or Cable Shield (Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface only) conditions apply — separated by a distance much
smaller than the wavelength.

LUMPED ELEMENT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped element name. See Lumped Port for the rest of the settings.

SETTINGS
Select a Lumped element device — User defined (the default), Inductor, Capacitor,
Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC. Inductor, Capacitor, Parallel LC, Series LC,
Parallel RLC, and Series RLC are available only in the frequency domain study type.

• For User defined enter a Lumped element impedance Zelement (SI unit: ). The
default is 50 .
• For Inductor, Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a
Lumped element inductance Lelement (SI unit: H). The default is 1 nH.
• For Capacitor, Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a
Lumped element capacitance Celement (SI unit: F). The default is 1 pF.
• For Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a Lumped element resistance Relement
(SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 149

 Uniform
The following figure shows an example of a boundary selection for a Uniform lumped
element in a 3D model.

See Lumped Port for the boundary selection example figures used in other types of
lumped elements.

SMA Connectorized Wilkinson Power Divider: Application Library path

RF_Module/Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/wilkinson_power_divider

Uniform Element
The Uniform Element is available in 3D. When the Type of lumped port is set to
Multielement uniform under Lumped Port Properties, this subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the Lumped Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Uniform element name. Enter values or expressions in the fields —
Direction between uniform element terminals ah. The Direction between uniform element
terminals defines the electric potential polarity, as ah points in the direction of the
electric field.

Electric Field
The Electric Field boundary condition

150 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 n  E = n  E0

specifies the tangential component of the electric field. As the equation suggests, the
boundary condition only guarantees that the tangential components of E and E0 are
equal. Their normal components might deviate depending on specific situations. It
should in general not be used to excite a model. Consider using the Port, Lumped
Port, or Scattering Boundary Condition instead. It is provided mainly for
completeness and for advanced users who can recognize the special modeling
situations when it is appropriate to use. The commonly used special case of zero
tangential electric field is described in the Perfect Electric Conductor section.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Electric field E0 (SI unit: V/
m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Constraint
Settings section, see Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field node adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n  H = n  H0

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Magnetic field H0 (SI unit: A/
m).

Matched Boundary Condition

Use the Matched Boundary Condition to make a boundary transparent to a wave with a
known scattered wave direction. Since the Scattered wave direction setting is taken into
account, this boundary condition is low reflecting also for a wave propagating in a
direction at a large angle to the normal of the boundary. This is in contrast to the
Scattering Boundary Condition, where the scattered beam should propagate in a

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 151

 direction that is almost parallel to the boundary normal to be efficiently absorbed. The
boundary is also transparent to an incoming wave.

If there is an incident field, a Reference Point subnode can be added by right-clicking

the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. Taking into account the Reference Point subnode, the total electric field,
including the incident and scattered waves, can be written as

– jk  k i, dir   r – r ref   – jk  k s, dir   r – r ref  

E = E0 e + Es e .

Here, rref is a reference point determined by the Reference Point subnode, the field
E0 is the incident wave that travels in the direction ki,dir in a medium with wave
number k, and the field Es is the scattered wave that travels in the direction ks,dir.

If no reference point subnode is added, the reference point is calculated as the average
position boundary selection.

In 2D axisymmetry, when incident field can be specified, the default

subnode Symmetry Axis Reference Point is available. This subnode
defines a reference point at the intersection between the symmetry axis
and the Matched boundary condition’s boundary selection.

MATCHED BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select an Incident field — No incident field (the default), Wave given by E field, Wave
given by H field, or Gaussian beam.

Enter the expressions for the components of the Incident electric field amplitude E0 or
Incident magnetic field amplitude H0, depending on the Incident field selected.

If the Incident field is set to Gaussian beam, edit the Beam radius w0 (SI unit: m) and
the Distance to focal plane p0 (SI unit: m). The default values are ((10*2)*pi)/
emw.k0 and 0 m, respectively. Select an Input quantity: Electric field amplitude (the
default) or Power. If the Input quantity is Electric field amplitude, enter the component
expressions for the Gaussian beam electric field amplitude Eg0 (SI unit: V/m). If the
Input quantity is set to Power, enter the Input power (SI unit: W in 2D axisymmetry and
3D and W/m in 2D) and the component expressions for the Gaussian beam
nonnormalized electric field amplitude Eg0 (SI unit: V/m). The optical axis for the
Gaussian beam is defined by a line including a point which is the average position for
the feature selection and a direction specified by the Incident wave direction (see
below).

152 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

If the Incident field is not set to No incident field, edit the Incident wave direction ki,dir
vector components. The default direction is the inward normal to the boundary. For
2D axisymmetry, the direction should be parallel or anti–parallel to the symmetry axis.
If no scattered field is expected, select the No scattered field checkbox. This prevents
COMSOL from returning spurious solutions that otherwise could appear between
boundaries with unconstrained scattered fields. Edit the Scattered wave direction ks,dir
vector components. The default direction is the outward normal to the boundary.

For more information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian
Beams as Background Fields and Input Fields.

Scattering Boundary Condition

Use the Scattering Boundary Condition to make a boundary transparent for a scattered
wave. The boundary condition is also transparent for an incoming plane wave. The
scattered (outgoing) wave types for which the boundary condition is perfectly
transparent are

– jk  n  r  – jk  k  r 
E = E sc e + E0 e Plane scattered wave
– jk  n  r 
e – jk  k  r 
E = E sc ------------------------ + E 0 e Cylindrical scattered wave
r
– jk  n  r 
e – jk  k  r 
E = E sc ------------------------ + E 0 e Spherical scattered wave
rs

The field E0 is the incident plane wave that travels in the direction k. The boundary
condition is transparent for incoming (but not outgoing) plane waves with any angle
of incidence. In addition, to an incident plane wave, E0 can also be the electric field
distribution for a Gaussian beam that propagates in the direction k.

If there is an incident field, a Reference Point subnode can be added by right-clicking

the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. The Reference Point subnode redefines the incident field to be expressed as

– jk  k   r – r ref  
E0 e ,

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 153

 where rref is a reference point determined by the Reference Point subnode. If no
reference point subnode is added, the reference point is calculated as the average
position boundary selection.

In 2D axisymmetry, when incident field can be specified, the default

subnode Symmetry Axis Reference Point is available. This subnode
defines a reference point at the intersection between the symmetry axis
and the Scattering boundary condition’s boundary selection.

The boundary is only perfectly transparent for scattered (outgoing) waves of the
selected type at normal incidence to the boundary, assuming that the material
properties adjacent to the boundary are isotropic. That is, a plane wave at oblique
incidence is partially reflected and so is a cylindrical wave or spherical wave unless the
wave fronts are parallel to the boundary. For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain interface, the Perfectly Matched Layer feature is available as a general way of
modeling an open boundary.

• For cylindrical waves, specify around which cylinder axis the waves are cylindrical.
Do this by specifying one point at the cylinder axis and the axis direction.
• For spherical waves, specify the center of the sphere around which the wave is
spherical.

The domain material adjacent to the boundary where the Scattering Boundary
Condition is applied can be lossy.

If the problem is solved for the eigenfrequency or the scattered field, the boundary
condition does not include the incident wave.

154 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 – jk  n  r 
E sc = E sc e Plane scattered wave
– jk  n  r 
e
E sc = E sc ------------------------ Cylindrical scattered wave
r
– jk  n  r 
e
E sc = E sc ------------------------ Spherical scattered wave
rs

In the scattered field formulation, the background field must be a

solution to the wave equation in the domain adjacent to the Scattering
Boundary Condition feature. If the background field is not a solution to
the wave equation in the adjacent domain, there will be reflections at the
boundary.

So, if the scattering problem consists of a scatterer embedded in a top

superstrate and a bottom substrate, a structure similar to what is used in
the tutorial model Plasmonic Wire Grating, the background field should
be either a numerical or analytical solution to the two-layer superstrate-
substrate problem.

SCATTERING BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select an Incident field — No incident field (the default), Wave given by E field, Wave
given by H field, or Gaussian beam. Enter the expressions for the components for the
Incident electric field E0 or Incident magnetic field H0.

If the Incident field is set to Gaussian beam, select an Input quantity: Electric field
amplitude (the default) or Power. If the Input quantity is Electric field amplitude, enter
the component expressions for the Gaussian beam electric field amplitude Eg0 (SI unit:
V/m). If the Input quantity is set to Power, enter the Input power (SI unit: W in 2D
axisymmetry and 3D and W/m in 2D) and the component expressions for the Gaussian
beam nonnormalized electric field amplitude Eg0 (SI unit: V/m). Also edit the Beam
radius w0 (SI unit: m) and the Distance to focal plane p0 (SI unit: m). The default values
are ((10*2)*pi)/emw.k0 and 0 m, respectively. The optical axis for the Gaussian
beam is defined by a line including a reference point on the feature selection with a
direction specified by the Incident wave direction (see below). By default, the reference
point is the average position for the feature selection. However, by adding a Reference
Point subnode any available point (or the average of several selected points) on the
feature selection can be used as the reference point. The focal plane for the Gaussian

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 155

 beam is located the Distance to focal plane p0 from the reference point in the Incident
wave direction.

If the Incident field is not set to No incident field, edit the Incident wave direction kdir
for the vector coordinates. The default direction is in the opposite direction to the
boundary normal. For 2D axisymmetry, the Incident wave direction kdir should be
parallel or anti-parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select a Scattered wave type for which the boundary is absorbing — Plane wave (the
default), Spherical wave, or Cylindrical wave.

• For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface, select an Order —First
order (the default) or Second order.
• For Cylindrical wave also enter coordinates for the Source point r0 (SI unit: m) and
Source axis direction raxis (dimensionless). For 2D the Source axis direction is
assumed to be in the z direction, whereas in 2D axisymmetry it is assumed to be
along the axis of rotation.
• For Spherical wave enter coordinates for the Source point r0 (SI unit: m).

MODE ANALYSIS
Expand the Mode Analysis section and check the Subtract propagation constant from
material wave number checkbox to calculate the wave number for the scattered wave as

2 2
kn = k – ,

where kn is the wave number for the scattered wave propagating in the normal
direction, k is the material wave number, and  is the propagation constant,
determined from the mode analysis. If the checkbox is cleared (the default), kn = k.

For more information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian
Beams as Background Fields and Input Fields.

Conical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/Antennas/

conical_antenna

INITIAL VALUES FOR INCIDENT WAVE

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface enter the components for the
initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A0 (SI unit: Wb/m).

156 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

DISPERSION AND ABSORPTION
This section is only available for the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface. To
display it, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options
in the Show More Options dialog.

Select the Dispersion and absorption model that will be used when calculating the wave
number and attenuation constant for the incident and scattered waves — Low loss
approximation (the default), or High loss. For High loss also enter a Carrier frequency f0
(SI unit: Hz). The default is 1 GHz.

When the Dispersion and absorption model is set to Low loss approximation
the refractive index is calculated from the relative permittivity and the
relative permeability as

n = r r .

Similarly, the absorption coefficient is calculated as

1 0 r 1
 = ---  -----------
- = --- Z c ,
2 0 r 2

where Zc is the characteristic impedance.

When the Dispersion and absorption model is set to High loss, the real and
the imaginary parts of the complex refractive index is solved for from the
real and the imaginary parts of the relative permittivity, using the relations

2 2
n –  = ' r  r

and


2n = '' r  r = ---------r .
 0

The absorption coefficient is then given by


 = ----  .
c

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 157

 Reference Point
The Reference Point subnode is available only when there is an available incident field
defined in the parent node. Then this subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the Scattering Boundary Condition parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Reference Point subnode defines a reference position rref that is calculated as the
average position from the point selection in the Reference Point subnode or as a user-
defined position on the parent feature boundary.

In the parent node, the incident field is then defined using the reference position:

– jk  k   r – r ref  
E0 e .

POINT SELECTION
Select the points that should be used when calculating the reference position. The
reference position is calculated as the average position of the selected points. The point
selection is only effective when Definition in the Reference Point section is set to Point
selection.

REFERENCE POINT
Select the Definition for the reference point — Point selection (the default) or User
defined. When User defined is selected, enter the expressions for the components for the
Reference point r0. The Reference point must be a point on the parent feature’s
boundary selection.

Symmetry Axis Reference Point

The Symmetry Axis Reference Point subnode is available in 2D axisymmetry, when there
is an incident field defined in the parent node. Then this subnode is available as a
default subnode to the Scattering Boundary Condition parent node.

The Symmetry Axis Reference Point subnode defines a reference position rref at the
intersection point between the parent node’s boundary selection and the symmetry
axis. If the parent selection does not intersect the symmetry axis, the reference point is
defined by the parent node’s selection or an added Reference Point subnode to the
parent node.

In the parent node, the incident field is then defined using the reference position:

158 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 – jk  k   r – r ref  
E0 e .

Impedance Boundary Condition

The Impedance Boundary Condition

0 r
------------ n  H + E –  n  E n =  n  E s n – E s
c

is used at boundaries where the field is known to penetrate only a short distance
outside the boundary. This penetration is approximated by a boundary condition to
avoid the need to include another domain in the model. Although the equation is
identical to the one in the low-reflecting boundary condition, it has a different
interpretation. The material properties are for the domain outside the boundary and
not inside, as for low-reflecting boundaries. A requirement for this boundary condition
to be a valid approximation is that the magnitude of the complex refractive index

 c
N = -----------
-
1 1

where 1 and 1 are the material properties of the inner domain, is large; that is,
N  1. Furthermore, the exterior material properties are assumed to be isotropic.

The source electric field Es can be used to specify a source surface current on the
boundary.

The Surface Roughness subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 159

 Js
J
I'
I

Js

Figure 4-5: The impedance boundary condition is used on exterior boundaries

representing the surface of a lossy domain. The shaded (lossy) region is not part of the
model. The effective induced image currents are of reduced magnitude due to losses. Any
current flowing into the boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents as for
the perfect electric conductor boundary condition. The tangential electric field is generally
small but nonzero at the boundary.

IMPEDANCE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Surface impedance definition — From material properties (the default) or User
defined.

For From material properties, select an Electric displacement field model — Relative
permittivity (the default), Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent,
dissipation factor, Dielectric loss, Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion
model. See the Wave Equation, Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for
all settings. However, notice that only isotropic (scalar) material parameters are
supported for this boundary condition.

Enter a Surface impedance for User defined (SI unit: ). The default is Z0_const that is
the predefined COMSOL constant for the wave impedance of free space.

SOURCE ELECTRIC FIELD

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

Enter a Source electric field Es (SI unit: V/m). The default is 0 V/m.

160 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

See Skin Depth Calculator to evaluate the skin depth of a homogeneous material.

Impedance boundary conditions can be applied to domains that deselect

the physics within those domains and instead apply the boundary
condition to exterior boundaries of the domains. Using the domain
feature can reduce the number of steps defining selections.

Coaxial to Waveguide Coupling: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/coaxial_waveguide_coupling

Computing Q Factors and Resonant Frequencies of Cavity Resonators:

Application Library path RF_Module/Verification_Examples/
cavity_resonators

Surface Current Density

The Surface Current Density boundary condition

–n  H = Js
n2   H1 – H2  = Js

specifies a surface current density at both exterior and interior boundaries, respectively.
The current density is specified as a three-dimensional vector, but because it needs to
flow along the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the
boundary surface and neglects its normal component. This makes it easier to specify
the current density and avoids unexpected results when a current density with a
component normal to the surface is given.

For Perfect Magnetic Conductor, Surface Magnetic Current Density, andTransition

Boundary Condition, the Surface Current Density subnode as an one-sided surface
current density applied to interior boundaries is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

SURFACE CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface current density Js0
(SI unit: A/m).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 161

 For the Surface Current Density subnode, select Side — Upside (the default) or Downside
to define on which side the Surface Current Density is applied. The red arrow visualized
on the selected boundaries always indicates the upside.

Surface Magnetic Current Density

The Surface Magnetic Current Density boundary condition

n  E = J ms
n 2   E 1 – E 2  = – J ms

specifies a surface magnetic current density at both exterior and interior boundaries,
respectively. The magnetic current density is specified as a three-dimensional vector,
but because it needs to flow along the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics
projects it onto the boundary surface and neglects its normal component. This makes
it easier to specify the magnetic current density and avoids unexpected results when a
magnetic current density with a component normal to the surface is given.

The Surface Current Density subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

SURFACE MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface magnetic current density
Jms0 (SI unit: V/m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Constraint
Settings section, see Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Surface Roughness
The Surface Roughness subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Impedance Boundary Condition or Transition Boundary Condition parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Select a Surface roughness model — Sawtooth (the default) or Snowball. For Sawtooth,
enter a value or expression for the Surface roughnessRMS (SI unit: m). For Snowball,

162 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

enter a Snowball hexagon cell area Ahex (SI unit: m2). Then enter values for the
Snowball radius (SI unit: m) and Number of snowballs in the table, adding as many rows
as you need.

Select the Skin depth type to be Physics-controlled (the default) or User defined. For User
defined, enter the Skin depth (SI unit: m).

The Surface Roughness increases the impedance, and consequently it decreases the
surface current density of Impedance Boundary Condition or Transition Boundary
Condition, proportional to the ratio between the impedance of a rough surface and
that of a smooth surface:

SAWTOOTH MODEL

 RMS 2
Z rough = Z smooth  1 + --- atan   1.4   --------------- 
2
     

where RMS is the root mean square of the surface roughness, and  is the skip depth
of the material (Ref. 1).

SNOWBALL MODEL

2
3  N i  4a i     
2
Z rough = Z smooth  1 + ---
2   ------------------------   1 + ----- + -----2-
 A hex   ai a 
i i

where Ahex is the hexagonal area of a unit cell, Ni is the number of snowballs, ai is the
radius of a snowball, and  is the skip depth of the material (Ref. 2).

For Transition Boundary Condition, select Side — Upside (the default) or Downside to
define on which side the Surface Roughness is applied. The red arrow visualized on the
selected boundaries always indicates the upside.

References
1. E. Hammerstad, O. Jensen, “Accurate Models for Microstrip Computer-Aided
Design”, Microwave symposium Digest, 1980 IEEE MTT-S International, pp. 407–
409, May 1980

2. P.G. Huray, The Foundation of Signal Integrity, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2010

Transition Boundary Condition

The Transition Boundary Condition is used on interior boundaries to model a sheet of a
medium that should be geometrically thin but does not have to be electrically thin. It

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 163

 represents a discontinuity in the tangential electric field. Mathematically it is described
by a relation between the electric field discontinuity and the induced surface current
density:

 Z s E t1 – Z t E t2 
J s1 = -----------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
 Z s E t2 – Z t E t1 
J s2 = -----------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
– j 1
Z s = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z t = ------------- ---------------------
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

where indices 1 and 2 refer to the different sides of the layer. This feature is not
available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface.

The Transition Boundary Condition is based on the assumption that the

wave propagates in the normal direction in the thin layer. Thus, the wave
could be incident in the normal direction or the wave could be refracted
to propagate in a direction close to the normal direction. The latter
condition is fulfilled for a good conductor.

The thickness of the layer should also be less than the radius of curvature
for the boundary and the material properties in the thin layer are assumed
to be isotropic.

A consequence of the normal direction propagation assumption is that

the Transition Boundary Condition is not compatible with mode analysis, as
for mode analysis it is assumed that the wave predominantly propagates
in the out-of-plane direction whereas the normal to the boundary is in an
in-plane direction.

The Surface Roughness and Surface Current Density subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

164 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

TRANSITION BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model. See the Wave Equation,
Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for all settings. However, notice
that only isotropic (scalar) material parameters are supported for this boundary
condition.

Select the Electrically thick layer checkbox (cleared by default) to make the two
domains adjacent to the boundary uncoupled. Use this setting, for instance, when the
thickness is greater than three times of the skin depth. When the Electrically thick layer
checkbox is cleared, enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.

RESONANCE CONSTRAINT
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. Select the Activate resonance constraint
checkbox to apply the constraint to address resonance conditions, for lossless materials
when the entered Thickness d is an integer number of half wavelengths. It is unchecked
by default.

SKIN DEPTH CALCULATOR

Select a Defined by option — Electric conductivity (default) or Resistivity. Enter a Electric
conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) or Resistivity  (SI unit: ·m), Relative permittivity r,
Relative permeability r of the material to be evaluated, and Frequency f0 (SI unit: Hz).
Then click the Compute Skin Depth button ( ) to compute the skin depth for the
particular material specified by the above input values. The result is displayed in the
settings window below the Compute Skin Depth button.

Layered Transition Boundary Condition

The Layered Transition Boundary Condition is an extension of the Transition Boundary
Condition that allows to model a sequence of geometrically thin layers using a Layered
Material. It represents a discontinuity in the tangential electric field. For each layer in
the Layered Material, the transfer and surface impedances are obtained from the layer
thickness and material properties. The impedances are then used to relate the
discontinuity in the tangential electric field to the current flowing on the surface of
either side (up/down) of the corresponding layer. Mathematically this reads:

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 165

  Z s E t i – Z t E t i – 1 
J s up i = --------------------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
 Z s E t i – 1 – Z t E t i 
J s down i = --------------------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
– j 1
Z s = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z t = ------------- ---------------------
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

where the index i  1, 2, …, n refers to the layer number. The system of equations
above is solved for each layer in the Layered Material. The index i has been omitted
from the expressions of the impedances and the wave vector k in order to improve their
readability.

Figure 4-6: The layered material is composed of n layers. The surface currents on the up
and downside of each layer are determined from the transfer and surface impedances and
are functions of the tangential electric fields.

• See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the
definition of layered materials.

166 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 The Layered Transition Boundary Condition is based on the assumption that
the wave propagates in the normal direction in the thin layer. Thus, the
wave could be incident in the normal direction or the wave could be
refracted to propagate in a direction close to the normal direction. The
latter condition is fulfilled for a good conductor.

The thickness of the layer should be less than the radius of curvature for
the boundary and the material properties are assumed to be isotropic.

A consequence of the normal direction propagation assumption is that

the Layered Transition Boundary Condition is not compatible with mode
analysis, as for mode analysis it is assumed that the wave predominantly
propagates in the out-of-plane direction whereas the normal to the
boundary is in an in-plane direction.

SHELL PROPERTIES
The Shell Properties section displays which Layered Material the Layered Transition
Boundary Condition is coupled to.

Clear the Use all layers checkbox in order to select a specific Layered Material from the
list. The Layered Transition Boundary Condition feature is then applicable only on the
boundaries where the chosen material is defined.

You can visualize the selected Layered Material and the layers that constitute it by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

The thickness of the Layered Material should be set as follows, depending on the type
of material:

• In a Material node, the layer Thickness is set in the Material Contents section by adding
a Shell property group from the Material Properties section in the material Settings
window. This automatically adds a Shell subnode under the Material node,
transforming it into a Layered Material.
• When the Layered Material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Material
Contents section in the Settings window. Alternatively it can be set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell property group Settings window.
• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers can be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 167

 defined for each of them. The total thickness of the Layered Material is the sum of
all the layers thicknesses.

LAYERED TRANSITION BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model. See the Wave Equation,
Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for all settings. However, notice
that only isotropic (scalar) material parameters are supported for this boundary
condition.

The defaults use the values From material, taking the properties from the Layered
Material specified for the boundary. Otherwise, choose User defined and enter different
values or expressions. In the latter case all layers constituting the chosen Layered
Material will take on the same value for the selected property.

See Skin Depth Calculator to evaluate the skin depth of a homogeneous material.

Rat-Race Coupler: Application Library path RF_Module/

Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/rat_race_coupler

Layered Impedance Boundary Condition

The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition is an extension of the Impedance Boundary
Condition that allows to model a sequence of geometrically thin layers on top of a
substrate. It is used on exterior boundaries where the field is known to penetrate only
a short distance outside the boundary. In brief, this feature combines a Layered
Transition Boundary Condition with an Impedance Boundary Condition of the type:

0 r
------------ n  H + E –  n  E n = 0 .
c

The layer stack is built using a Layered Material. For each layer in the Layered Material,
the transfer and surface impedances are obtained from the layer thickness and the
material properties. The impedances are then used to relate the discontinuity in the
tangential electric field to the current flowing on the surface of either side (up/down)

168 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

of the corresponding layer. The mathematical details relative to the field propagation
in the layer stack can be found in the Layered Transition Boundary Condition section.

• See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the
definition of layered materials.

The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition is based on the assumption

that in the thin layers and in the substrate the wave propagates essentially
in the normal direction. Thus, the wave could be incident in the normal
direction or the wave could be refracted to propagate in a direction close
to the normal direction. The latter condition is fulfilled for a good
conductor.

The thickness of the layer should be less than the radius of curvature for
the boundary and the material properties are assumed to be isotropic.

SHELL PROPERTIES
The Shell Properties section displays which Layered Material is coupled to the Layered
Impedance Boundary Condition.

Clear the Use all layers checkbox in order to select a specific Layered Material from the
list. The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition feature is then applicable only on the
boundaries where the chosen Layered Material is defined.

You can visualize the selected Layered Material and the layers that constitute it by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

The thickness of the Layered Material should be set as follows, depending on the type
of material:

• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers can be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be
defined for each of them. The total thickness of the Layered Material is the sum of
all the layers thicknesses.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 169

 • When the Layered Material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Material
Contents section in the Settings window. Alternatively it can be set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell property group Settings window.
• In a Material node, the layer Thickness is set in the Material Contents section by adding
a Shell property group from the Material Properties section in the material Settings
window. This automatically adds a Shell subnode under the Material node,
transforming it into a Layered Material.

LAYER PROPERTIES
The Layer Properties section specifies the material properties of the thin layers
constituting the stack located on top of the substrate. Select an Electric displacement
field model — Relative permittivity (the default), Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss
angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss, Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or
Debye dispersion model. See the Wave Equation, Electric node, Electric Displacement
Field section, for all settings. However, notice that only isotropic (scalar) material
parameters are supported for this boundary condition.

The defaults use the values From material. In this case, the material properties are taken
layer by layer from the Layered Material existing on those boundaries where the Layered
Impedance Boundary Condition feature is enabled. Otherwise, choose User defined and
enter a value or an expression. In the latter case all layers constituting the chosen
Layered Material will take on the same given value for the selected material property.

SUBSTRATE PROPERTIES
The Substrate Properties section specifies the material properties of the thick domain
that is not included in the model, being approximated by an Impedance Boundary
Condition.

Select a Surface impedance definition — From material properties (the default) or User
defined.

Select a Substrate Material from the list of materials that have been introduced in the
model previously. Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity
(the default), Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor,
Dielectric loss, Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model. See the Wave
Equation, Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for all settings. The
defaults use the values From material. In this case, the material properties are taken
from the specified Substrate Material. Otherwise, choose User defined and enter a value
or an expression.

170 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Enter a Surface impedance for User defined (SI unit: ) in the Surface impedance
definition. The default is Z0_const that is the predefined COMSOL constant for the
wave impedance of free space.

See Skin Depth Calculator to evaluate the skin depth of a homogeneous material.

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition sets up a periodicity between the selected boundaries.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either

source boundaries or destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection
list. This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In other
cases, right-click Periodic Condition and select Manual Destination Selection
to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that
COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, Floquet
periodicity, or Cyclic symmetry. Select:

• Continuity to make the electric field periodic (equal on the source and destination),
• Antiperiodicity to make it antiperiodic,

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 171

 • Floquet periodicity (The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface only)
to use a Floquet periodicity (Bloch–Floquet periodicity),
- For Floquet periodicity also enter the source for the k-vector for Floquet periodicity.
- For User defined specify the components of the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF
(SI unit: rad/m).
- For From periodic port the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF is obtained from the
Periodic Port settings.
The phase shift between the fields on the parallel source and destination boundaries
is defined as
– j  k F   r dst – r src  
e

• Cyclic symmetry for azimuthal periodicity in a structure consisting of a number of

identical sectors.

- When Sector angle is set to Automatic (the default), the sector angle is
automatically computed from the geometry. Set Sector angle to User defined to
enter a manual value for the Sector angle s (SI unit: rad).
- Enter an integer number for the Azimuthal mode number m.
The phase shift between the fields on the source and destination boundaries is
defined as
– jm  S
e

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Constraint
Settings section, see Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Orientation
of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics

172 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. For information about the Mapping
Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and Destination
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Periodic Boundary Conditions

• Fresnel Equations: Application Library path RF_Module/

Verification_Examples/fresnel_equations
• Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/
Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

Magnetic Current
The Magnetic Current node specifies a magnetic line current along one or more edges.
For a single Magnetic Current source, the electric field is orthogonal to both the line
and the distance vector from the line to the field point. For 2D and 2D axisymmetric
models the Magnetic Current node is applied to Points, representing magnetic currents
directed out of the model plane. For 3D models, the Magnetic Current is applied to
Edges.

MAGNETIC CURRENT
Enter a value for the Magnetic current Im (SI unit: V).

Two-Port Network
Use the Two-Port Network node to characterize the response of a two-port network
system such as reflection and transmission using S-parameters.

A Two-Port Network can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 173

 Boundary, or Transition Boundary conditions apply — separated by a distance much
smaller than the wavelength.

TWO-PORT NETWORK PROPERTIES

Type of Port
Select a Type of Port — Coaxial or Uniform.

Coaxial does not support nonzero azimuthal mode number. The Azimuthal mode
number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Type of S-parameter Definition

Select a Type of S-parameter Definition — Matrix or Touchstone file.

Matrix defines the S-parameter by a constant matrix input. Touchstone file imports a
two-port Touchstone file to characterize the two-port boundaries as a function of
frequency.

SETTINGS
Enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ) for Matrix.

INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

Select Interpolation and Extrapolation types to obtain S-parameter values from the
imported Touchstone file corresponding to the simulation frequencies.

Interpolation
Select a Interpolation — Nearest neighbor, Linear, Piecewise cubic (the default), or Cubic
spline.

The S-parameter values are interpolated within the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Extrapolation
Select a Extrapolation — Constant (the default), Linear, Nearest function, or Specific
value.

The S-parameter values are extrapolated outside the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Filter Characterized by Imported S-Parameters via a Touchstone File:

Application Library path RF_Module/Filters/two_port_network_touchstone

174 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Two-Port Network Port
A pair of Two-Port Network Port subnodes is added by default to the Two-Port
Network node and is used to select boundaries corresponding to port 1 and port 2 in
the S-parameter input, respectively.

Three-Port Network
Use the Three-Port Network node to characterize the response of a three-port network
system such as reflection and transmission using S-parameters.

A Three-Port Network can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance
Boundary, or Transition Boundary conditions apply — separated by a distance much
smaller than the wavelength.

THREE-PORT NETWORK PROPERTIES

Type of Port
Select a Type of Port — Coaxial or Uniform.

Coaxial does not support nonzero azimuthal mode number. The Azimuthal mode
number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Type of S-parameter Definition

Select a Type of S-parameter Definition — Matrix or Touchstone file.

Matrix defines the S-parameter by a constant matrix input. Touchstone file imports a
three-port Touchstone file to characterize the three-port boundaries as a function of
frequency.

SETTINGS
Enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ) for Matrix.

INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

Select Interpolation and Extrapolation types to obtain S-parameter values from the
imported Touchstone file corresponding to the simulation frequencies.

Interpolation
Select a Interpolation — Nearest neighbor, Linear, Piecewise cubic (the default), or Cubic
spline.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 175

 The S-parameter values are interpolated within the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Extrapolation
Select a Extrapolation — Constant (the default), Linear, Nearest function, or Specific
value.

The S-parameter values are extrapolated outside the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Three-Port Network Port

A combination of Three-Port Network Port subnodes is added by default to the Three-
Port Network node and is used to select boundaries corresponding to port 1, port 2,
and port 3 in the S-parameter input, respectively.

Four-Port Network
Use the Four-Port Network node to characterize the response of a four-port network
system such as reflection and transmission using S-parameters.

A Four-Port Network can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance
Boundary, or Transition Boundary conditions apply — separated by a distance much
smaller than the wavelength.

FOUR-PORT NETWORK PROPERTIES

Type of Port
Select a Type of Port — Coaxial or Uniform.

Coaxial does not support nonzero azimuthal mode number. The Azimuthal mode
number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Type of S-parameter Definition

Select a Type of S-parameter Definition — Matrix or Touchstone file.

Matrix defines the S-parameter by a constant matrix input. Touchstone file imports a
four-port Touchstone file to characterize the four-port boundaries as a function of
frequency.

176 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

SETTINGS
Enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ) for Matrix.

INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

Select Interpolation and Extrapolation types to obtain S-parameter values from the
imported Touchstone file corresponding to the simulation frequencies.

Interpolation
Select a Interpolation — Nearest neighbor, Linear, Piecewise cubic (the default), or Cubic
spline.

The S-parameter values are interpolated within the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Extrapolation
Select a Extrapolation — Constant (the default), Linear, Nearest function, or Specific
value.

The S-parameter values are extrapolated outside the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Four-Port Network Port

A combination of Four-Port Network Port subnodes is added by default to the Four-
Port Network node and is used to select boundaries corresponding to port 1, port 2,
port 3, and port 4 in the S-parameter input, respectively.

Mixed Mode S-Parameters

To calculate the mixed mode S-parameters of a four-port network, add a Mixed Mode
S-parameters global feature and specify port names for each balanced pair. The mixed
mode S-parameter calculation requires to perform a parametric sweep with four ports
to obtain a full 4 by 4 S-parameter matrix.

BALANCED PORT
Specify Port name for port a in balanced pair 1, Port name for port b in balanced pair 1,
Port name for port c in balanced pair 2, and Port name for port d in balanced pair 2.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 177

 These must be matched to the port names specified in the (lumped) port features of
the four-port system.

Mixed-Mode S-Parameters Analysis: Application Library path

RF_Module/EMI_EMC_Applications/microstrip_line_mixed_mode

Cable Shield
The Cable Shield is used on interior boundaries to model a braided shield layer that is
geometrically thin but does not have to be electrically thin. It represents a discontinuity
in the tangential electric field. Mathematically it is described by a relation between the
electric field discontinuity and the induced surface current density:

 Z s E t1 – Z t E t2 
J s1 = -----------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
 Z s E t2 – Z t E t1 
J s2 = -----------------------------------------
-
2 2
Zs – Zt
– j 1
Z s = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z t = ------------- --------------------- = 2R cable Z tpm
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

where indices 1 and 2 refer to the different sides of the layer.

CABLE SHIELD PROPERTIES

Select an Cable shield type — Tube (the default), Perforated tube, or User defined. By
default, the Electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m) uses values From material.

Enter a Cable shield radius Rcable (SI unit: m). The default is 2 mm.

Tube
Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default is 0.2 mm.

Perforated Tube
Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m), a Number of holes per meter  (dimensionless), and
enter also a Hole radius Rh (SI unit: m). Rh must be greater than d. The default is
0.2 mm, 10, and 0.5 mm, respectively.

178 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

User Defined
Enter a Transfer impedance per meter Ztpm (SI unit: /m). The default is 0.01 /m.

RESONANCE CONSTRAINT
See the Transition Boundary Condition node, Resonance Constraint section, for all
settings.

SKIN DEPTH CALCULATOR

See the Transition Boundary Condition node, Skin Depth Calculator section, for all
settings.

Symmetry Plane
The Symmetry Plane node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry in the
electric or magnetic field, depending on which option is chosen.

SYMMETRY TYPE
Choose between Zero tangential electric field (PEC) and Zero tangential magnetic field
(PMC) for the electric field. If Zero tangential electric field is chosen, the boundary
condition is

nE = 0

which states that the tangential components of the electric field are zero. It behaves as
Perfect Electric Conductor. Use this symmetry type when there is only the normal
component of the electric field on the symmetry boundaries. If Zero tangential
magnetic field is chosen, the boundary condition becomes

nH = 0

which states that the tangential components of the magnetic field and the surface
current density are zero. It behaves as Perfect Magnetic Conductor. Use this symmetry

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 179

 type when there are only the tangential components of the electric field on the
symmetry boundaries.

It is important to inspect the polarization on the plane where a symmetry

plane feature is applied. The symmetry plane enforces a PEC or PMC
condition and thereby suppresses the tangential field component of
electric field or magnetic field on the plane, respectively. Some
waveguides modes cannot be simplified using symmetry plane features.
For instance, a Zero tangential magnetic field (PMC) symmetry plane cut at
the center of a TE20 rectangular waveguide mode can satisfy the
boundary condition of the transverse electric field on a port boundary.
However, the longitudinal magnetic field component in the waveguide is
incorrectly suppressed by the symmetry plane.

Microwave Oven: Application Library path RF_Module/

Microwave_Heating/microwave_oven

Edge Current
The Edge Current node specifies an electric line current along one or more edges.

EDGE CURRENT
For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface, enter an Edge current I0
(SI unit: A).

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface, select Edge Current Type from User
defined (the default), Electrostatic discharge, or Lightning. Enter pulse model parameter
values and click the Plot Pulse Shape button to inspect the edge current pulse instantly
as a function of time before running a simulation.

User Defined
Enter an Edge current I0 (SI unit: A).

Electrostatic Discharge
Select Electrostatic Discharge Pulse Model — Human body model (the default), Extended
human body model, Machine model, or Charged device model. Enter the values for the
model parameters.

180 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Lightning
Enter the values for the model parameters such as Lightning pulse amplitude, Lightning
pulse rise time constant, Lightning pulse decay time constant, Lightning pulse
parameter 1, and Lightning pulse parameter 2.

When the Electrostatic Discharge or Lightning is used for the Edge current type, select
Parameterized path — Automatic (the default) or User defined. For User defined, specify
the expression for the Parameterized path (SI unit: m). The default is set to the built-
in variable s1. Enter an Pulse velocity (SI unit: m/s). The default is set to the built-in
constant c_const, the speed of light. The expression for the Parameterized path should
parameterize the edge where the Edge Current is applied. Select the Reverse direction
checkbox as needed to reverse the direction of the current.

Electric Point Dipole

Electric Point Dipole represents the limiting case of when the length d of a current
filament carrying uniform current I approaches zero while maintaining the product
between I and d. The dipole moment is a vector entity with the positive direction set
by the current flow.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Based on the Dipole specification selection:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment
direction np and Electric current dipole moment, magnitude p (SI unit: A·m).
• For Dipole moment enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment p (SI
unit: A·m).

For 2D and 2D Axisymmetry, the Electric Point Dipole node is only available when the
Electric field components solved for is set to Three-component vector and In-plane vector.
For 2D, the Out-of-plane wave number should be 0. For 2D Axisymmetry, the Azimuthal
mode number should be 0.

In 2D axisymmetry, enter the Electric current dipole moment in the z

direction p (SI unit: A·m).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 181

 Magnetic Point Dipole
Add a Magnetic Point Dipole to 3D and 2D models. The point dipole source represents
a small circular current loop I in the limit of zero loop area a at a fixed product Ia.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Based on the Dipole specification selection:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Magnetic dipole moment
direction nm and Magnetic dipole moment, magnitude m (SI unit: m2·A).
• For Dipole moment enter coordinates for the Magnetic dipole moment m (SI unit:
m2·A).

For 2D and 2D Axisymmetry, the Magnetic Point Dipole node is only available when the
Electric field components solved for is set to Three-component vector and Out-of-plane
vector. For 2D, the Out-of-plane wave number should be 0. For 2D Axisymmetry, the
Azimuthal mode number should be 0.

Line Current (Out-of-Plane)

Add a Line Current (Out-of-Plane) node to 2D or 2D axisymmetric models. This
specifies a line current out of the modeling plane. In axially symmetric geometries this
is the rotational direction, in 2D geometries it is the z direction.

LINE CURRENT (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter an Out-of-plane current I0 (SI unit: A).

Archie’s Law
This subfeature is available only when Archie’s law is selected as the Electric conductivity
material parameter in the parent feature (for example, the Wave Equation, Electric
node). Then the subnodes are made available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Archie’s Law subnode to provide an electric conductivity computed using
Archie’s Law. This subnode can be used to model nonconductive effective medium
saturated (or variably saturated) by conductive liquids, using the relation:

182 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 n m
 = sL p L

Archie’s Law Theory

CONDUCTION CURRENTS
By default, the Electric conductivity L (SI unit: S/m) for the fluid is defined From
material. This uses the value of the conductivity of the material domain.

For User defined enter a value or expression. If another type of temperature dependence
is used other than a linear temperature relation, enter any expression for the
conductivity as a function of temperature.

Enter these dimensionless parameters as needed:

• Cementation exponent m
• Saturation exponent n
• Fluid saturation SL
• Porosity p to set up the volume fraction of the fluid.

Effective Medium
This subfeature is available only when Effective medium is selected as the material
parameter (for example, Relative permeability or Relative permittivity) in the parent
feature node when it is available with the physics interface (for example, the Wave
Equation, Electric node). Then the subnodes are made available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Effective Medium subfeature to specify the material properties of a domain
consisting of a porous medium using a mixture model. Depending on the specific
physics interface being used, the subfeature can be used to provide a mixture model
for the electric conductivity , the relative dielectric permittivity r, or the relative
magnetic permeability r.

EFFECTIVE MEDIUM
This section is always available and is used to define the mixture model for the domain.

Select the Number of materials (up to 5) to be included in the mixture model.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE | 183

 For each material (Material 1, Material 2, and so on), select either Domain material, to
use the material specified for the domain, or one of the other materials specified in the
Materials node. For each material, enter a Volume fraction 12, and so on.

The volume fractions specified for the materials should be fractional (between 0 and 1)
and should add to 1 in normal cases.

The availability of the Effective Electric Conductivity, Effective Relative

Permittivity, and Effective Relative Permeability sections depend on the
material properties used in the physics interface. In addition, these
sections are only active if Effective medium is selected in the corresponding
material property for the parent feature node.

EFFECTIVE ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY, EFFECTIVE RELATIVE

PERMITTIVITY, OR EFFECTIVE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Select the averaging method to use in the mixture model between the Volume average
of the material property (for example, conductivity or permittivity), the volume average
of its inverse (for example, the resistivity), or the Power law. For each material, specify
either From material, to take the value from the corresponding material specified in the
Effective Medium section, or User defined to manually input a value.

Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures

184 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Electromagnetic Waves,
T r a ns i e nt Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient (temw) interface ( ), found under the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve a time-domain
wave equation for the magnetic vector potential. The sources can be in the form of
point dipoles, line currents, or incident fields on boundaries or domains. It is primarily
used to model electromagnetic wave propagation in different media and structures
when a time-domain solution is required — for example, for nonsinusoidal waveforms
or for nonlinear media. Typical applications involve the propagation of
electromagnetic pulses.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Wave Equation, Electric, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Transient
to select physics features from the context menu.

Except where indicated, most of the settings are the same as for The Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node
(if the Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in free space. The physics-controlled mesh
automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes in
different dielectric and magnetic regions. If the model is configured by any periodic
conditions, identical meshes are generated on each pair of periodic boundaries.
Perfectly matched layers are built with a structured mesh, specifically, a swept mesh in
3D and a mapped mesh in 2D.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 185

 element size control parameter — User defined (the default), Frequency, or Wavelength.
For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free space. For
example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller. When Frequency is selected, enter
the highest frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh
element size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D of the vacuum wavelength for
the entered frequency. For the Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum
wavelength intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh element
size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D of the entered wavelength.

The maximum mesh element sizes discussed above are used with quadratic shape
functions. When linear shape functions are used, 1/2 of the maximum mesh element
size for quadratic shape functions are used. Similarly, when cubic shape functions are
used, the maximum mesh element size is 2.25 times the maximum mesh element size
for quadratic shape functions.

Furthermore, for Lumped Port features, the maximum mesh element size can be
slightly finer than what is discussed above.

The maximum mesh element size in dielectric media is equal to the maximum mesh
element size in vacuum divided by the square root of the product of the relative
permittivity and permeability.

When Refine conductive edges is selected, the exterior edges of conductive boundaries,
configured by perfect electric conductors, transition boundary, or layered transition
boundary conditions, are meshed with a user-specified size. Adjust Angular tolerance
(SI unit: rad) to include not only edges on flat surfaces but also curved surfaces.
Choose Size type — Relative or User defined. For the option Relative, the mesh size on
the selected edges is defined relative to the default maximum mesh size. On the other
hand, when the option User defined is selected, the mesh size is set by user-defined
value in the Size input field (SI unit: m).

When Add far-field boundary layers is selected, the far-field calculation boundaries
adjacent to the selection of scattering boundary conditions or perfectly matched layers
create a boundary layer mesh with a thickness of 1/40 to the default maximum mesh
size.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to

186 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is temw.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

Select the Electric field components solved for. Select:

• Three-component vector (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector

for the electric field E.
• Out-of-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector component perpendicular to
the modeling plane, assuming that there is no electric field in the plane.
• In-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic vector potential A. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic vector potential dependent variable — Linear,
Quadratic (the default), Cubic, Quartic, Quintic, Sextic, or Septic. For more information
about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

Transient Modeling of a Coaxial Cable: Application Library path

RF_Module/Verification_Examples/coaxial_cable_transient

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 187

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface shares most of its nodes with The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

The domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics
ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-
click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
These nodes are unique for this physics interface and described in this section:

• Wave Equation, Electric

• Initial Values
• Drude–Lorentz Polarization
• Far-Field Domain
• Far-Field Calculation

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
With no surface currents present the boundary conditions

n2   E1 – E2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Depending on the field being solved for, it is necessary to analyze
these conditions differently. When solving for A, the first condition can be formulated
in the following way.

A 2 A 1
n2   E1 – E 2  = n 2   – =   n2   A2 – A1  
t t  t

188 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The tangential component of the magnetic vector potential is always continuous and
thus the first condition is fulfilled. The second condition is equivalent to the natural
boundary condition.

–1 –1 –1
–n   r   A1 – r   A2  = –n  r  H1 – H2  = 0

and is therefore also fulfilled.

These nodes and subnodes are available and described for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Archie’s Law • Periodic Condition

• Lumped Port • Effective Medium
• Magnetic Field • Scattering Boundary Condition
• Perfect Electric Conductor • Surface Current Density
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor

EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR

These edge, point, and pair nodes are available and described for the Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Edge Current • Magnetic Point Dipole (2D and 3D

• Electric Point Dipole (2D and 3D components)
components) • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane) (2D • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
and 2D axisymmetric components) • Surface Current Density

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 189

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Wave Equation, Electric

The Wave Equation, Electric node is the main node for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Transient interface. The governing equation can be written in the form

A  A
+ 0 0  r  +    r   A  = 0
–1
0 
t t t 

for transient problems with the constitutive relations B  0rH and D  0rE. Other
constitutive relations can also be handled for transient problems. The Divergence
Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Polarization, Remanent electric displacement, or Drude-Lorentz
dispersion model.

Relative Permittivity
When Relative permittivity is selected, the default Relative permittivity r
(dimensionless) takes values From material. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. If Effective
medium is selected, the Effective medium subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Refractive Index
When Refractive index is selected, the default Refractive index n (dimensionless) takes
the value From material. To specify the refractive index and assume a relative
permeability of unity and zero conductivity, for one or both of the options, select User
defined then choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full. Enter values or expressions
in the field or matrix.

Notice that only the real part of the refractive index is used for the
transient formulation.

190 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Polarization
For Polarization enter coordinates for the Polarization P (SI unit: C/m2).

Remanent Electric Displacement

For Remanent electric displacement enter coordinates for the Remanent electric
displacement Dr (SI unit: C/m2). Then select User defined or From Material as above
for the Relative permittivity r.

Drude–Lorentz Dispersion Model

For Drude-Lorentz dispersion model select User defined or From material for the Relative
permittivity, high-frequency  and enter a value for the Plasma frequency p (SI unit:
rad/s).

When Drude-Lorentz dispersion model is selected, the Drude-Lorentz Polarization

subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Each Drude-Lorentz Polarization subnode adds
another polarization term Pn to the electric displacement field D, defined by

D = 0  E +  Pn ,
n=1

where the polarization is the solution to the ordinary differential equation

 2  2 2
 -------2- +  n ----- +  n P n =  0 f n  p E .
 t t 

For more information, see the Drude–Lorentz Polarization feature.

MAGNETIC FIELD
This section is available if Relative permittivity, Polarization, or Remanent electric
displacement are chosen as the Electric displacement field model.

Select the Constitutive relation — Relative permeability (the default), Remanent flux
density, or Magnetization.

Relative Permeability
For Relative permeability the relative permeability r uses values From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the
magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. If Effective
medium is selected, the Effective medium subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 191

 Remanent Flux Density
For Remanent flux density the relative permeability r uses values From material. For
User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of
the magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. Then
enter coordinates for the Remanent flux density Br (SI unit: T).

Magnetization
For Magnetization enter coordinates for M (SI unit: A/m).

B-H Curve
Select B-H curve B (SI unit: T) to use a curve that relates magnetic field H and the
magnetic flux density B as B  fHHH. The Magnetic field norm setting can take
the values From material or User defined.

Material properties from Nonlinear Magnetic Material Library can be used for B-
H curve that are generally provided as interpolation functions for the magnetization
curve without hysteresis effects.

Nonlinear simulations with the B-H curve magnetic field constitutive

relation may require customized time-stepping settings in the Time-
Dependent Solver for stability. The BDF method, with constant maximum
step constraint, user-defined maximum step, and low maximum BDF
order such as 2, would provide better convergence.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
This section is available if Relative permittivity, Polarization, Remanent electric
displacement, or Drude-Lorentz dispersion model are chosen as the Electric displacement
field model.

By default, the Electric conductivity (SI unit: S/m) uses values From material.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the
characteristics of the current and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.
• For Linearized resistivity the default values for the Reference temperature Tref (SI
unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity
0 (SI unit: m) use values From material. For User defined enter other values or
expressions for any of these variables.

192 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

• If Effective medium is selected, the Effective medium subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.
• If Archie’s Law is selected, the Archie’s Law subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential and its
time derivative that serves as initial conditions for the transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the magnetic
vector potential A (SI unit: Wb/m) and its time derivative At (SI unit: V/m). The
default values are 0 Wb/m and 0 V/m, respectively.

Drude–Lorentz Polarization
This subfeature is available only when Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model is selected as the
Electric displacement field model in the Wave Equation, Electric feature node. Then the
subnodes are made available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as
well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Each Drude-Lorentz Polarization subnode adds another polarization term Pn to the

electric displacement field D, defined by

D = 0  E +  Pn ,
n=1

where the polarization is the solution to the ordinary differential equation

 2  2 2
 -------2- +  n ----- +  n P n =  0 f n  p E .
 t t 

Here n is a damping coefficient, n is a resonance frequency, fn is an oscillator

strength, and p is the plasma frequency.

Enter values or expressions for the Oscillator strength fn (SI unit: 1), the Resonance
frequency n (SI unit: rad/s), and the Damping in time coefficient n (SI unit: rad/s).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 193

 INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Drude–
Lorentz polarization Pn (SI unit: C/m2) and its time derivative Pnt (SI unit: A/
m2).

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Discretization from the Show More Options dialog. Select the element order from the list
box for the Drude–Lorentz polarization Pn.

Time-Domain Modeling of Dispersive Drude–Lorentz Media:

Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/drude_lorentz_media

194 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Transmission Line Interface
The Transmission Line (tl) interface ( ), found under the Radio Frequency
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to study propagation of waves
along one-dimensional transmission lines. The physics interface solves the time-
harmonic transmission line equation for the electric potential.

The physics interface is used when solving for electromagnetic wave propagation along
one-dimensional transmission lines and is available in 1D, 2D, and 3D. The physics
interface has Eigenfrequency and Frequency Domain study types available. The
Frequency Domain study is used for source driven simulations for a single frequency
or a sequence of frequencies.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Transmission Line Equation, Open Circuit, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Transmission Line to select physics features from the context
menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node
(if the Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in the transmission line. The physics-controlled
mesh automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes
in different transmission lines. If the model consists of multiple transmission lines,
identical number of domain mesh elements are generated in each of them.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — From study (the default), User defined, Frequency, or
Wavelength. When From study is selected, 1/60 of the transmission line wavelength
from the highest frequency defined in the study step is used for the maximum mesh
element size. For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free
space. For example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller, and it scales the value
to the transmission line wavelength. When Frequency is selected, enter the highest

THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 195

 frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh element
size is 1/60 of the transmission line wavelength for the entered frequency. For the
Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum wavelength intended to be used during
the simulation. The maximum mesh element size is 1/60 of the transmission line
wavelength.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Physics-

Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to define the
physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tl.

PORT SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep checkbox to switch on the port sweep. When selected,
this invokes a parametric sweep over the lumped ports in addition to the automatically
generated frequency sweep. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of an S-
parameter matrix. For Activate port sweep enter a Sweep parameter name (the default
is PortName) to assign a specific name to the variable that controls the port number
solved for during the sweep.

For this physics interface, the S-parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Click
Browse to locate the file, or enter a filename and path. Select an Output format —
Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Electric potential V (SI unit: V). The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

196 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), or Cubic. For more information about the Discretization section, see
Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line Equation Interface
• Theory for the Transmission Line Interface
• Visualization and Selection Tools in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual

Quarter-Wave Transformer: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/quarter_wave_transformer

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Transmission Line Equation Interface
The Transmission Line Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

Select Edges for 3D models, Boundaries for 2D models, and Domains for
1D models. Points are available for all space dimensions (3D, 2D, and
1D).

For all space dimensions, select Points for the boundary condition.

THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 197

 • Absorbing Boundary • Terminating Impedance
• Incoming Wave • Transmission Line Equation
• Initial Values • Short Circuit
• Open Circuit • Lumped Port

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Transmission Line Equation

The Transmission Line Equation node is the main feature of the Transmission Line
interface. It defines the 1D wave equation for the electric potential. The wave equation
is written in the form

1 - V
  -------------------- –  G + iC V = 0
 x  R + iL  x 

where R, L, G, and C are the distributed resistance, inductance, conductance, and

capacitance, respectively.

TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATION

Enter the values for the following:

• Distributed resistance R (SI unit: mkg/(s3A2)). The default is 0 mkg/(s3A2).

• Distributed inductance L (SI unit: H/m). The default is 2.5e-6 H/m.
• Distributed conductance G (SI unit: S/m). The default is 0 S/m.
• Distributed capacitance C (SI unit: F/m). The default is 1e-9 F/m.

The default values give a characteristic impedance for the transmission line of 50 .

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as
an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).

198 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Absorbing Boundary
The Absorbing Boundary condition is stated as

n  V - + ------ V = 0
--------------------
R + jL Z 0

where  is the complex propagation constant defined by

 =  R + iL   G + iC 

and n is the normal pointing out of the domain. The absorbing boundary condition
prescribes that propagating waves are absorbed at the boundary and, thus, that there
is no reflection at the boundary. The Absorbing Boundary condition is only available
on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Incoming Wave
The Incoming Wave boundary condition

n  V - + --------------------
V – 2V 0
-------------------- = 0
R + jL Z0

lets a wave of complex amplitude Vin enter the domain. The complex propagation
constant  and the outward-pointing normal n are defined in the section describing
the Absorbing Boundary node. The Incoming Wave boundary condition is only
available on external boundaries.

VOLTAGE
Enter the value or expression for the input Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The
default is 1 V.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 199

 Open Circuit
The Open Circuit boundary condition is a special case of the Terminating Impedance
boundary condition, assuming an infinite impedance, and, thus, zero current at the
boundary. The condition is thus

n  V = 0

The Open Circuit boundary condition is only available on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Terminating Impedance
The Terminating Impedance boundary condition

n  V V
--------------------- + ------- = 0
R + jL Z L

specifies the terminating impedance to be ZL. Notice that the Absorbing Boundary
condition is a special case of this boundary condition for the case when

R + jL-
ZL = Z0 = ---------------------
G + jC

The Open Circuit and Short Circuit boundary conditions are also special cases of this
condition. The Terminating Impedance boundary condition is only available on
external boundaries.

IMPEDANCE
Enter the value or expression for the Impedance ZL (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

200 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Short Circuit
The Short Circuit node is a special case of the Terminating Impedance boundary
condition, assuming that impedance is zero and, thus, the electric potential is zero.
The constraint at this boundary is, thus, V  0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation of a model or to
connect to a circuit. The Lumped Port node also defines S-parameters (reflection and
transmission coefficients) that can be used in later postprocessing steps.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Port Name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is used to
define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

Select a Type of Port — Cable (the default), Current, or Circuit.

SETTINGS

If a Circuit port type is selected under Port Properties, this section does not
require any selection.

• If a Cable port type is selected under Port Properties, enter the Characteristic
impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .
• If a Current terminal type is selected under Port Properties, enter a Terminal
current I0 (SI unit: A). The default is 1 A.

THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 201

 If Cable is selected as the port type, select the Wave excitation at this port checkbox to
enter values or expressions for the:

• Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is 1 V.

• Port phase in (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 radians.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input
• Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

202 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Transmission Line, Transient
Interface
The Transmission Line, Transient (tlt) interface ( ), found under the Radio Frequency
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to study propagation of waves in
time domain along one-dimensional transmission lines. The physics interface solves the
time-domain transmission line equation for the electric potential.

The physics interface is used when solving for electromagnetic wave propagation along
one-dimensional transmission lines and is available in 1D, 2D, and 3D. The physics
interface has the Time Dependent study step available. The Time Dependent study is
used for a time-dependent source driven simulations for a single frequency.

When the physics interface is added, three default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Transmission Line Equation, Open Circuit, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Transmission Line, Transient to select physics features from the
context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node
(if the Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in the transmission line. The physics-controlled
mesh automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes
in different transmission lines. If the model consists of multiple transmission lines,
identical number of domain mesh elements are generated in each of them.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the three options for the Maximum
mesh element size control parameter — User defined (the default), Frequency, or
Wavelength. When User defined is selected, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free
space. For example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller, and it scales the value
to the transmission line wavelength. When Frequency is selected, enter the highest

THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 203

 frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh element
size is 1/60 of the transmission line wavelength for the entered frequency. For the
Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum wavelength intended to be used during
the simulation. The maximum mesh element size is 1/60 of the transmission line
wavelength.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Physics-

Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to define the
physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tlt.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Electric potential V (SI unit: V). The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), or Cubic. For more information about the Discretization section, see
Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line, Transient Equation Interface
• Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions
• Visualization and Selection Tools in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual

204 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Transmission Line, Transient Equation Interface
The Transmission Line, Transient Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

Select Edges for 3D models, Boundaries for 2D models, and Domains for
1D models. Points are available for all space dimensions (3D, 2D, and
1D).

For all space dimensions, select Points for the boundary condition.

• Transmission Line Equation • Open Circuit

• Initial Values • Terminating Impedance
• Absorbing Boundary • Short Circuit
• Incoming Wave • Lumped Port

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Transmission Line Equation

The Transmission Line Equation node is the main feature of the Transmission Line,
Transient interface. It defines the 1D wave equation for the electric potential in time
domain. The wave equation is written as

2
 V- V 2
LC --------- +  RC + LG  ------- –  V + RGV = 0
t
2 t

THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 205

 where R, L, G, and C are the distributed resistance, inductance, conductance, and

capacitance, respectively, and ----- is the partial derivative with respect to time.
t
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATION
Enter the values for the following:

• Distributed resistance R (SI unit: mkg/(s3A2)). The default is 0 mkg/(s3A2).

• Distributed inductance L (SI unit: H/m). The default is 2.5e-6 H/m.
• Distributed conductance G (SI unit: S/m). The default is 0 S/m.
• Distributed capacitance C (SI unit: F/m). The default is 1e-9 F/m.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential and the first time
derivative of the electric potential that can serve as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V)
V
and Electric potential, first time derivative ------- (SI unit: V/s).
t

Absorbing Boundary
The Absorbing Boundary condition is stated as

1- V V 1 RC + LG
--- ------- + C
---- ------- + ------- ------------------------ V = 0
L x L t 2L LC

where n is the normal pointing out of the domain. The absorbing boundary condition
prescribes that propagating waves are absorbed at the boundary and, thus, that there
is no reflection at the boundary. The Absorbing Boundary condition is only available
on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Incoming Wave
The Incoming Wave boundary condition

206 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 C V n  V ------ 1 RC + LG V in 1 RC + LG
- + - ------------------------ V – 2 C
---- ------- + ---------------- ---- ------------ – ---- ------------------------ V in = 0
L t L 2L LC L t L LC

lets a time-dependent wave Vin enter the domain. The outward-pointing normal n is
defined in the section describing the Absorbing Boundary node. The Incoming Wave
boundary condition is only available on external boundaries.

VOLTAGE
Select a voltage source Type for the input Electric potential Vin (SI unit: V)— Sinusoidal
(the default) or User defined.

• If a Sinusoidal type is selected under Voltage, enter the Frequency f0 (SI unit: Hz) and
Amplitude V0 (SI unit: V). The default Frequency is 1 GHz and the default Amplitude
is 1 V.
• If an User defined type is selected under Voltage, enter the expression for the input
Electric potential Vin (SI unit: V). The default expression is sin2f0t V where f0 is
1 GHz.

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Open Circuit
The Open Circuit boundary condition is a special case of the Terminating Impedance
boundary condition, assuming an infinite impedance, and, thus, zero current at the
boundary. The condition is thus

n  V = 0

The Open Circuit boundary condition is only available on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Terminating Impedance
The Terminating Impedance boundary condition

THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 207

 1- V  V- + ----------
R-
------ ------- + n
---------------- V = 0
Z L t L LZ L

specifies the terminating impedance to be ZL. The Terminating Impedance boundary

condition is only available on external boundaries.

IMPEDANCE
Enter the value or expression for the Impedance ZL (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Short Circuit
The Short Circuit node is a special case of the Terminating Impedance boundary
condition, assuming that impedance is zero and, thus, the electric potential is zero.
The constraint at this boundary is, thus, V  0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation to a domain.

PORT PROPERTIES
Enter a unique Port Name. It is recommended to use a numeric name.

Select a Type of Port — Cable (the default) or Current.

If a Cable is selected as the port type, select the Wave excitation at this port — On (the
default) or Off. Select On to apply a voltage excitation to a domain.

208 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

If On is selected as the Wave excitation at this port, select the Voltage source type for the
input Electric potential Vin (SI unit: V) — Sinusoidal (the default) or User defined.

• If a Sinusoidal type is selected as theVoltage source type, enter the Frequency f0

(SI unit: Hz) and Amplitude V0 (SI unit: V). The default Frequency is 1 GHz and the
default Amplitude is 1 V.
• If an User defined type is selected under Voltage, enter the expression for the input
Electric potential Vin (SI unit: V). The default expression is sin2f0t V where f0 is
1 GHz

SETTINGS
• If a Cable port type is selected under Port Properties, enter the Characteristic
impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .
• If a Current terminal type is selected under Port Properties, enter the expression of a
Terminal current Iin (SI unit: A). The default expression is sin2f0t A where f0 is
1 GHz.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input
• Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 209

 The Electromagnetic Waves, Time
Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit (ewte) interface ( ), found under the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model time-
dependent electromagnetic wave propagation in linear media. The sources can be in
the form of volumetric electric or magnetic currents, or electric surface currents or
fields on boundaries.

This physics interface solves two first-order partial differential equations (Faraday’s law
and Maxwell–Ampère’s law) for the electric and magnetic fields using the time explicit
discontinuous Galerkin method.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Wave Equations, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit to select physics features
from the context menu.

The interface includes absorbing layers that are used to set up effective nonreflecting
like boundary conditions. These features are added from the Definitions toolbar, by
clicking Absorbing Layer. If COMSOL Multiphysics is not running in full-screen mode
nor in a large window, Absorbing Layer is accessible in the Definitions toolbar by first
clicking Coordinate Systems and then Absorbing Layer. You can also right-click
Definitions in the Model Builder and select Absorbing Layer from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node
(if the Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in free space. The physics-controlled mesh
automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes in
different dielectric and magnetic regions. If the model is configured by any periodic
conditions, identical meshes are generated on each pair of periodic boundaries.

210 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Perfectly matched layers are built with a structured mesh, specifically, a swept mesh in
3D and a mapped mesh in 2D.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — User defined (the default), Frequency, or Wavelength.
For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free space. For
example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller. When Frequency is selected, enter
the highest frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh
element size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D of the vacuum wavelength for
the entered frequency. For the Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum
wavelength intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh element
size in free space is 1/8 in 2D and 1/5 in 3D of the entered wavelength.

The maximum mesh element sizes discussed above are used with quadratic shape
functions. When linear shape functions are used, 1/2 of the maximum mesh element
size for quadratic shape functions are used. Similarly, when cubic shape functions are
used, the maximum mesh element size is 2.25 times the maximum mesh element size
for quadratic shape functions.

The maximum mesh element size in dielectric media is equal to the maximum mesh
element size in vacuum divided by the square root of the product of the relative
permittivity and permeability.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ewte.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

Select the Field components solved for:

• Full wave (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector for the electric
field E and the magnetic field H.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 211

 • E in plane (TM wave) to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane and one magnetic field vector component perpendicular to the plane,
assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane and no magnetic
field components in the plane.
• H in plane (TE wave) to solve for the magnetic field vector components in the
modeling plane and one electric field vector component perpendicular to the plane.

FILTER PARAMETERS FOR ABSORBING LAYERS

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog. In the Filter Parameters for Absorbing
Layers section you can change and control the values set for the filter used in the
Absorbing Layers. The values of the filter parameters defined here are used in all
absorbing layers added to the model and they override the value of filter parameters
enabled in the Wave Equations node. The default values of the filter parameters , c,
and s are set to 0.5, 0.1, and 4, respectively. Inside the absorbing layer, it is important
to use a filter that is not too aggressive since this will result in spurious reflections.

For general information about the filter see the Filter Parameters section
under Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric and magnetic fields dependent variables (the same
order for both fields) — Linear, Quadratic, Cubic (the default), or Quartic. For more
information about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization
Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field vector E and for the
Magnetic field vector H. The name can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,

Time Explicit Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface

212 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Time Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface has these domain and boundary
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

• Background Field • Magnetic Current Density

• Electric Field • Magnetic Field
• Electric Current Density • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Far-Field Calculation • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Far-Field Domain • Scattering Boundary Condition
• Flux/Source • Surface Current Density
• Initial Values • Wave Equations
• Lumped Port

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 213

 Wave Equations
The Wave Equations node is the main node for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time
Explicit interface. The governing transient equations can be written in the form

  H = E + -------
D
t
B
  E = – -------
t

with the constitutive relations B  0rH and D  0rE, which reads

E
 0  r ------- –   H + E = 0
t
H
 0  r -------- +   E = 0
t

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The default Relative permittivity r (dimensionless), Relative permeability r
(dimensionless), and Electric conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) take values From material.
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix.

NUMERICAL PARAMETERS
• Enter a value or an expression for Estimate of maximum wave speed cmax
(SI unit: m/s), the default is taken from the speed of light in a vacuum c_const.

Select the Flux type — Lax-Friedrichs or Upwind flux.

Lax–Friedrichs
• Enter an expression for Lax-Friedrichs flux parameter for E field E (SI unit: S), the
default is 0.5Z for Ampère’s law.
• Enter an expression for Lax-Friedrichs flux parameter for H fieldH (SI unit: ), the
default is 0.5 Z for Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of vacuum.

Upwind Flux
Enter a Scaling factor upwind, the default is 1 (dimensionless). When it is set to 0, the
flux type becomes the central flux.

FILTER PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

214 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The filter provides higher-order smoothing of nodal discontinuous Galerkin
formulations and is intended to be used for absorbing layers, but you can also use it to
stabilize linear wave problems with highly varying coefficients. The filter is constructed
by transforming the solution (in each global time step) to an orthogonal polynomial
representation, multiplying with a damping factor and then transforming back to the
(Lagrange) nodal basis.

The exponential filter can be described by the matrix formula

–1
VV

where V is a Vandermonde matrix induced by the node points, and  is a diagonal

matrix with the exponential damping factors on the diagonal:


 1 0     c

 mm =  =   –  c 2s
 --------------
 –   1 –  c
-
 e  c    1


where

im
 =   m  = -------
Np

and Np is the basis function and im the polynomial order for coefficient m.
Furthermore, , c, and s (for default values, see below) are the filter parameters that
you specify in the corresponding text fields. The damping is derived from a spatial
dissipation operator of order 2s. For s = 1, you obtain a damping that is related to the
classical 2nd-order Laplacian. Higher order (larger s) gives less damping for the lower-
order polynomial coefficients (a more pronounced low-pass filter), while keeping the
damping property for the highest values of , which is controlled by . Maximal
damping is obtained for  = 1. It is important to realize that the effect of the filter is
influenced by how much of the solution (energy) is represented by the higher-order
polynomial coefficients. For a well resolved solution this is a smaller part than for a
poorly resolved solution. The effect is stronger for poorly resolved solutions than for
well resolved ones. This is one of the reasons why this filter is useful in an absorbing
layer where the energy is transferred to the higher-order coefficients through a
coordinate transformation. See Ref. 1 (Chapter 5) for more information.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 215

  must be positive;  = 0 means no dissipation, and the maximum value is related to
the machine precision, log(), which is approximately 36. c should be between 0 and
1, where c = 0 means maximum filtering, and c = 1 means no filtering, even if
filtering is active.

Set Filter settings to Automatic (the default), Only use filter on absorbing layers, or User
defined. When Automatic is selected,  = 0.5 in Absorbing Layer domains and  = 0.05
in all other domains, and c = 0.01 and s = 4 in all domains. When Only use filter on
absorbing layers is selected, the filter parameters in Absorbing Layer domains are taken
from the settings in the Filter Parameters for Absorbing Layers section for The
Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface, whereas there is no filtering in non-
Absorbing Layer domains. Finally, when User defined is selected, set values for  (default
value: 0.05), c (default value: 0.1), and s (default value: 4) for non-Absorbing Layer
domains, whereas the filter parameters in Absorbing Layer domains are taken from the
settings in the Filter Parameters for Absorbing Layers section.

Absorbing Layers

Reference
1. J.S. Hesthaven and T. Warburton, Nodal Discontinuous Galerkin Methods —
Algorithms, Analysis, and Applications, Springer, 2008.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds the initial values for the Electric field and Magnetic field
variables that serve as an initial condition for the transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there is more than one type of domain, each with different initial values defined, it
might be necessary to remove these domains from the selection. These are then
defined in an additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m) and Magnetic field H (SI unit: A/m). The default values are 0 for all
vector components.

216 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Electric Current Density
The Electric Current Density node adds an external current density to the specified
domains, which appears on the right-hand side of Ampere’s law

E
 0  r ------- –   H + E = – J e
t

ELECTRIC CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the Electric current density Je (SI unit: A/m2).

Magnetic Current Density

The Magnetic Current Density node adds an external current density to the specified
domains, which appears on the right-hand side of Faraday’s law

H
 0  r -------- +   E = – J m
t

MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the Magnetic current density Jm (SI unit: V/m2).

Electric Field
The Electric Field boundary condition

n  E = n  E0

specifies the tangential component of the electric field. The commonly used special
case of zero tangential electric field (perfect electric conductor) is described in the next
section.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Electric field E0 (SI unit: V/m).

Perfect Electric Conductor

The Perfect Electric Conductor boundary condition

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 217

 nE = 0

is a special case of the electric field boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the electric field to zero. It is used for the modeling of a lossless metallic
surface, for example, a ground plane or as a symmetry type boundary condition.

It imposes symmetry for magnetic fields and antisymmetry for electric fields and
electric currents. It supports induced electric surface currents and thus any prescribed
or induced electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents) flowing into a perfect
electric conductor boundary is automatically balanced by induced surface currents.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field node adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n  H = n  H0

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Magnetic field H0 (SI unit: A/
m).

Perfect Magnetic Conductor

The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition

nH = 0

is a special case of the surface current density boundary condition that sets the
tangential component of the magnetic field and thus also the surface current density
to zero. On external boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance”
boundary condition or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes
symmetry for electric fields and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or
edge currents) are not allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as
that would violate current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which
in addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential
electric field discontinuous.

218 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Surface Current Density
The Surface Current Density boundary condition

–n  H = Js
n   H1 – H2  = Js

specifies a surface current density at both exterior and interior boundaries. The current
density is specified as a three-dimensional vector, but because it needs to flow along
the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the boundary surface
and neglects its normal component. This makes it easier to specify the current density
and avoids unexpected results when a current density with a component normal to the
surface is given.

SURFACE CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface current density Js0
(SI unit: A/m). The defaults are 0 A/m for all vector components.

Scattering Boundary Condition

The Scattering Boundary Condition

n  E = Z0 H

specifies the tangential component of both electric and magnetic fields.

SCATTERING BOUNDARY CONDITION

Enter the expressions for the components for the Incident electric field E0 (SI unit: V/
m), if there is an incoming wave from the boundary.

Enter the value or expression for the medium Impedance Z0 (SI unit: ). By default,
the Z0 uses the value of the impedance of free space. Then select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full based on the material characteristics and enter values or expressions
in the field or matrix.

Flux/Source
The Flux/Source boundary condition

n  E = E0
n  H = H0

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 219

 specifies the tangential component of both electric and magnetic fields. This boundary
condition is available when Advanced Physics Options is selected in the Show More
Options dialog on the Model Builder toolbar.

BOUNDARY FLUX/SOURCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the tangential Electric field E0
(SI unit: V/m) and the tangential Magnetic field H0 (SI unit: A/m).

Background Field
The Background Field feature triggers the scattered field formulation, where the
dependent variable is the relative field. The same wave equations are used as in the full
field formulation, but the total field that enters the equations are written as the sum of
the relative field and the background field, E  Erelative  Ebackground, and it is the
dependent variable Erelative that is solved for. When the background field is a solution
of the wave equation, the relative field is the scattered field.

SETTINGS
Select a Background wave type — User defined (the default), or Modulated Gaussian
pulse.

User Defined
Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field Eb (SI unit: V/m)
and Background magnetic field Hb (SI unit: A/m). The entered expressions must be
differentiable in time domain since the derivative of the background field is used in the
governing equations.

Modulated Gaussian Pulse

Select a Direction of propagation — +x (the default), -x, +y, -y, or for 3D components,
Along the +z or -z.

Select a Polarization direction — y (the default), z, or x. The list of available polarization

varies based on the selection of Direction of propagation.

• Enter a Center frequency f0 (SI unit: Hz). The default is 1 GHz.

• Enter a Phase velocity vp (SI unit: m/s). The default is c_const.
• Enter a Wave impedance Z (SI unit: ). The default is Z0_const.
• Enter a Distance from origin to wave launching plane doffset (SI unit: m). The default
is 0 m.

220 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For a modulated Gaussian pulse propagating in the positive x direction, the electric
field is expressed as

x + d offset 2
  t –  – ------------------------ - 
  vp 
- sin  2f 0  t – -----
1 x- 
E  x t  = -------------- exp  – --------------------------------------------------
 2  2    v 
2 p
 

where  is the pulse duration, defined as 12f0,  is a time delay set to 2f0, and vp is
the phase velocity. The time delay  is used to excite a modulated Gaussian pulse whose
initial magnitude is very small when it is launched and gradually increases as it
propagates.

Wideband RCS Calculation Using Time-Domain Simulation and

FFT: Application Library path RF_Module/Scattering_and_RCS/
rcs_time_explicit demonstrates how to set up a background field.

Far-Field Domain
To set up a far-field calculation, add a Far-Field Domain node and specify the far-field
domains in its Settings window. Use Far-Field Calculation subnodes (one is added by
default) to specify all other settings needed to define the far-field calculation. By
default, all of the domains are selected. The selection can be modified. In that case,
select only a homogeneous domain or domain group that is outside of all radiating and
scattering objects and which has the material settings of the far-field medium.

Far-Field Calculation
A Far-Field Calculation subnode is added by default to the Far-Field Domain node and
is used to select boundaries corresponding to a single closed surface surrounding all
radiating and scattering objects. By default, all exterior boundaries of the Far-Field
Domain are selected. Symmetry reduction of the geometry makes it relevant to select
boundaries defining a nonclosed surface. Also use this feature to indicate symmetry
planes and symmetry cuts applied to the geometry, and whether the selected
boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far field domain; that is, to say
whether they are facing away from infinity or toward infinity.

FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name. The default is Efar.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 221

 Select as needed the Symmetry in the x=0 plane, Symmetry in the y=0 plane, or
Symmetry in the z=0 plane checkboxes to use it your model when calculating the far-
field variable. The symmetry planes have to coincide with one of the Cartesian
coordinate planes.

When a checkbox is selected, also choose the type of symmetry to use from the
Symmetry type list that appears — Symmetry in E (PMC) or Symmetry in H (PEC). The
selection should match the boundary condition used for the symmetry boundary.
Using these settings, include the parts of the geometry that are not in the model for
symmetry reasons in the far-field analysis.

From the Boundary relative to domain list, select Inside or Outside (the default) to define
if the selected boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far-field domain (that
is, whether facing away from infinity or toward infinity).

A Time to Frequency FFT study step must be added after the Time Dependent
study step to generate the necessary frequency-domain data, used in the
far-field analysis.

222 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Electromagnetic Waves,
Asymptotic Scattering Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Asymptotic Scattering (ewas) interface ( ), found under
the Radio Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used for quick
studies of the far-field response of a 3D or 2D object to a given background field. The
physics interface sets up a surface electric background field for the far-field
transformation, using the Stratton–Chu formula, performed in the postprocessing.

Use this physics interface in 2D and 3D when approximating the scattered far-field of
an object configured only by a perfect electric conductor boundary condition. The
physics interface supports the Frequency Domain study type. The Frequency Domain
study can also be used for sweeping the background field by a sequence of frequencies.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder: Asymptotic Scattering, Far-Field Calculation, and Initial Values. No additional
boundary feature is needed in general. However, from the Physics toolbar, a new Far-
Field Calculation can be added to process the far-field calculation on user-defined
boundary selections. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Asymptotic
Scattering to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ewas.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled Mesh
section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear the
checkbox in the Use column on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling
contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, ASYMPTOTIC SCATTERING INTERFACE | 223

 When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in free space. The physics-controlled mesh
automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — From study (the default), User defined, Frequency, or
Wavelength. When From study is selected, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength from the
highest frequency defined in study step is used for the maximum mesh element size.
For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free space. For
example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller. When Frequency is selected, enter
the highest frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh
element size in free space is 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength for the entered frequency.
For the Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum wavelength intended to be used
during the simulation. The maximum mesh element size in free space is 1/5 of the
entered wavelength.

FORMULATION
For Scattered field select a Background wave type according to the following table:
TABLE 4-2: BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE BASED ON COMPONENT DIMENSION.

COMPONENT BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE

2D User defined (default)

3D User defined (default), Linearly polarized plane wave

User Defined
Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field Eb (SI unit: V/m).
The entered expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

Linearly Polarized Plane Wave

The initial background wave is predefined as E0exp(jkxx)z. This field is
transformed by three successive rotations along the roll, pitch, and yaw angles, in that
order. For a graphic representation of the initial background field and the definition of
the three rotations; compare with Figure 4-1 below.

• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.

224 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

• Enter a Roll angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+x direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to polarization along the
+z direction.
• Enter a Pitch angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to
the +y direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to the initial direction of
propagation pointing in the +x direction.
• Enter a Yaw angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+z direction.
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is ewas.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for the domains the scattered field
is applied to.

Figure 4-7: Schematic of the directions for the wave vector k, the electric field E0, and the
roll, pitch, and yaw rotations. The top image represents an initial wave propagating in the
x direction with a polarization along the z direction.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field E and its components
(in the Electric field components fields). The name can be changed but the names of
fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric field dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic (the
default), or Cubic. For more information about the Discretization section, see Settings
for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, ASYMPTOTIC SCATTERING INTERFACE | 225

 Asymptotic Scattering
Asymptotic scattering domain assigns a user-defined background field to the
dependent variable on adjacent boundaries.

Far-Field Calculation
Use a Far-Field Calculation to select boundaries corresponding to a single closed surface
surrounding all radiating and scattering objects. By default, all exterior boundaries of
the simulation domain are selected.

FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name. The default is Efar.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

For a discussion about the settings in this section, see Advanced Settings in the
documentation for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric field that can be used to
perform the far-field transformation for a single frequency case without running the
complete computation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m). The default values are set by the background field.

226 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Electromagnetic Waves,
Boundary Elements Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements (embe) interface ( ) is used to solve
for time-harmonic electromagnetic field distributions. This interface is found under
the Radio Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface,. The formulation is
based on the boundary element method (BEM) and is available in 2D and 3D. The
physics interface solves the vector Helmholtz equation for piecewise-constant material
properties and uses the electric field as dependent variable.

The interface is fully multiphysics enabled and can be coupled seamlessly with the
physics interfaces that are based on the finite element method (FEM). This approach
allows modeling in a FEM-BEM framework, exploiting the strength of both
formulations to the fullest. The BEM-based interface is especially well suited for
radiation and scattering problems.

The advantage of the boundary element method is that only boundaries need to be
meshed and the degrees of freedom (DOFs) solved for are restricted to the boundaries.
This introduces some clear ease-of-use for handling complex geometries. However, the
BEM technique results in fully populated or dense matrices that need dedicated
numerical methods. The BEM method is so to speak more expensive per DOF than
the FEM method, but has fewer DOFs. Assembling and solving these can be very
demanding. This means that when solving models of small and medium size, The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface will often be faster, than solving
the same problem with the BEM interface. The challenge for the FEM interface is to
set up open boundaries, for example, using Perfectly Matched Layers (PMLs) in an
efficient way. When the geometries are complex or two structures are far apart, large
air domains need to be meshed. This costs a lot on the computational side as the
frequency is increased.

For large models (problems that contain many wavelengths, at high frequency or for
large domains) the stabilized formulation option (see Stabilization) ensures efficient
convergence at the cost of some additional degrees of freedom. For low to medium
frequencies (small to medium models), running without stabilization is more efficient.
The stabilized formulation only gives a benefit in computing time for the large models.

For this physics interface, the maximum mesh element size should well resolve the
complex electric field on the boundaries. Thus, if the wave propagates tangentially to

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 227

 the boundary, the maximum mesh size should be a fraction of the wavelength.
However, if the wave propagates essentially in the normal direction to the boundary,
the maximum mesh element size can be larger. The physics interface supports the
Frequency Domain study types. The Frequency Domain study type is used for source
driven simulations for a single frequency or a sequence of frequencies.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Theory for the
Boundary Elements PDE section for more information about the
Boundary Element Method.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Wave Equation, Electric, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements to select
physics features from the context menu.

If both The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and

The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface are available,
the Electric Field Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu
in the Physics toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node
in Model Builder.

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and The

Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface can also be
coupled by using the same name for the dependent variable for both
interfaces. Then Electric Field Coupling is not needed. How to set the
name for the dependent variable is described in the Dependent Variables
section.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh only defines mesh settings for the boundaries. It is
controlled from the Settings window for the Mesh node (if the Sequence type is Physics-
controlled mesh). In the table in the Physics-Controlled Mesh section, find the physics
interface in the Contributor column and select or clear the checkbox in the Use column
on the same row for enabling (the default) or disabling contributions from the physics
interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

When the Use checkbox for the physics interface is selected, this invokes a parameter
for the maximum mesh element size in free space. The physics-controlled mesh

228 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

automatically scales the maximum mesh element size as the wavelength changes in
different dielectric and magnetic regions.

When the Use checkbox is selected for the physics interface, in the section for the
physics interface below the table, choose one of the four options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — From study (the default), User defined, Frequency, or
Wavelength. When From study is selected, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength from the
highest frequency defined in the study step is used for the maximum mesh element
size. For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free space.
For example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller. When Frequency is selected,
enter the highest frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum
mesh element size in free space is 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength for the entered
frequency. For the Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum wavelength intended
to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh element size in free space is 1/
5 of the entered wavelength.

The maximum mesh element size in dielectric media is equal to the maximum mesh
element size in vacuum divided by the square root of the product of the relative
permittivity and permeability.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the Physics-

Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to define the
physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is embe.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, select any of the options — Manual, All domains, All voids, or All
domains and voids (the default). The geometric entity list displays the selected domain
entity numbers. Edit the list of selected domain entity numbers using the selection
toolbar buttons to the right of the list or by selecting the geometric entities in the

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 229

 Graphics window. Entity numbers for voids can be entered by clicking the Paste ( )
button in the selection toolbar and supplying the entity numbers in the dialog. The
entity number for the infinite void is 0, and finite voids have negative entity numbers.

Selections can also be entered using the Selection List window, available from the
Windows menu in the Home toolbar.

For more information about making selections, see Working with

Geometric Entities in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D components.

Select the Electric field components solved for — Three-component vector, Out-of-plane
vector, or In-plane vector. Select:

• Three-component vector (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector

for the electric field E.
• Out-of-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector component perpendicular to
the modeling plane, assuming that there is no electric field in the plane.
• In-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane.

FORMULATION
From the Formulation list, select whether to solve for the Full field (the default) or the
Scattered field.

230 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For Scattered field select a Background wave type according to the following table:
TABLE 4-3: BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE BASED ON COMPONENT DIMENSION.

COMPONENT BACKGROUND WAVE TYPE

2D User defined (default), Gaussian beam

3D User defined (default), Gaussian beam, Linearly polarized plane wave

The scattered field formulation supports both metallic PEC scatterers and
dielectric scatterers. Notice that a Wave Equation, Electric can be active
on multiple domains provided that each material parameter (Relative
permittivity, Relative permeability, and Electric conductivity) has the same
constant value in all the selected domains. In brief, there needs to be a
Wave Equation, Electric node for each dielectric material.

When multiple Wave Equation, Electric nodes exist, the Infinite void
selection needs to correspond to the first Wave Equation, Electric node
and cannot coexist with other domain selections.

User Defined
Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field Eb (SI unit: V/m).
The entered expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

Gaussian Beam
For Gaussian beam select the Gaussian beam type — Paraxial approximation (the default)
or Plane wave expansion.

When selecting Paraxial approximation, the Gaussian beam background field is a

solution to the paraxial wave equation, which is an approximation to the Helmholtz
equation solved for by the Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements (embe) interface.
The approximation is valid for Gaussian beams that have a beam radius that is much
larger than the wavelength. Since the paraxial Gaussian beam background field is an
approximation to the Helmholtz equation, for tightly focused beams, you can get a
nonzero scattered field solution, even if you do not have any scatterers. The option
Plane wave expansion means that the electric field for the Gaussian beam is
approximated by an expansion of the electric field into a number of plane waves. Since
each plane wave is a solution to the Helmholtz equation, the plane wave expansion of

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 231

 the electric field is also a solution to the Helmholtz equation. Thus, this option can be
used also for tightly focused Gaussian beams.

If the beam spot radius is smaller than the wavelength, evanescent plane waves need to
be included in the expansion. The evanescent waves decay exponentially in the
propagation direction, why it only makes sense to model such tightly focused beams if
the focal plane coincides with the input boundary. If the focal plane is located inside
the modeled domain, the field can be dominated by the exponentially decaying
evanescent waves. Those waves can have a very high field strength before the focal
plane even though they only provide a small contribution to the field at the focal plane.

For Plane wave expansion select Wave vector distribution type — Automatic (the default)
or User defined. For Automatic also check Allow evanescent waves, to include evanescent
waves in the plane wave expansion. For User defined also enter values for the Wave
vector count Nk (the default value is 13) and Maximum transverse wave number kt,max
(SI unit: rad/m, default value is (2*(sqrt(2*log(10))))/embe.w0). Use an odd
number for the Wave vector count Nk to make sure that a wave vector pointing in the
main propagation direction is included in the plane-wave expansion. The Wave vector
count Nk specifies the number of wave vectors that will be included per transverse
dimension. So for 3D the total number of wave vectors will be Nk·Nk.

Evanescent waves are included in the plane wave expansion if the

Maximum transverse wave number kt,max is larger that the specified Wave
number k. When the Wave vector distribution type is set to Automatic,
evanescent waves are included in the expansion if the Allow evanescent
waves checkbox is selected.

A plane wave expansion with a finite number of plane waves included will make the
field periodic in the plane orthogonal to the main propagation direction. If the
separation between the transverse wave vector components, given by 2kt,max(Nk 
1), is too small, replicas of the Gaussian beam background field can appear. To avoid
that, increase the value for the Wave vector count Nk.

The number of plane waves included in the expansion can be quite large, especially for
3D. For instance, using the default settings, 2·13·13 = 338 plane waves will be
included (the factor 2 accounts for the two possible polarizations for each wave
vector). Thus, initializing the plane-wave expansion for the Gaussian beam
background field can take some time in 3D.

232 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For more information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian Beams as
Background Fields and Input Fields.

Define the Gaussian beam background field using the parameters below:

• Select a Beam orientation: Along the x-axis (the default), Along the y-axis, or for 3D
components, Along the z-axis.
• Enter a Beam radius w0 (SI unit: m). The default is 20/embe.k0 m (10 vacuum
wavelengths).
• Enter a Focal plane along the axis p0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
• Select an Input quantity: Electric field amplitude (the default) or Power.
• Enter the component expressions for the Transverse background electric field
amplitude, Gaussian beam ETbg0 (SI unit: V/m) if the Input quantity is Electric field
amplitude. Notice that this is the transverse Gaussian beam amplitude in the focal
plane. When the Gaussian beam type is set to Paraxial approximation the background
field is always orthogonal (transverse) to Beam orientation. However, when the
Gaussian beam type is set to Plane wave expansion, the background field amplitude
can also have a component in the propagation direction. Specify here only the field
amplitude components that are orthogonal to the propagation direction. COMSOL
computes automatically the component in the propagation direction, if needed.
• If the Input quantity is set to Power, enter the Input power (SI unit: W in 2D
axisymmetry and 3D and W/m in 2D) and the component expressions for the
Nonnormalized transverse electric field amplitude, Gaussian beam ETbg0 (SI unit: V/
m).
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is embe.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for all the domains the scattered
field is applied to. Setting the Wave number k to a positive value means that the wave
is propagating in the positive x-, y-, or z-axis direction, whereas setting the Wave
number k to a negative value means that the wave is propagating in the negative x-,
y-, or z-axis direction.

Linearly Polarized Plane Wave

The initial background wave is predefined as E0exp(jkxx)z. This field is
transformed by three successive rotations along the roll, pitch, and yaw angles, in that
order. For a graphic representation of the initial background field and the definition of
the three rotations, compare with Figure 4-1 below.

• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 233

 • Enter a Roll angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+x direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to polarization along the
+z direction.
• Enter a Pitch angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to
the +y direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to the initial direction of
propagation pointing in the +x direction.
• Enter a Yaw angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+z direction.
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is embe.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for the domains the scattered field
is applied to.

Figure 4-8: Schematic of the directions for the wave vector k, the electric field E0, and the
roll, pitch, and yaw rotations. The top image represents an initial wave propagating in the
x direction with a polarization along the z direction.

SYMMETRY
Symmetry planes are normal to the Cartesian coordinate axes. For Condition for the
x=x0 plane, Condition for the y=y0 plane, and Condition for the z=z0 plane, select Off (the
default), Zero tangential magnetic field (PMC), or Zero tangential electric field (PEC),
respectively. For the option Zero tangential magnetic field (PMC) or Zero tangential
electric field (PEC), enter an axis coordinate value of the symmetry plane (SI unit: m).

PORT SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Use manual port sweep checkbox to enable the port sweep. When selected,
this invokes a parametric sweep over the ports in addition to the frequency sweep
already added. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of an S-parameter
matrix.

234 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For Use manual port sweep enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific name to
the parameter that controls the port number solved for during the sweep. Before
making the port sweep, the parameter must also have been added to the list of
parameters in the Parameters section of the Parameters node under the Global
Definitions node. This process can be automated by clicking the Configure Sweep
Settings button. The Configure Sweep Settings button helps add a necessary port sweep
parameter and a Parametric Sweep study step in the last study node. If there is already
a Parametric Sweep study step, the sweep settings are adjusted for the port sweep. Select
Export Touchstone file and the S-parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Click
Browse to locate the file, or enter a filename and path. Select an Parameter format (value
pair): Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

Enter a Reference impedance for Touchstone file export Zref (SI unit: ) that is used only
for the header in the exported Touchstone file. The default is 50 .

STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog.

For large models (problems that contain many wavelengths, at high frequency or for
large domains) enable the Use stabilization option (enable by default) to ensure
efficient convergence at the cost of some additional degrees of freedom.

When Use stabilization is selected, a text field for the Stabilization parameter is enabled
with the default value sqrt(abs(embe.k[m])). This is a parameter that should scale
inversely with the wavelength. The default gives good performance in most cases.

FAR-FIELD APPROXIMATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

For more information about the Far Field Approximation settings, see Far-
Field Approximation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

When Use far-field approximation for matrix assembly is selected, a text field for the
Minimum near field range in vacuum for preconditioning is enabled with the default value
((2*pi)/embe.k0)/10 (one tenth of a wavelength). For problems having a wide
distribution of mesh element sizes, including mesh elements that are much smaller

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 235

 than the wavelength, a smaller value for this parameter may make the iterative solver
convergence faster.

Using a smaller value for this parameter, may make problems having a large
distribution of mesh element sizes, including mesh elements that are much smaller
than the wavelength, converge faster with the iterative solver. However, a smaller value
use more memory.

QUADRATURE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

For more information about the Quadrature settings, see Quadrature in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
From the Electric field/Flux field list, choose from predefined options for the boundary
element discretization order for the electric field variable and the flux field (magnetic
field) variable, respectively. The predefined options represent the suitable
combinations of element orders such as Quadratic/Linear (the default). For more
information about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization
Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field E and its components
(in the Electric field components fields). The name can be changed but the names of
fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface has these domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes and subnodes. The nodes are listed in
alphabetical order and are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),

236 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN

• Initial Values • Wave Equation, Electric

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
With no surface currents present, the boundary conditions

n2   E1 – E2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because E is being solved for, the tangential component of the
electric field is always continuous, and thus the first condition is automatically fulfilled.
The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary condition

–1 –1
– n     r   E  1 –   r   E  2  = n  j 0  H 1 – H2  = 0

and is therefore also fulfilled. The Far-Field Calculation condition is described in this
section.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 237

 The following features are also available and described for The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface:

• Electric Field • Lumped Port

• Far-Field Calculation • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Impedance Boundary Condition • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Layered Impedance Boundary • Surface Current Density
Condition

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Wave Equation, Electric

Wave Equation, Electric is the main feature node for this physics interface. The
governing equation can be written in the form

2
 r– 1      E  – k 0  rc E = 0

for the time-harmonic and eigenfrequency problems. The wave number of free space
k0 is defined as

-
k 0 =   0  0 = ----
c0

where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

WAVE EQUATION, ELECTRIC

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, Debye dispersion model, or Wideband Debye model. See
the Electric Displacement Field section for the Wave Equation, Electric node in The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface for all settings.

238 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The default Relative permeability r, and Electric conductivity  take values From
material. For User defined enter a value or expression in the field.

Notice that the boundary element method is based on the availability of

an analytic Green’s function for the domain. Thus, the Relative
permittivity, the Relative permeability, and the Electric conductivity must all
evaluate to constant values for each Wave Equation, Electric node.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric field that can serve as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics
toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m). The default values are 0 V/m.

Far-Field Calculation
Use a Far-Field Calculation to select all boundaries between, on one side, the Infinite
void, and on the other side, different material domains, voids, or boundaries that
scatter or radiate. By default, all boundaries within the simulation domain are selected,
while those interior to a material domain are disregarded, marked as not applicable.

FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name. The default is Efar.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog.

For a discussion about the settings in this section, see Advanced Settings in the
documentation for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

Electric Field Coupling

The Electric Field Coupling multiphysics node assures continuity of the electric potential
across boundaries between The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 239

 and The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface. The Electric Field
Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by right-
clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary
Elements Interface are available.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the list
of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All boundaries
is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to the Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain interface that intersect the exterior boundaries to the
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements interface are available in the boundary
entity number list.

COUPLED INTERFACES
Select Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain as Primary interface and
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements as Secondary interface.

FEM–BEM Coupling of a Microstrip Patch Antenna: Application

Library path RF_Module/Antennas/microstrip_patch_antenna_fem_bem
demonstrates how to use the Electric Field Coupling node to couple The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and The
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface.

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation of a model or to
connect to a circuit. A lumped port is a simplification of the port boundary condition.

LUMPED PORT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped port name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is
used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

Type of Lumped Port

Select a Type of lumped port — Coaxial, User defined, or Via.

240 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Select User defined for nonuniform ports, for example, a curved port and enter values
or expressions in the fields — Height of lumped port hport (SI unit: m), Width of lumped
port wport (SI unit: m), and Direction between lumped port terminals ah.

Select Via for excitation or termination of a cylindrical shape of a structure used in a

metalized via that is a plated through hole.

Terminal Type
For the Terminal type — a Cable port is available for a voltage driven transmission line
and S-parameter calculation.

For Cable, select On or Off from the Wave excitation at this port list to set whether it is
an inport (excitation) or a listener port (observation).

SETTINGS

Source Type
If On is selected for the Wave excitation at this port, select Voltage or Power from the
Source type. For the Voltage source type, enter a Voltage V0 (SI unit: V), and Port phase
in (SI unit: rad). For the Power source type, enter a Power P0 (SI unit: W) that is the
average input power to the lumped port.

Note it is only possible to excite one Cable port at a time if the purpose is to compute
S-parameters. In other cases, for example, when more than one inport might be
wanted, but the S-parameter variables cannot be correctly computed so if several ports
are excited, the S-parameter output is turned off.

The Port Sweep Settings cycle through the ports, computes the entire S-matrix, and
exports it to a Touchstone file. When using port sweeps, the local setting for Wave
excitation at this port is overridden by the solver so only one port at a time is excited.

Enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 241

 The Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM
Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM interface ( ) makes it possible to build hybrid
FEM-BEM models, where the boundary element method (BEM) is used to compute
the electric fields outside the finite element method (FEM) domains. This multiphysics
interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface and an
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements interface. The multiphysics coupling
assures continuity of the tangential electric fields across boundaries between the two
interfaces.

Frequency-domain modeling is supported in 2D and 3D.

When a predefined Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM interface is added from the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, the Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain and Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements interfaces are
added to the Model Builder.

In addition, a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Electric Field Coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface computes time-harmonic
electromagnetic field distributions. To use this physics interface, the maximum mesh
element size should be limited to a fraction of the wavelength. Thus, the domain size
that can be simulated scales with the amount of available computer memory and the
wavelength. The physics interface solves the time-harmonic wave equation for the
electric field.

The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements interface is used to solve for time-
harmonic electromagnetic field distributions. This interface is especially well suited for
radiation and scattering problems since only boundaries need to be meshed and the
degrees of freedom (DOFs) solved for are restricted to the boundaries. To use this
physics interface, the maximum mesh element size should well resolve the complex
electric field on the boundaries. The physics interface solves the vector Helmholtz
equation for piecewise-constant material properties and uses the electric field as
dependent variable.

242 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings — for example,
Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM — specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Electromagnetic

Waves, Boundary Elements interfaces are added, COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty
Multiphysics node. You can add the Electromagnetic Waves, FEM-BEM coupling feature,
but no modified settings are included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 4-4: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FEM-BEM INTERFACE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Electromagnetic Waves, No changes.

Frequency Domain
Electromagnetic Waves, No changes.
Boundary Elements
Electromagnetic Waves, The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
FEM-BEM physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior and interior
boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics
interfaces.
The corresponding Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
and Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements interfaces are
preselected in the Coupled Interfaces section (described in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FEM-BEM INTERFACE | 243

 Coupling Feature
The Electric Field Coupling feature is described in the documentation for The
Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• The available physics features for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
Interface are listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.
• The available physics features for The Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements
Interface are listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Electromagnetic Waves, Boundary Elements Interface.

244 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Transmission Line, RLGC
Parameters Interface
The Transmission Line, RLGC Parameters ( ) interface, available only in 2D, combines
an Electric Currents interface and a Magnetic Fields interface to extract transmission
line parameters such as series resistance R, series inductance L, shunt conductance G,
shunt capacitance C, all calculated per unit length, as well as characteristic impedance
Z and propagation constant . This multiphysics interface also computes the
characteristic impedance and propagation constant. Frequency-domain modeling is
supported in 2D.

When a predefined Transmission Line, RLGC Parameters interface is added from the
Radio Frequency branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, the Electric
Currents and Magnetic Fields interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Transmission Line Parameters.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, multiphysics coupling feature is
not automatically included.

For example, if single Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields interfaces are added, you
need to manually add the Transmission Line Parameters coupling feature on an empty
Multiphysics node.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 4-5: COMPUTED PARAMETERS THROUGH TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETER COUPLING FEATURE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE COMPUTED VALUES

Electric Currents Shunt conductance G and shunt capacitance C

Magnetic Fields Series resistance R and series inductance L

THE TRANSMISSION LINE, RLGC PARAMETERS INTERFACE | 245

 Theory for the Electromagnetic
Waves Interfaces
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interfaceand The Electromagnetic
Waves, Transient Interface theory is described in this section:

• Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations

• Frequency Domain Equation
• Time Domain Equation
• Curl Elements
• Eigenfrequency Calculations
• Gaussian Beams as Background Fields and Input Fields
• Linearly Polarized Plane Wave as Background Field in 2D Axisymmetry
• Periodic Port Mode Fields
• Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Archie’s Law Theory

Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations

Formulations for high-frequency waves can be derived from Maxwell–Ampère’s and
Faraday’s laws,

  H = J + -------
D
t

  E = – ------
B-
t

Using the constitutive relations for linear materials D  E and B  H as well as a

current J  E, these two equations become

246 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

   H = E + ---------
E-
t
H
  E = –  --------
t

Frequency Domain Equation

Writing the fields on a time-harmonic form, assuming a sinusoidal excitation and linear
media,

jt
E  x y z t  = E  x y z e
jt
H  x y z t  = H  x y z e

the two laws can be combined into a time-harmonic equation for the electric field or
a similar equation for the magnetic field

    – 1   E  –  2 E = 0
–1
      H  –  2 H = 0

The first of these is based on the electric field is used in The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface.

Using the relation r = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

2 2
     E  – k0 n E = 0

The wave number in vacuum k0 is defined by

-
k 0 =   0  0 = ----
c0

where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

When the equation is written using the refractive index, the assumption is that r = 1
and  = 0 and only the constitutive relations for linear materials are available. When
solving for the scattered field the same equations are used but E  Esc  Ei and Esc is
the dependent variable.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 247

 EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS
When solving the frequency domain equation as an eigenfrequency problem the
eigenvalue is the complex eigenfrequency   j  , where  is the damping of the
solution. The Q factor is given from the eigenvalue by the formula

-
Q fact = --------
2

MODE ANALYSIS AND BOUNDARY MODE ANALYSIS

In mode analysis and boundary mode analysis, the COMSOL Multiphysics software
solves for the propagation constant. The time-harmonic representation is almost the
same as for the eigenfrequency analysis, but with a known propagation in the out-of-
plane direction

˜  r e jt – z 
˜  r e jt – jz  = Re  E
E  r t  = Re  E T

The spatial parameter,   z  j  , can have a real part and an imaginary part. The
propagation constant is equal to the imaginary part, and the real part, z, represents
the damping along the propagation direction. When solving for all three electric field
components the allowed anisotropy of the optionally complex relative permittivity and
relative permeability is limited to:

 rxx  rxy 0  rxx  rxy 0

 rc =  ryx  ryy 0  r =  ryx  ryy 0
0 0  rzz 0 0  rzz

Limiting the electric field component solved for to the out-of-plane

component for TE modes requires that the medium is homogeneous;
that is,  and  are constant. When solving for the in-plane electric field
components for TM modes,  can vary but  must be constant. It is
strongly recommended to use the most general approach, that is solving
for all three components which is sometimes referred to as “perpendicular
hybrid-mode waves”.

248 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Variables Influenced by Mode Analysis
The following table lists the variables that are influenced by the mode analysis:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

beta imag(-lambda) No Propagation constant

dampz real(-lambda) No Attenuation constant
dampzdB 20*log10(exp(1))* No Attenuation per meter in dB
dampz
neff j*lambda/k0 Yes Effective mode index

PROPAGATING WAVES IN 2D
In 2D, different polarizations can be chosen by selecting to solve for a subset of the
3D vector components. When selecting all three components, the 3D equation applies
with the addition that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are evaluated for the prescribed
out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the electric field.

In 2D, the electric field varies with the out-of-plane wave number kz as

˜  x y  exp  – ik z  .
E  x y z  = E z

The wave equation is thereby rewritten as

˜  – k2  E
  – ik z z     r–1   – ik z z   E ˜ = 0,
0 rc

where z is the unit vector in the out-of-plane z direction.

Similarly, in 2D axisymmetry, the electric field varies with the azimuthal mode number
m as

˜  r z  exp  – im 
E  r  z  = E

and the wave equation is expressed as

 – im
----- ̂   r–1   – i m
----- ̂  E
˜ – k2  E˜ = 0,
 r   r  0 rc

where ̂ is the unit vector in the out-of-plane  direction.

Covariant formulation
In the 2D axisymmetric formulation, it is beneficial to formulate the out-of-plane
dependent variable as

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 249

  = rE  ,

referred to as the covariant formulation. Here,  is the dependent variable and the out-
of-plane electric field component is calculated as

E =   r .

The out-of-plane dependent variable is constrained to be zero on the symmetry axis,

 = 0.

The covariant formulation has better performance in terms of numerical stability and
accuracy. For eigenfrequency simulations, it also removes spurious solutions.

This formulation is used for all study types, except Mode Analysis and Boundary Mode
Analysis.

In-plane Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that out-of-plane spatial
derivatives are evaluated for the prescribed out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the
electric field

In-plane TM Waves
The TM waves polarization has only one magnetic field component in the z direction,
and the electric field lies in the modeling plane. Thus the time-harmonic fields can be
obtained by solving for the in-plane electric field components only. The equation is
formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the out-of-plane electric field
component is zero everywhere and that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are evaluated
for the prescribed out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the electric field.

In-plane TE Waves
As the field propagates in the modeling xy-plane a TE wave has only one nonzero
electric field component, namely in the z direction. The magnetic field lies in the
modeling plane. Thus the time-harmonic fields can be simplified to a scalar equation
for Ez,

2
–    ̃ r E z  –  rzz k 0 E z = 0

where

250 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 T
r
̃ r = ------------------
-
det   r 

To be able to write the fields in this form, it is also required that r, , and r are
nondiagonal only in the xy-plane. r denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, and rzz and zz are the
relative permittivity and conductivity in the z direction.

Axisymmetric Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that spatial derivatives with
respect to  are evaluated for the prescribed azimuthal mode number dependence of
the electric field.

Axisymmetric TM Waves
A TM wave has a magnetic field with only a -component and thus an electric field
with components in the rz-plane only. The equation is formally the same as in 3D, the
only difference being that the -component is zero everywhere and that spatial
derivatives with respect to  are evaluated for the prescribed azimuthal mode number
dependence of the electric field.

Axisymmetric TE Waves
A TE wave has only an electric field component in the  direction, and the magnetic
field lies in the modeling plane. Given these constraints, the 3D equation can be
simplified to a scalar equation for E. To write the fields in this form, it is also required
that r and r are nondiagonal only in the rz-plane. r denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, while
r and  are the relative permittivity and conductivity in the  direction.

INTRODUCING LOSSES IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Electric Losses
The frequency domain equations allow for several ways of introducing electric losses.
Finite conductivity results in a complex permittivity,


 c =  – j ----


The conductivity gives rise to ohmic losses in the medium.

A more general approach is to use a complex permittivity,

 c =  0  ' – j'' 

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 251

 where ' is the real part of r, and all losses (dielectric and conduction losses) are given
by ''. The dielectric loss model can also single out the losses from finite conductivity
(so that '' only represents dielectric losses) resulting in:

 + '' 
 c =  0  ' – j  ---------
   
0

The complex permittivity can also be introduced as a loss tangent:

 c =  0 '  1 – j tan  

When specifying losses through a loss tangent, conductivity is not allowed

as an input.

In optics and photonics applications, the refractive index is often used instead of the
permittivity. In materials where r is 1, the relation between the complex refractive
index

n = n – j

and the complex relative permittivity is

2
 rc = n

that is

2 2
' r = n – 
'' r = 2n

The inverse relations are

2 1 2 2
n = ---  ' r + ' r + '' r 
2
2 1 2 2
 = ---  – ' r + ' r + '' r 
2

The parameter  represents a damping of the electromagnetic wave. When specifying

the refractive index, conductivity is not allowed as an input.

In the physics and optics literature, the time harmonic form is often written with a
minus sign (and “i” instead of “j”):

252 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 – i t
E  x y z t  = E  x y z e

This makes an important difference in how loss is represented by complex material

coefficients like permittivity and refractive index, that is, by having a positive imaginary
part (material parameters '' and ) rather than a negative one. Therefore, material data
taken from the literature might have to be conjugated before using it in a model.

Magnetic Losses
The frequency domain equations allow for magnetic losses to be introduced as a
complex relative permeability.

 r =  ' – j'' 

The complex relative permeability can be combined with any electric loss model except
refractive index.

Time Domain Equation

The relations H    A and E  At (using the gauge for which the scalar electric
potential vanishes) make it possible to rewrite Maxwell–Ampère’s law using the
magnetic potential.

A  A   – 1
0  + 0  +   r   A = 0
t t t

This is the equation used by The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface. It is

suitable for the simulation of nonsinusoidal waveforms or nonlinear media.

Using the relation r = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equations can
alternatively be written

  2 A
0 0 n +     A = 0
t t 

WAVES IN 2D
In 2D, different polarizations can be chosen by selecting to solve for a subset of the
3D vector components. When selecting all three components, the 3D equation applies
with the addition that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are set to zero.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 253

 In-plane Hybrid-Mode Waves
Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation form is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that out-of-plane spatial
derivatives are set to zero.

In-plane TM Waves
The TM waves polarization has only one magnetic field component in the z direction,
and thus the electric field and vector potential lie in the modeling plane. Hence it is
obtained by solving only for the in-plane vector potential components. The equation
is formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the out-of-plane vector
potential component is zero everywhere and that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are
set to zero.

In-plane TE Waves
As the field propagates in the modeling xy-plane a TE wave has only one nonzero
vector potential component, namely in the z direction. The magnetic field lies in the
modeling plane. Thus the equation in the time domain can be simplified to a scalar
equation for Az:

A z  A z
+ 0 0  r
–1
0  +     r  A z   = 0
t t t 

Using the relation r = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

  n 2 A z  A
0  0 +  z = 0
t t 

When using the refractive index, the assumption is that r = 1 and  = 0 and only the
constitutive relations for linear materials can be used.

Axisymmetric Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation form is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that spatial derivatives
with respect to  are set to zero.

Axisymmetric TM Waves
TM waves have a magnetic field with only a -component and thus an electric field and
a magnetic vector potential with components in the rz-plane only. The equation is
formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the -component is zero
everywhere and that spatial derivatives with respect to  are set to zero.

254 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Axisymmetric TE Waves
A TE wave has only a vector potential component in the  direction, and the magnetic
field lies in the modeling plane. Given these constraints, the 3D equation can be
simplified to a scalar equation for A. To write the fields in this form, it is also required
that r and r are nondiagonal only in the rz-plane. r denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, while
r and  are the relative permittivity and conductivity in the  direction.

Curl Elements
Whenever solving for more than a single vector component, it is not possible to use
Lagrange elements for electromagnetic wave modeling. The reason is that they force
the fields to be continuous everywhere. This implies that the physics interface
conditions, which specify that the normal components of the electric fields and the
tangential components of the magnetic fields are discontinuous across interior
boundaries between media with different permittivity and permeability, cannot be
fulfilled. To overcome this problem, the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
interface uses curl elements, which do not have this limitation. The curl element is also
named as vector element or edge element.

The solution obtained when using curl elements also better fulfills the divergence
conditions  · D  0 and  · B  0 than when using Lagrange elements.

For more information about the curl element, read the blog post:
[Link]/blogs/what-is-the-curl-element-and-why-is-it-used/

Eigenfrequency Calculations
When making eigenfrequency calculations, there are a few important things to note:

• Nonlinear eigenvalue problems appear for impedance boundary conditions with

nonzero conductivity and for scattering boundary conditions adjacent to domains
with nonzero conductivity. Such problems have to be treated specially.
• Some of the boundary conditions, such as the surface current density condition and
the electric field condition, can specify a source in the eigenvalue problem. These
conditions are available as a general tool to specify arbitrary expressions between the
H field and the E field. Avoid specifying solution-independent sources for these
conditions because the eigenvalue solver ignores them anyway.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 255

 Using the default parameters for the eigenfrequency study, it might find a large
number of false eigenfrequencies, which are almost zero. This is a known consequence
of using vector elements. To avoid these eigenfrequencies, change the parameters for
the eigenvalue solver in the Study Settings. Adjust the settings so that the solver
searches for eigenfrequencies closer to the lowest eigenfrequency than to zero.

Gaussian Beams as Background Fields and Input Fields

When solving for the scattered field, the background wave type can be set to a
predefined Gaussian beam from within the Settings of The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface. Additionally, Gaussian beams can be specified as the
input field for the Scattering Boundary Condition.

In the paraxial approximation, the field for a Gaussian beam propagating along the z-
axis is

2 2
w0  
- – jkz – jk ---------------- + j   z  ,
E G  x y z  = E G0 ------------ exp – --------------
w z w z
2 2R  z 

where w0 is the beam radius, p0 is the focal plane on the z-axis, EG0 is the Gaussian
beam electric field amplitude, and the spot radius for different positions along the
propagation axis is given by

z – p0 2
w  z  = w 0 1 +  --------------- .
 z0 

z0 2
R  z  =  z – p 0  1 +  ---------------
z – p0

defines the radius of curvature for the phase of the field and the so-called Gouy phase
shift is given by

z–p
  z  = atan  --------------0- .
z0

The equations above are expressed using the Rayleigh range z0 and the transverse
coordinate , defined by

2
kw 0 2 2 2
z 0 = -----------  = x + y .
2

256 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Note that the time-harmonic ansatz in COMSOL Multiphysics is ejt, and with this
convention, the beam above propagates in the +z direction. The equations are
modified accordingly for beams propagating along the other coordinate axes.

The field for a Gaussian beam is defined in a similar way for 2D components. In the
particular case where the beam propagates along the x-axis, the field is defined as

2 2
w0 y y x
E G  x y  = E G0 ------------ exp – --------------- – jkx – jk ---------------- + j ----------- .
w x w x
2 2R  x  2

For a beam propagating along the y-axis, the coordinates x and y are interchanged.

Notice that the expressions above for Gaussian beams are not solutions to the
Helmholtz equation, but to the so called paraxial approximation of the Helmholtz
equation. This means that these equations become less accurate the smaller the spot
radius is and should not be used when the spot radius is of the same size as or smaller
than the wavelength.

To circumvent the problem that the paraxial approximation formula is not a solution
to the Helmholtz equation, a plane wave expansion can be used to approximate a
Gaussian beam background field. Since each plane wave is a solution to Helmholtz
equation, also the expansion is a solution to Helmholtz equation.

The plane wave expansion approximates the Gaussian distribution in the focal plane

 2 + y 2
E b Gauss  r  = E 0 exp  – x-----------------
- e =
 w 
2
0
L M 1

   almn un  klm  exp  –iklm  r ,

l = –L m = –M n = 0

where the beam is assumed to be propagating in the z direction, the focal plane is
spanned by the x- and y-coordinates, e is the unit magnitude transverse polarization
in the focal plane, l and m denote the indices for the wave vectors, the index n accounts
for the two polarizations per wave vector klm, almn is the amplitude, un(klm) is the
unit magnitude polarization, and r is the position vector.

Multiplying with the conjugate of the exponential factor above and the polarization
factor un(klm) and applying a surface integral over the entire focal plane allows us to
extract the amplitudes as

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 257

 2 2 2
E 0 w 0  e  u n  k lm    k t lm w 0
a lmn = -------------------------------------------------- exp  – --------------------
- ,
4  4 

where kt,lm is the magnitude of the transverse wave vector component.

Linearly Polarized Plane Wave as Background Field in 2D

Axisymmetry
When solving for the scattered field in 2D axisymmetry, the background wave type can
be set to a linearly polarized plane wave propagating in arbitrary direction in the
Settings of The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface. The linearly
polarized plane wave is of the form Eb  E0ejt  k  r. In Cartesian coordinates,
E0  Ex, Ey, Ez, k  kx, ky, kz, and r  x, y, z. To express a linearly polarized
plane wave with arbitrary incident angle and polarization angle in cylindrical
coordinates for a 2D axisymmetric simulation, use the following expansions:


– jkr sin  cos 
  –j 
m – jm
e = J m  kr sin  e ,
m = –

where  is the angle with respect to the positive z-axis,  is the azimuthal angle, m is
the azimuthal mode number, and Jm is the Bessel function of the first kind of order
m. Furthermore, the basis vectors x̂ and ŷ in Cartesian coordinates can be expressed
with basis vectors r̂ and ̂ as

1 j – j
x̂ = ---  e  r̂ + j̂  + e  r̂ – j̂  
2

and

1 j – j
ŷ = ---  e  ̂ – jr̂  + e  ̂ + jr̂   .
2

Consequently, a plane wave background field with amplitude E0, incident angle , and
polarization angle  can be written as Er, E, Ez, where

258 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 E 0 jkz cos  

   cos  cos  – j sin    –j 

m+1
E r = ------- e J m + 1  kr sin  
2
m = –
m–1 – jm
+  cos  cos  + j sin    – j  J m – 1  kr sin   e ,

E 0 jkz cos  

m+1
E  = ------- e   sin  + j cos  cos    – j  J m + 1  kr sin  
2 m = –
m–1 – jm
+  sin  – j cos  cos    – j  J m – 1  kr sin   e ,

and


jkz cos 
  –j 
m – jm
E z = E 0 cos  sin e J m  kr sin  e .
m = –

Here,  and  are defined as the schematic shown in Figure 4-2. Once the linearly
polarized plane wave is used as the background field, an auxiliary sweep over the
azimuthal mode number will be added. After the simulation, the total scattered field is
given by the sum of all the azimuthal modes. The z-components of the scattered field
and the background field will be plotted by default. Other components of the field can
be computed in a similar way with the help of the sum and withsol operators.

Periodic Port Mode Fields

Periodic, Diffraction Order, and Orthogonal Polarization Port features, all use plane-
wave electric mode fields of the form

E = E m exp  – jk m  r  ,

where Em, km, and r are the amplitude, the wave vector, and the position vector,
respectively. Here, m is the mode index. Since, this field represents a plane wave, the
amplitude must be orthogonal to the wave vector,

Em  km = 0 .

As plane-wave mode fields are assumed, the material properties in the domain adjacent
to the port boundary must be homogeneous and isotropic.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 259

 For the Periodic Port, the amplitude E0 is provided by the user (we set m = 0 here, as
the Periodic Port represents the lowest diffraction order). The amplitude for the
Orthogonal Polarization Port is orthogonal to the amplitude of the Periodic Port.
That is,

E T orth  conj  H T 0   n = –  n  conj  H T 0    E T orth = 0 ,

where HT,0 is the tangential magnetic mode field amplitude for the periodic port and
n is the port normal. Since ET,orth is tangential to the port boundary and thereby
orthogonal to the port normal, it can be written

E T orth = n   –  n  conj  H T 0    = conj  H T 0  .

So, the tangential electric mode field amplitude for the Orthogonal Polarization Port
is polarized in the direction of the conjugate of the tangential magnetic mode field
amplitude for the Periodic Port.

For Diffraction Order ports, the amplitude for out-of-plane modes is calculated as

E m oop = k m  n .

For normal incidence, km is parallel to n. Then the amplitude is defined by a tangent

vector to the port boundary.

For in-plane modes, the amplitude is defined by

E m ip = E m oop  k m .

From the amplitude definitions above, it is clear that in-plane modes are polarized in
the plane spanned by the port normal n and the mode wave vector km, whereas out-
of-plane modes have a polarization that is orthogonal to this plane.

The mode fields described above are the unnormalized mode fields. The normalized
mode fields are scaled to produce a mode power that equals the specified port input
power (for excited ports) or 1 W for listener ports.

Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures

One way of dealing with effective media or mixtures of solids in electromagnetic
models is to replace them with a homogenized medium. The electric and magnetic
properties of this medium are computed from the properties of each phase by means
of an averaging formula.

260 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

There are several possible approaches to compute an average material property starting
from the material properties and the volume fraction of each material.

The following sections illustrate the different formulas available to compute the
effective electric conductivity, the effective relative permittivity, and the effective
relative permeability of a homogenized medium. In the following, volume fractions
of the materials are indicated with i, where i is the material index, and they are
assumed to be fractional (between 0 and 1). Up to five different materials can be
specified as phases of the mixture. Typically, their volume fractions should add up to 1.

Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electric conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, CONDUCTIVITY

If the electric conductivities of the two materials are not so different from each other,
a simple form of averaging can be used, such as a volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the conductivity of the material i. This is equivalent to a “parallel” system

of resistivities.

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors (such as for anisotropic
materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RESISTIVITY

A similar expression for the effective conductivity can be used, which mimics a “series”
connection of resistivities. Equivalently, the effective conductivity is obtained from

n
i  
--1- =
  -----i = -----1- + -----2- + 
1 2
i=0

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors, the inverse of the tensors are
used.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 261

 POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent conductivity:

n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

The effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Conductivity is the upper

bound, the effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Resistivity is the
lower bound, and the Power Law average is somewhere between these two.

Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electric conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMITTIVITY

If the relative permittivity of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permittivity r is calculated by simple volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permittivity is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RECIPROCAL PERMITTIVITY

The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permittivities:

n
1 i  
--- =
  ----i = -----1 + -----2 + 
1 2
i=0

If the permittivity is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permittivity:

262 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

The effective permittivity calculated by Volume Average, Permittivity is the upper

bound, the effective permittivity calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal
Permittivity is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
between these two.

Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electric conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMEABILITY

If the relative permeability of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permeability r is calculated by simple volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permeability is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RECIPROCAL PERMEABILITY

The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permeabilities:

n
1 i  
--- =
  -----i = -----1- + -----2- + 
1 2
i=0

If the permeability is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permeability:

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 263

 n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

The effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Permeability is the upper

bound, the effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal
Permeability is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
between these two.

Archie’s Law Theory

The electric conductivity of the materials composing saturated rocks and soils can vary
over many orders of magnitude. For instance, in the petroleum reservoirs, normal sea
water (or brine) has a typical conductivity of around 3 S/m, whereas hydrocarbons are
typically much more resistive and have conductivities in the range 0.10.01 S/m.

The porous rocks and sediments can have even lower conductivities. In variably
saturated soils, the conductivity of air is roughly ten orders of magnitude lower than
the ground water. A simple volume average (of either conductivity or resistivity) in
rocks or soils might give different results compared to experimental data.

Since most crustal rocks, sedimentary rocks, and soils are formed by nonconducting
materials, Archie (Ref. 1) assumed that electric current are mainly caused by ion fluxes
through the pore network. Originally, Archie’s law is an empirical law for the effective
conductivity of a fully saturated rock or soil, but it can be extended to variably
saturated porous media.

Archie’s law relates the effective conductivity to the fluid conductivity L, fluid
saturation sL, and porosity p:

n m
 = sL p L

here, m is the cementation exponent, a parameter that describes the connectivity of the
pores. The cementation exponent normally varies between 1.3 and 2.5 for most
sedimentary rocks and is close to 2 for sandstones. The lower limit m   represents a
volume average of the conductivities of a fully saturated, insulating (zero conductivity)
porous matrix, and a conducting fluid. The saturation coefficient n is normally close
to 2. The ratio F  Lis called the formation factor.

Archie’s law does not take care of the relative permittivity of either fluids or solids, so
the effective relative permittivity of the porous medium is normally consider as r  .

264 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Reference for Archie’s Law
1. G.E. Archie, “The Electric Resistivity as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics,” Trans. Am. Inst. Metal. Eng., vol. 146, pp. 54–62, 1942.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 265

 Theory for the Transmission Line
Interface
The Transmission Line Interface theory is described in this section.

• Introduction to Transmission Line Theory

• Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Introduction to Transmission Line Theory

Figure 4-9 is an illustration of a transmission line of length L. The distributed
resistance R, inductance L, conductance G, and capacitance C, characterize the
properties of the transmission line.

Figure 4-9: Schematic of a transmission line with a load impedance.

The distribution of the electric potential V and the current I describes the propagation
of the signal wave along the line. The following equations relate the current and the
electric potential

V = –  R + jL I
(4-1)
x

I = –  G + jC V
(4-2)
x

Equation 4-1 and Equation 4-2 can be combined to the second-order partial
differential equation

266 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 2
 V 2
=  V (4-3)
2
x

where

 =  R + jL   G + jC  =  + j

Here , , and  are called the complex propagation constant, the attenuation
constant, and the (real) propagation constant, respectively.

The attenuation constant, , is zero if R and G are zero.

The solution to Equation 4-3 represents a forward- and a backward-propagating wave

– x x (4-4)
V  x  = V+ e + V- e

By inserting Equation 4-4 in Equation 4-1 the current distribution is obtained.

 – x x
I  x  = ---------------------  V + e – V - e 
R + jL

If only a forward-propagating wave is present in the transmission line (no reflections),

dividing the voltage by the current gives the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line

Z0 = V
---- = R + jL- = R + jL-
-------------------- ---------------------
I  G + jC

To make sure that the current is conserved across interior boundaries, COMSOL
Multiphysics solves the following wave equation (instead of Equation 4-3)

1 - V
  -------------------- –  G + jC V = 0 (4-5)
 x  R + jL  x 

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

The Transmission Line Interface has these boundary conditions:

V1 = V2 (4-6)

THEORY FOR THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 267

 and

I1 = I2 (4-7)

In Equation 4-6 and Equation 4-7, the indices 1 and 2 denote the domains on the two
sides of the boundary. The currents flowing out of a boundary are given by

n i  V i
I i = – ------------------------- , i = 1 2
R i + jL i

where ni are the normals pointing out of the domain.

Because V is solved for, the electric potential is always continuous, and thus
Equation 4-6 is automatically fulfilled. Equation 4-7 is equivalent to the natural
boundary condition

1 - V
-------------------------- – --------------------------- V
1
= 0
R 2 + jL 2  x 2 R 1 jL 1  x
+ 1

which is fulfilled with the wave-equation formulation in Equation 4-5.

When the transmission line is terminated by a load impedance, as Figure 4-9 shows,
the current through the load impedance is given by

 L -
I L = V
------------ (4-8)
ZL

Inserting Equation 4-1into Equation 4-8, results in the Terminating Impedance

boundary condition

1 - V V
-------------------- + ------- = 0 (4-9)
R + jL  x Z L

If the arbitrary load impedance ZL is replaced by the characteristic impedance of the

transmission line Z0 you get the Absorbing Boundary condition. By inserting the
voltage, defined in Equation 4-4, in Equation 4-9 you can verify that the boundary
condition does not allow any reflected wave (that is, V is zero).

The Open Circuit boundary condition is obtained by letting the load impedance
become infinitely large, that is, no current flows through the load impedance.

On the other hand, the Short Circuit boundary condition specifies that the voltage at
the load is zero. In COMSOL Multiphysics this is implemented as a constraint on the
electric potential.

268 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

To excite the transmission line, use the Incoming Wave boundary condition. Referring
to the left (input) end of the transmission line in Figure 4-9, the forward propagating
wave has a voltage amplitude of V0. Thus, the total voltage at this boundary is given by

V  0  = V = V0 + V-

Thereby, the current can be written as

1 V 1 2V 0 – V
I  0  = – --------------------- = ------  V 0 – V -  = --------------------
R + jL  x x=0
Z0 Z0

resulting in the boundary condition

1 V V – 2V 0
– --------------------- + -------------------- = 0
R + jL  x Z0

For the Lumped Port boundary condition, the port current (positive when entering
the transmission line) defines the boundary condition as

1 V
– --------------------- – I port = 0
R + jL  x

where the port current Iport is given by

2V 0 – V
I port = --------------------
Z0

for a Cable lumped port (see the Lumped Port section for a description of the lumped
port settings).

For a Current-controlled lumped port, you provide Iport as an input parameter,

whereas it is part of an electrical circuit equation for a Circuit-based lumped port.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSMISSION LINE INTERFACE | 269

 Theory for the Transmission Line,
Transient Interface
This section describes The Transmission Line, Transient Interface theory in the time
domain.

• Introduction to Transmission Line, Transient Theory

• Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions

Introduction to Transmission Line, Transient Theory

The time-domain form of transmission line equations, commonly referred to as
Telegrapher’s equations, are written in terms of time derivatives of the electric
potential V and the current I as

V I
------- = – RI – L ----- (4-10)
x t

V-
I- = – GV – C ------
----- (4-11)
x t

Equation 4-10 and Equation 4-11 can be combined into the second-order partial
differential equation as

2
 V
- +  RC + LG  V
LC --------- ------- –  2 V + RGV = 0 (4-12)
t
2 t

where the propagation constant is  =  R + jL   G + jC  . To ensure that the

current is conserved across interior boundaries, COMSOL Multiphysics solves the
following wave equation (instead of Equation 4-12):

2
 V RC + LG V 1 2 RG
- + ------------------------ ------- – ----  V + --------- V = 0
C --------- (4-13)
t
2 L t L L

270 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Theory for the Transmission Line, Transient Boundary Conditions
The frequency-domain form of the Terminating Impedance boundary condition is
derived from the current flowing through the load impedance, as is shown in
Equation 4-8. The time derivative of Equation 4-8 reads

V- I
1- ------
------ – ----- = 0 (4-14)
Z L t t

Inserting the expression for the time derivative of the current I from Equation 4-10
into Equation 4-14 yields to the time-domain Terminating Impedance boundary
condition equation:

1- V 1- V R-
------ ------- + --- ------- + ---------- V = 0 (4-15)
Z L t L x LZ L

To derive the Absorbing Boundary boundary condition, the load impedance in

Equation 4-9 is replaced by the characteristic impedance. This results in the frequency-
domain form of the Absorbing Boundary condition:

1 - V V
-------------------- + ------ = 0 (4-16)
R + jL  x Z 0

Equation 4-16 can be expressed in terms of the propagation constant as

V
------- + V = 0 (4-17)
x

In order to derive the time-domain form of Equation 4-17, it is required to perform

the Taylor series expansion of the propagation constant. The resulting Taylor series of
the corresponding products of  are given by

1 R 2
jL 1 + --- ---------- – ---  ----------
1 R
R + jL =
2 jL 8  jL

1 G 2
jC 1 + --- ----------- – ---  -----------
1 G
G + jC =
2 jC 8 jC

In the case when R and G are very small, the higher-order terms can be neglected and
the propagation constant simplifies to

1 RC + LG
 = j LC + --- ------------------------ (4-18)
2 LC

THEORY FOR THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 271

 - in Equation 4-18, the Absorbing Boundary condition equation
Substituting j = ----
t
yields

V V 1 RC + LG
------- + LC ------- + --- ------------------------ V = 0 (4-19)
x t 2 LC

To ensure the continuity condition and current conservation, COMSOL Multiphysics

solves the following time-domain Absorbing Boundary equation (instead of
Equation 4-19)

1- V V 1 RC + LG
--- ------- + C
---- ------- + ------- ------------------------ V = 0 (4-20)
L x L t 2L LC

Following the approaches detailed in Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary
Conditions, the Incoming Wave boundary condition is written in terms of the
propagation constant as

V
------- + V – 2V in = 0 (4-21)
x

Inserting Equation 4-18 into Equation 4-21, gives the time-domain Incoming Wave
boundary condition:

C V 1 V 1 RC + LG V in 1 RC + LG
---- ------- + ---- ------- + ------- ------------------------ V – 2 C
---- ------------ – ---- ------------------------ V in = 0 (4-22)
L t L x 2L LC L t L LC

In the The Transmission Line Interface, the Lumped Port boundary condition (for a
Cable lumped port) reads as

V 2V 0 – V
------- –  R + jL  -------------------- = 0 (4-23)
x Z0


Substituting j = ----- in Equation 4-23, gives the time-domain form of the Lumped
t
Port boundary condition:

1 V 1- V V in
V – -----------  RV in + L ------------ = 0
R- 2
------ ------- + --- ------- + ---------- (4-24)
Z 0 t L x LZ 0 LZ 0 t

In the case when the wave excitation at this port is turned off and the port impedance
is replaced by the load impedance, Equation 4-24 results in the Terminating
Impedance boundary condition equation.

272 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

In the case of current Lumped Port, the time-domain boundary condition can be
evaluated from Equation 4-10 as

1- V I in R
--- ------- – ---------
- – ---- I in = 0
L x t L

For a current type lumped port, Iin is the terminal current and is an input parameter.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSMISSION LINE, TRANSIENT INTERFACE | 273

 Theory for the Electromagnetic
Waves, Time Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface theory is described in this section:

• The Equations
• In-Plane E Field or In-Plane H Field
• Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions
• Absorbing Layers

The Equations
Maxwell’s equations are a set of equations, written in differential or integral form,
stating the relationships between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These
quantities are the:

• Electric field intensity E

• Electric displacement or electric flux density D
• Magnetic field intensity H
• Magnetic flux density B
• Current density J
• Electric charge density 

For general time-varying fields, the differential form of Maxwell’s equations can be
written as

  H = J + -------
D
t

  E = – ------
B-
(4-25)
t
D = 
B = 0

The first two equations are also called Maxwell–Ampère’s law and Faraday’s law,
respectively. Equation three and four are two forms of Gauss’ law, the electric and
magnetic form, respectively.

274 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
To obtain a closed system of equations, the constitutive relations describing the
macroscopic properties of the medium are included. These are given as

D = 0 E + P
B = 0  H + M  (4-26)

J = E
Here 0 is the permittivity of a vacuum, 0 is the permeability of a vacuum, and  the
electric conductivity of the medium. In the SI system, the permeability of a vacuum is
chosen to be 4·107 H/m. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum is
given as c0 and the permittivity of a vacuum is derived from the relation

1 – 12 1 –9
 0 = ---------- = 8.854  10 F/m  ---------  10 F/m
2 36
c0 0

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials might have a nonzero P also
when there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, for example,
have a nonzero M also when there is no magnetic field present.

To get a wave equation for the E field, for example, take the curl of the second
equation in Equation 4-25 (previously divided by 0), and insert it into the time
derivative of the first row in Equation 4-25

2
M =  ------  E-  2 P
–    -----   E + --------
1 E-
+  0 --------- + ----------
 0 t  t t 2 t 2

this is referred as curl-curl formulation in the literature (second order time derivatives
and second order space derivatives).

LINEAR MATERIALS
In the simplest case linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the
electric field, that is

P  E =  0  e and P =  0  e E

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 275

 where e is the electric susceptibility (which can be a scalar or a second-rank tensor).
Similarly, the magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, or

M  H =  m and M =  m H

where m is the magnetic susceptibility.

As a consequence, for linear materials, the constitutive relations in Equation 4-26 can
be written as

D =  0 E + P =  0  1 +  e E =  0  r E
B =  0  H + M  =  0  1 +  m H =  0  r H

Here,   0r and   0r are the permittivity and permeability of the material. The
relative permittivity r and the relative permeability r are usually scalar properties but
these can be second-rank symmetric (Hermitian) tensors for a general anisotropic
material.

For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations in linear materials described in

Equation 4-25 can be simplified to Maxwell–Ampère’s law and Faraday’s law:

E
  H = E +  0  r -------
t
(4-27)
H
  E = –  0  r --------
t

The electric conductivity  can also be a scalar or a second-rank tensor. Another

important assumption is that the relative permittivity r, the relative permeability r
and the electric conductivity  might change with position and orientation
(inhomogeneous or anisotropic materials) but not with time.

FIRST-ORDER IMPLEMENTATION OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

In order to accommodate Maxwell’s equations in the coefficients for the Wave Form
PDE interface in the form

u
da +   u = f
t

the curl of a vector is written in divergence form as

276 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 0 u3 –u2
  u =   –u3 0 u1 (4-28)
u2 –u1 0

where the divergence is applied on each row of the flux u.

Maxwell’s equations in 3D

E
 0  r ------- –   H = – E
t
H
 0  r -------- +   E = 0
t

are then accommodated to the Wave Form PDE as

E
d E ------- +    E  H  = f
t
-------
H
dH - +   H  E  = 0
t

with the “mass” coefficients

d E =  0  r and d H =  0  r

the “flux” terms

0 h3 –h2 0 e3 –e2
E  H  = – –h3 0 h1 and  H  E  = – e 3 0 e1
h2 –h1 0 e2 –e1 0

and the “source” term f  E.

THE LAX–FRIEDRICHS FLUX PARAMETERS

When using SI units (or other) for the electromagnetic fields and material
properties, the Lax–Friedrichs flux parameter is not dimensionless and
must have units of E  1/(2Z) for Ampère’s law and H  Z/2 for
Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of the medium.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 277

 In-Plane E Field or In-Plane H Field
In the general case, in 2D and 2D axisymmetric, solving for three variables for each
field is still required. The “in-plane H” or “in-plane E” assumption simplifies the
problem to only three dependent variables.

TM WAVES IN 2D
For TM waves in 2D, solve for an in-plane electric field vector and one out-of-plane
variable for the magnetic field. Maxwell’s equations then read

E
 0  r ------- +    E  H  = –   E
t
(4-29)
H
 0  r -------- +    H  E  = 0
t

with the flux terms

0 –h3
E  H  = and  H  E  = e 2 – e 1 (4-30)
h3 0

The divergence on EH is applied row-wise. The conductivity and permittivity

tensors  and r represent in-plane material properties, while the relative permeability
r is an out-of-plane scalar property.

The default Lax–Friedrichs flux parameters are E  1/(2Z) for Ampère’s law, and the
scalar H  Z/2 for Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of a vacuum.

TE WAVES IN 2D
For TE waves in 2D, solve for an in-plane magnetic field vector and one out-of-plane
variable for the electric field. Maxwell’s equations then read

E
 0  r ------- +    E  H  = – E
t
(4-31)
H
 0  r -------- +    H  E  = 0
t

with the flux terms

0 e3
 E  H  = – h 2 h 1 and  H  E  = (4-32)
–e3 0

278 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The divergence of HE is applied row-wise. The tensor of relative permeability r
represents in-plane material properties, while the relative permittivity r and
conductivity  are out-of-plane scalar properties.

The default Lax–Friedrichs flux parameters are E  1/(2Z) for Ampère’s law, and two
scalar H  Z/2 for Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of a vacuum.

Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions

Consider Maxwell’s equations in 3D

E
 0  r ------- +    E  H  = – E
t
H
 0  r -------- +    H  E  = 0
t

with the flux terms

0 –h3 h2 0 e3 –e2
E  H  = h3 0 – h 1 and  H  E  = – e 3 0 e1
–h2 h1 0 e2 –e1 0

and the divergence on EH and HE applied row-wise.

For Ampère’s law, the normal to the flux term on exterior boundaries reads

n  E  H  = –n  H

and for Faraday’s law

n  H  E  = n  E

which means that normal fluxes on external boundaries can only prescribe tangential
components for the fields.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions for outer boundaries are computed from the normal fluxes
n · HE and n · EH.

• Perfect electric conductor n  E = 0 , or zero tangential components for E, is

obtained by setting n · HE  0.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 279

 • Perfect magnetic conductor n  H = 0 , or zero tangential components for H, is
obtained by prescribing n   E  H  = 0 .
• Electric field n  E = n  E 0 , or n · HE  n × E0.
• Magnetic field n  H = n  H 0 , or n · EH  n × H0.
• For external boundaries, the surface currents BC means n  H = J s , or 
n · EH  Js.

ABSORBING BOUNDARY CONDITION

A simple absorbing boundary can be implemented by setting n  E = ZH .

Absorbing Layers
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface includes so-called absorbing
layers, also often referred to as sponge layers. The layers work by combining three
techniques: a scaling system, filtering, and simple nonreflecting conditions. For a
review of the method see, for example, Ref. 1.

The layers are set up by adding the Absorbing Layer under the Definitions node. This
adds a special scaled system. The scaling effectively slows down the propagating waves
and ensures that they hit the outer boundary in the normal direction. For the
Absorbing Layer domain selection, add an additional Wave Equations feature, mark
the Activate checkbox under the Filter Parameters section, and enter filter parameters.
Filtering attenuates and filters out high-frequency components of the wave. Finally, at
the outer boundary of the layer add a simple Scattering Boundary Condition
condition, which will work well to remove all remaining waves as normal incidence has
been ensured.

For more detailed information about the filter see the Filter Parameters
section under Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

280 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For the Absorbing Layers select the Type (Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, or user
defined) under the Geometry section. Enter values for the Physical Width and Pole
Distance under the Scaling section.

For more detailed on the Geometry and Scaling see the Infinite Elements,
Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For the layers to work optimally the filter should not be too aggressive. Moreover, the
scaled coordinates in the layer domain should also vary smoothly. To inspect the scaled
system you can plot the coordinate variables x_absorb_ab1, y_absorb_ab1, and
z_absorb_ab1. Using the absorbing layers with the three combined techniques will
enable the reduction of spurious reflections by a factor between 100 and 1000
compared to the incident amplitude.

For an example of a filter parameter combination that can be used for a

Wave Equations feature on an Absorbing Layer domain selection see the
Filter Parameters section for the Wave Equations feature.

Reference
1. P.G. Petropoulos, L. Zhao, and A.C. Cangellaris, “A Reflectionless Sponge Layer
Absorbing Boundary Condition for the Solution of Maxwell’s Equations with High-
Order Staggered Finite Difference Schemes,” J. Comp. Phys., vol. 139, pp. 184–208,
1998.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 281

282 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES
 5

AC/DC Interfaces

This chapter summarizes the functionality of the electrical circuit interface found
under the AC/DC branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:

• The Electrical Circuit Interface

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

See The Electromagnetics Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for other AC/DC interface and feature node settings.

283
 The Electrical Circuit Interface
The Electrical Circuit (cir) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model currents and voltages in circuits including
voltage and current sources, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and semiconductor
devices. Models created with the Electrical Circuit interface can include connections
to distributed field models. The physics interface supports stationary,
frequency-domain and time-domain modeling and solves Kirchhoff’s conservation
laws for the voltages, currents, and charges associated with the circuit elements.

When this physics interface is added, it adds a default Ground Node feature and
associates that with node zero in the electrical circuit.

Circuit nodes are nodes in the electrical circuit (electrical nodes) and
should not be confused with nodes in the Model Builder tree of the
COMSOL Multiphysics software. Circuit node names are not restricted
to numerical values but can contain alphanumeric characters.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cir.

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL TO PN JUNCTIONS

For numerical stability, a large resistance is added automatically in parallel to the pn
junctions in diodes and BJT devices. Enter a default value for the Resistance in parallel
to pn junctions Rj (SI unit: ). The default value is 1·1012 

CREATE UNIQUE NODES FOR NEW DEVICES

When this setting is selected (the default), newly added devices will be assigned unused
node names. The devices will be disconnected from the rest of the circuit and the
nodes should be updated to reflect the actual circuit connections. When this setting is

284 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

deselected, new devices will be connected to the lowest-numbered nodes starting from
0.

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

• Connecting to Electrical Circuits

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TOOLBAR

The following nodes are available from the Electrical Circuit ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Electrical Circuit context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the
context menu (all users):

For step-by-step instructions and general documentation

descriptions, this is the Electrical Circuit toolbar.

• Ground Node • Subcircuit Definition

• Voltmeter • Subcircuit Instance
• Ampère Meter • Mutual Inductance
• Resistor • Transformer
• Capacitor • NPN BJT and PNP BJT2
• Inductor • n-Channel MOSFET and
• Voltage Source p-Channel MOSFET2

• Current Source • External I vs. U3

• Diode • External U vs. I3

• Switch • External I-Terminal3

• Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source1 • SPICE Circuit Import

• Voltage-Controlled Current Source1 • SPICE Circuit Export

• Current-Controlled Voltage Source1

• Current-Controlled Current Source1
1
Selected from the Dependent Sources submenu when you right-click main node.
2 Selected from the Transistors submenu when you right-click main node.
3
Selected from the External Couplings submenu when you right-click main node.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 285

 Ground Node
The Ground Node ( ) feature adds a ground node with the default node number zero
to the electrical circuit. This is the default node in the Electrical Circuit interface. More
ground nodes can be added but those must have unique node numbers and are by
default given higher node numbers.

GROUND CONNECTION
Set the Node name for the ground node in the circuit. The convention is to use 0 (zero)
for the ground node. If adding more ground nodes, each must have a unique node
name (number).

Voltmeter
The Voltmeter ( ) feature connects a voltmeter (voltage measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A voltmeter behaves electrically as an open
circuit. The voltmeter node adds a Probe sampling the voltage across it.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

Ampère Meter
The Ammeter ( ) feature connects an ammeter (current measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. An ammeter behaves electrically as a short
circuit. The ammeter node adds a Probe sampling the current through it.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Resistor
The Resistor ( ) feature connects a resistor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

286 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Capacitor
The Capacitor ( ) feature connects a capacitor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the capacitor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Capacitance of the capacitor.

Inductor
The Inductor ( ) feature connects an inductor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the inductor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Inductance of the inductor.

Voltage Source
The Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 287

 DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Delay td (default value: 0s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in Frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Current Source
The Current Source ( ) feature connects a current source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows through the
source to the second node.

288 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Current isrc (default value: 1 A). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Delay td (default value: 0 s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

The Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the voltage source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive reference terminal.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 289

 DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

The Voltage-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the current source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive voltage reference terminal or the one from where the current
flows through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain (SI units: S). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source

The Current-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set two Node names for the connection nodes for the voltage source. The first node in
a pair represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
current multiplied by the gain (SI units: ). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

290 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Current-Controlled Current Source
The Current-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
current multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Switch
The Switch ( ) feature is used to connect or disconnect the conducting path in a
circuit under specific conditions.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

SWITCH CONDITIONS
There are three types of conditions, Voltage controlled, Current controlled, and Custom
expressions. For each type of condition there are two conditions, one for turn on and
one for turn off. The on condition is true if the On condition expression is larger than
zero, while the off condition is true if the Off condition is less than zero.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 291

 Note: The state of the switch (on/off) is changed only when a condition goes from
false to true and not when going from true to false. Thus, if the state is off and the on
condition goes from false to true, the state will shift from off to on. On the other
hand, if the state of the switch is on and the on condition goes from true to false,
nothing will happen.

The Initial state list has three options, Use on condition, Use off condition, and Boolean
expression. The two former options mean that the switch will have an initial state
matching to the on or off condition. The third option makes the switch’s initial state
match a custom Boolean expression. Separating on, off, and initial states makes the
switch more flexible and can support Schmitt-trigger style switches and various latches.

For the Voltage controlled switch, it is necessary to specify two nodes that defines the
voltage sens.v that the switch state depends on. The conditions must be written as a
function of this variable. Similarly, for the Current controlled switch it is necessary to
specify a two-pin device that defines the current sens.i that the switch state depends
on.

SWITCH PARAMETERS
When the switch is in the on state it has a nonzero resistance specified by the On
resistance expression. For the off state no current flows through the switch (infinite
resistance). There is also a transition time for the switch to turn on and off set by the
Switching time expression. The switch triggers an implicit event that updates a discrete
state variable (with suffix _state).

Subcircuit Definition
The Subcircuit Definition ( ) feature is used to define subcircuits, which can be
inserted as devices into the main circuit using Subcircuit Instance nodes. Create the
subcircuit by adding subnodes to the Subcircuit Definition node, either by using the
Physics toolbar, or by right-clicking the Subcircuit Definition.

SUBCIRCUIT PINS
Define the Pin names at which the subcircuit connects to the main circuit or to other
subcircuits when referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The Pin names refer to
circuit nodes in the subcircuit. The order in which the Pin names are defined is the
order in which they are referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The devices

292 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

constituting the subcircuit should be connected only to the subcircuit’s pins and to
themselves.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

Subcircuit Instance
The Subcircuit Instance ( ) feature represents an instance of a subcircuits defined by
a Subcircuit Definition feature.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subcircuit link from the list of defined subcircuits in the circuit model
and the circuit Node names at which the subcircuit instance connects to the main circuit
or to another subcircuit if used therein.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

NPN BJT and PNP BJT

The NPN BJT ( ) and the PNP BJT ( ) device models are large-signal models for
bipolar junction transistors (BJT). It is an advanced device model and no thorough
description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted here. Many
device manufacturers provide model input parameters for this BJT model. For any
particular make of BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 293

 NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify three Node names for the connection nodes for the BJT device. These represent
the collector, base, and emitter nodes for the NPN transistor, and the emitter, base, and
collector nodes for the PNP transistor.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Bipolar Transistors.

n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET

The n-Channel MOSFET ( ) and the p-Channel MOSFET ( ) device models are
large-signal models for, respectively, an n-Channel MOS field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) and p-Channel MOSFET. These are advanced device models and no
thorough description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted
here. Many device manufacturers provide model parameters for the MOSFET models.
For any particular make of MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary
source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names for the connection nodes for the n-Channel MOSFET or
p-Channel MOSFET device. These represent the drain, gate, source, and bulk nodes,
respectively.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see MOSFET Transistors.

294 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Mutual Inductance
The Mutual Inductance allows specifying a coupling between two existing Inductor
features in the circuit. The mutual inductance of the coupling is

M = k L1 L2

where k is the coupling factor and L1 and L2 are the inductances of the inductors.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The value must be between 0 and 1, and the
default is 0.98.
• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H) and Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). These must
be set to two different Inductor features in the circuit.

Transformer
The Transformer feature represents either a combination of two Inductor and a Mutual
Inductance features, or an ideal transformer.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Enter or edit the table in the Node names column for the primary and secondary node
connections.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Choose a Transformer model — Specify inductors (the default) or Ideal transformer.

For Specify inductors enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The default is 0.98.

• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.
• Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.

For Ideal transformer enter values or expressions for the Winding ratio N1/N2
(dimensionless). The default is 10.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 295

 Diode
The Diode device model ( ) is a large-signal model for a diode. It is an advanced
device model and no thorough description and motivation of the many input
parameters are attempted here. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more
details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many device manufacturers
provide model parameters for this diode model. For any particular make of diode, the
device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the positive and negative nodes for the Diode device.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
diode, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Diode.

External I vs. U
The External I vs. U ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage measurement (for
example, a circuit terminal or circuit port boundary or a coil domain from another
physics interface) as a voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The
resulting circuit current from the first node to the second node is typically coupled
back as a prescribed current source in the context of the voltage measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first
node represents the positive reference terminal.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit or current excited terminals or circuit ports
are defined on boundaries or domains or a multiturn coil domains is defined in other
physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also select the User defined
option and enter your own voltage variable, for example, using a suitable coupling
operator. For inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models, the voltage
measurement must be performed as an integral of the electric field because the electric

296 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

potential only does not capture induced EMF. Also the integration must be performed
over a distance that is short compared to the local wavelength.

Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, circuit port, or coil, the

current flow variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical
circuit to the context of the voltage measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a current excited terminal. The name of this current variable
follows the convention cirn.IvsUm_i, where cirn is the tag of the
Electrical Circuit interface node and IvsUm is the tag of the External I vs.
U node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External U vs. I
The External U vs. I ( ) feature connects an arbitrary current measurement (for
example, a coil domain from another physics interface) as a current source between
two nodes in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit voltage between the first node
and the second node is typically coupled back as a prescribed voltage source in the
context of the current measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The
current flows from the first node to the second node.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Current. Voltage excited terminals or lumped ports defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces are natural candidates but do not appear as
options in the Voltage list because those do not have an accurate built-in current

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 297

 measurement variable. A User defined option must be selected and a current variable
entered, for example, using a suitable coupling operator.

The voltage variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical

circuit to the context of the current measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a voltage excited terminal or lumped port. The name of this
voltage variable follows the convention cirn.UvsIm_v, where cirn is the
tag of the Electrical Circuit interface node and UvsIm is the tag of the
External U vs. I node. The tags are typically displayed within curly
brackets {} in the Model Builder.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External I-Terminal
The External I-Terminal ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage-to-ground
measurement (for example, a circuit terminal from another physics interface) as a
voltage-to-ground assignment to a node in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the node is typically coupled back as a prescribed current source in the
context of the voltage measurement. This node does not apply when coupling to
inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models because then voltage must be
defined as a line integral between two points rather than a single point measurement
of electric potential. For such couplings, use the External I vs. U node instead.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the connecting node for the voltage assignment.

EXTERNAL TERMINAL
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit- or current-excited terminals are defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also

298 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

select the User defined option and enter a voltage variable, for example, using a suitable
coupling operator.

• Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, the current flow variable

must be manually coupled back in the electrical circuit to the context
of the voltage measurement. This applies also when coupling to a
current excited terminal. The name of this current variable follows the
convention cirn.termIm_i, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical
Circuit interface node and termIm is the tag of the External I-Terminal
node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.
• When connecting the finite element model between two circuit nodes
that both are not grounded, the External I-Terminal node cannot be
used. In this case, use External I vs. U or External U vs. I instead.

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SPICE Circuit Import

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to import an existing SPICE netlist
(select Import Spice Netlist). A window opens — enter a file location or browse your
directories to find one. The default file extension for a SPICE netlist is .cir. The
SPICE circuit import translates the imported netlist into Electrical Circuit interface
nodes so these define the subset of SPICE features that can be imported.

See SPICE Import and Export about the supported SPICE commands.

SPICE Circuit Export

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to export the current circuit to the
SPICE netlist file format (select Export Spice Netlist ). A window opens — enter a

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 299

 file location or browse your directories to find one. The default file extension for a
SPICE netlist is .cir. The compatible circuit nodes are exported as SPICE devices

See SPICE Export for more details on the supported SPICE commands.

300 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface
The Electrical Circuit Interface theory is discussed in this section:

• Electrical Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

• Bipolar Transistors
• MOSFET Transistors
• Diode
• Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Electrical Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

Electrical circuit modeling capabilities are useful when simulating all sorts of electrical
and electromechanical devices ranging from heaters and motors to advanced plasma
reactors in the semiconductor industry. There are two fundamental ways that an
electrical circuit model relates to a physical field model.

• The field model is used to get a better, more accurate description of a single device
in the electrical circuit model.
• The electrical circuit is used to drive or terminate the device in the field model in
such a way that it makes more sense to simulate both as a tightly coupled system.

The Electrical Circuit interface makes it possible to add nodes representing circuit
elements directly to the Model Builder tree in a COMSOL Multiphysics model. The
circuit variables can then be connected to a physical device model to perform
co-simulations of circuits and multiphysics. The model acts as a device connected to
the circuit so that its behavior is analyzed in larger systems.

The fundamental equations solved by the Electrical Circuit interface are Kirchhoff’s
circuit laws, which in turn can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. The supported
study types are Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 301

 There are three more advanced large-signal semiconductor device features available in
the Electrical Circuit interface. The equivalent circuits and the equations defining their
nonideal circuit elements are described in this section. For a more complete treatise on
semiconductor device modeling, see Ref. 1.

Bipolar Transistors
Figure 5-1 illustrates the equivalent circuit for the npn bipolar junction transistor.

Figure 5-1: A circuit for the bipolar transistor.

The pnp transistor model is similar in all regards to the npn transistor, with the
difference that the polarities of the currents and voltages involved are reversed. The
following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and voltages
in the circuit.

302 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

 R B – R BM
v rb = ----  R BM – --------------------------
1
A f  ib
bq

v be v bc
  -------------- --------------

 NF VT NR VT
–1 
= -----------------------------------------------  1 + 1 + 4I S  ----------------------- + ------------------------ 
1 e – 1 e
f bq
v bc v be    I A I KR A  
2  1 – ---------- - – ---------- -   KF 
 V V 
AF AR
v be v be
 I S  -------------
N V
-
  --------------
N V 
i be = A  -------  e F T – 1 + I SE  e E T – 1 
 BF    
v bc v bc
 I S  --------------
N V   --------------
N V 
i bc = A  --------  e R T – 1 + I SC  e C T – 1 
 BR    
v be v bc
 I S  -------------
N V
- --------------
N V 
i ce = A  -------  e F T + e C T 
 f bq  
k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

There are also two capacitances that use the same formula as the junction capacitance
of the diode model. In the parameter names below, replace x with C for the
base-collector capacitance and E for the base-emitter capacitance.

 v bx  – MJx
 1 – ---------
 -
 V Jx v bx  F C V Jx
C jbx 
= AC Jx  
v bx  v bx  F C V Jx
  1 – F  – 1 – M Jx  1 – F  1 + M  + M ---------
-
 C  C Jx Jx V Jx

The model parameters are listed in the table below.

TABLE 5-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BF 100 Ideal forward current gain

BR 1 Ideal reverse current gain
CJC 0 F/m2 Base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
CJE 0 F/m2 Base-emitter zero-bias depletion capacitance
FC 0.5 Breakdown current
2
IKF Inf (A/m ) Corner for forward high-current roll-off
IKR Inf (A/m2) Corner for reverse high-current roll-off

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 303

 TABLE 5-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

IS 10-15 A/m2 Saturation current

2
ISC 0 A/m Base-collector leakage saturation current
2
ISE 0 A/m Base-emitter leakage saturation current
MJC 1/3 Base-collector grading coefficient
MJE 1/3 Base-emitter grading coefficient
NC 2 Base-collector ideality factor
NE 1.4 Base-emitter ideality factor
NF 1 Forward ideality factor
NR 1 Reverse ideality factor
2
RB 0 m Base resistance
2
RBM 0 m Minimum base resistance
2
RC 0 m Collector resistance
RE 0 m2 Emitter resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VAF Inf (V) Forward Early voltage
VAR Inf (V) Reverse Early voltage
VJC 0.71 V Base-collector built-in potential
VJE 0.71 V Base-emitter built-in potential

304 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

MOSFET Transistors
Figure 5-2 illustrates an equivalent circuit for the n-channel MOSFET transistor. The
p-channel MOSFET transistor is treated similarly, but the polarities of the involved
voltages are reversed.

Figure 5-2: A circuit for the MOSFET transistor.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 305

  KP
 W  1 + v ds v ds  2v th – v ds  v ds  v th
- -------
 ----
L 2

i ds =  W KP 2
 ----- -------  1 + v ds v th v ds  v th
 L 2
 0 v ds  v th  0

v th = v gs –  V TO +    – v bs –   
v bd
 -----------
NV
-

i bd = I S  e T – 1
 
v bs
 -----------
NV
-

i bs = I S  e T – 1
 
k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

There are also several capacitances between the terminals

C gd = C gd0 W
C gs = C gs0 W
–MJ
 1 – v bd
--------
-
  PB  v bx  F C P B
C jbd = C BD  
 v bx v bx  F C P B
  1 – F  – 1 – MJ  1 – F  1 + M  + M -------
-
 C  C J JP 
B

The model parameters are as follows:

TABLE 5-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

CBD 0 F/m Bulk-drain zero-bias capacitance

CGDO 0 F/m Gate-drain overlap capacitance
CGSO 0 F/m Gate-source overlap capacitance
FC 0.5 Capacitance factor
IS 1e-13 A Bulk junction saturation current
KP 2e-5 A/V2 Transconductance parameter
L 50e-6 m Gate length
MJ 0.5 Bulk junction grading coefficient

306 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

TABLE 5-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

N 1 Bulk junction ideality factor

PB 0.75 V Bulk junction potential
RB 0 Bulk resistance
RD 0 Drain resistance
RDS Inf () Drain-source resistance
RG 0 Gate resistance
RS 0 Source resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VTO 0V Zero-bias threshold voltage
W 50e-6 m Gate width
0.5
(GAMMA) 1V Bulk threshold parameter
 (PHI) 0.5 V Surface potential
 (LAMBDA) 0 1/V Channel-length modulation

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 307

 Diode
Figure 5-3 illustrates equivalent circuit for the diode.

Figure 5-3: A circuit for the diode.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

308 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

 i d = i dhl + i drec + i db + i c
vd
 -----------
NV
-
 1
i dhl = I S  e T – 1 ---------------------------------------------------
  vd
I S  -----------
NV T
-

1 + ---------  e – 1
I KF  
vd
 --------------
N V 
i drec = I SR  e R T – 1
 
vd + BV
– ------------------
N BV V T
i db = I BV e

 vd  –M
  1 – ------
- vd  FC VJ
  V J
C j = C J0  
 – 1 – M vd
  1 – FC  1 – F C  1 + M  + M ------- v d  F C V J
  V J


k B T NOM
V T = -----------------------
-
q

where the following model parameters are required.

TABLE 5-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BV Inf (V) Reverse breakdown voltage

CJ0 0F Zero-bias junction capacitance
FC 0.5 Forward-bias capacitance coefficient
IBV 1e-09 A Current at breakdown voltage
IKF Inf (A) Corner for high-current roll-off
IS 1e-13 A Saturation current
M 0.5 Grading coefficient
N 1 Ideality factor
NBV 1 Breakdown ideality factor
NR 2 Recombination ideality factor
RS 0 Series resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VJ 1.0 V Junction potential

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 309

 Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface
1. P. Antognetti and G. Massobrio, Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice, 2nd
ed., McGraw Hill, 1993.

310 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

 6

Heat Transfer Interfaces

This chapter describes The Microwave Heating Interface found under the Heat
Transfer > Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

See The Heat Transfer Interfaces and The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for other Heat Transfer interface and feature node
settings.

311
 The Microwave Heating Interface
The Microwave Heating interface ( ) is used to model electromagnetic heating for
systems and devices that are on a scale ranging from 1/10 of a wavelength up to,
depending on available computer memory, about 10 wavelengths. This multiphysics
interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface and a Heat
Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic losses
from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material
properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling approach is based on the
assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time
scale.

The following table shows what study step combinations of Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface and Heat Transfer in Solids interface are supported from
the Microwave Heating interface.
TABLE 6-1: STUDY STEP COMBINATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE
AND HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS INTERFACE.

PRESET STUDIES ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, HEAT TRANSFER IN

FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE SOLIDS INTERFACE

Frequency-Stationary Frequency Domain Stationary

Frequency-Transient Frequency Domain Transient
Frequency-Stationary, One-Way Frequency Domain Stationary
Electromagnetic Heating
Frequency-Transient, One-Way Frequency Domain Transient
Electromagnetic Heating

When a predefined Microwave Heating interface is added from the Heat Transfer >
Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows,
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are
added to the Model Builder.

In addition, a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Electromagnetic Heating.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface computes time-harmonic
electromagnetic field distributions. To use this physics interface, the maximum mesh
element size should be limited to a fraction of the wavelength. Thus, the domain size
that can be simulated scales with the amount of available computer memory and the

312 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

 wavelength. The physics interface solves the time-harmonic wave equation for the
electric field.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by
default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a
fluid domain, is also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains
corresponds to the differential form of Fourier’s law that may contain additional
contributions like heat sources.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Microwave Heating was added to the Model Builder.
Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used, improving the
flexibility and design options for your modeling. For specific details, see
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Microwave Heating, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling feature.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Heat Transfer in
Solids interfaces are added, the COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can
choose Electromagnetic Heating from the available coupling features, but the modified
settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Electromagnetic Waves, No changes.

Frequency Domain

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 313

 TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.

Electromagnetic Heating The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior and interior
boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics
interfaces.
The corresponding Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Coupled Interfaces section (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual).

A side effect of adding physics interfaces one at a time is that four study
types — Frequency-Stationary; Frequency-Transient;
Frequency-Stationary, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating; and
Frequency-Transient, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating — are not
available for selection until after at least one coupling feature is added. In
this case, it is better to initially not add any study at all, then add the
coupling features to the Multiphysics node, and lastly, open the Add Study
window and add a study sequence below the Preset Studies for Selected
Multiphysics heading.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Feature
The Electromagnetic Heating coupling feature node is described in this section.

314 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• The available physics features for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
Interface are listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.
• See The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
for information about the available physics features for heat transfer.

If you have an add-on module, such as the Heat Transfer Module, there
are additional specialized physics nodes available and described in the
individual module documentation.

Microwave Oven: Application Library path RF_Module/

Microwave_Heating/microwave_oven

Electromagnetic Heating
The Electromagnetic Heating node represents the electromagnetic losses, Qe (SI unit:
W/m3), as a heat source in the heat transfer part of the model. It is given by

Q e = Q rh + Q ml

where the resistive losses are

1 *
Q rh = --- Re  J  E 
2

and the magnetic losses are

1 *
Q ml = --- Re  iB  H 
2

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 315

 In addition, it maps the electromagnetic surface losses as a heat source on the
boundary (SI unit: W/m2) in the heat transfer part of the model.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is emh.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the electromagnetic heat
source or select All domains as needed.

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding a Microwave Heating

interface, the selection is the same as for the participating interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled Interfaces
section can be selected.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries to define the electromagnetic
boundary heat source or select All boundaries as needed.

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding a Microwave Heating

interface, the selection is the same as the exterior and interior boundaries of the Domain
Selection of the participating physics interfaces.

Only boundaries that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled
Interfaces section can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics
coupling. By default, the applicable physics interface is selected in the Electromagnetic
list to apply the Heat transfer to its physics interface to establish the coupling.

316 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Electromagnetic Heating node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example Heat Transfer in Solids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics interface
again from the Heat transfer or Electromagnetic lists. This is applicable to
all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 317

318 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES
 7

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite element modeling terms in an

electromagnetic waves context. For mathematical terms as well as geometry and
CAD terms specific to the COMSOL Multiphysics® software and documentation,
see the glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references
to more information about a term, see the index.

319
 Glossary of Terms
absorbing boundary A boundary that lets an electromagnetic wave propagate through
the boundary without reflections.

anisotropy Variation of material properties with direction.

constitutive relation The relation between the D and E fields and between the B and
H fields. These relations depend on the material properties.

cutoff frequency The lowest frequency for which a given mode can propagate
through, for example, a waveguide or optical fiber.

edge element See vector element.

eigenmode A possible propagating mode of, for example, a waveguide or optical fiber.

electric dipole Two equal and opposite charges +q and q separated a short distance
d. The electric dipole moment is given by p = qd, where d is a vector going from q
to +q.

gauge transformation A variable transformation of the electric and magnetic

potentials that leaves Maxwell’s equations invariant.

lumped port A type of port feature. Use the lumped port to excite the model with a
voltage, current, or circuit input. The lumped port must be applied between two
metallic objects, separated by much less than a wavelength.

magnetic dipole A small circular loop carrying a current. The magnetic dipole
moment is m = IAe, where I is the current carried by the loop, A its area, and e a unit
vector along the central axis of the loop.

Maxwell’s equations A set of equations, written in differential or integral form, stating

the relationships between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities.

Nedelec’s edge element See vector element.

perfect electric conductor (PEC) A material with high electric conductivity, modeled
as a boundary where the electric field is zero.

320 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

perfect magnetic conductor A material with high permeability, modeled as a boundary
where the magnetic field is zero.

phasor A complex function of space representing a sinusoidally varying quantity.

quasistatic approximation The electromagnetic fields are assumed to vary slowly, so

that the retardation effects can be neglected. This approximation is valid when the
geometry under study is considerably smaller than the wavelength.

surface current density Current density defined on the surface. The component
normal to the surface is zero. The unit is A/m.

vector element A finite element often used for electromagnetic vector fields. The
tangential component of the vector field at the mesh edges is used as a degree of
freedom. Also called Nedelec’s edge element or just edge element.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 321

322 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
2D tion 120
wave equations 112 hexagonal periodic port 133
2D axisymmetry impedance boundary condition 161
wave equations 113 linear polarization 132
2D axisymmetry, covariant formulation Linearly polarized plane wave back-
249 ground field (2D axisymmetry)
2D modeling techniques 29, 31 105
3D modeling techniques 31 lossy eigenvalue calculations 60

A absorbing boundary (node) 199, 206 lumped element 150, 168, 174, 178

AC/DC Module 15 lumped port 56, 148

ammeter (node) 286 microwave heating 315

anisotropic materials 86 perfect electric conductor 124

antiperiodicity, periodic boundaries and perfect magnetic conductor 125

34 periodic boundary condition 173

application libraries examples periodic boundary conditions 34

S-parameter calculations 49 periodic port reference point 143

Application Libraries window 22 port 136

application library example port sweeps 52

polarization plot 58 reduced order modeling 72, 74

application library examples scattered fields 38

analyze as a tem field 128 scattering boundary condition 156

axial symmetry 30 symmetry plane 180

background field 221 transmission line 197

Cartesian coordinates 30 applying electromagnetic sources 32

connecting electrical circuits to phys- Archie’s law (node) 182

ics interfaces 65 attenuation constant 267

diffraction order 140 axisymmetric models 30

Drude–Lorentz polarization 194 axisymmetric waves theory

electrical circuits 65 frequency domain 251

electromagnetic waves, frequency do- time domain 254

main interface 109, 240 B background field (node) 220

electromagnetic waves, transient 187 backward-propagating wave 267
far field plots 43 base node 294
far-field calculation 122 bipolar junction transistor 293
far-field calculations 39 Bloch–Floquet periodicity 172
far-field domain and far-field calcula- boundary conditions

INDEX| 323
 electromagnetics theory 83 Covariant formulation, 2D axisymmetry
nonlinear eigenfrequency problems 249
and 61 curl-curl formulation 275
perfect electric conductor 123 current source (node) 288
perfect magnetic conductor 124 current-controlled current source
periodic 34 (node) 291
using efficiently 32 current-controlled voltage source
boundary mode analysis 62 (node) 290
boundary nodes cutoff frequency 91
electromagnetic waves, boundary ele- cylindrical coordinates 30
ments interface 236 cylindrical waves 154
electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
D Debye dispersion model 116
main interface 110
device models, electrical circuits 302
electromagnetic waves, time explicit
dielectrics and perfect conductors 83
213
diffraction order (node) 138
electromagnetic waves, transient 188
diode (node) 296
transmission line 197, 205
diode transistor model 308
bulk node 294
dispersive materials 86
C cable shield (node) 178 divergence constraint (node) 118
calculating documentation 21
S-parameters 49 domain nodes
capacitor (node) 287 electromagnetic waves, boundary ele-
Cartesian coordinates 29 ments interface 236
cementation exponent 183, 264 electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
circuit import, SPICE 299 main interface 110
circular port reference axis (node) 137 electromagnetic waves, time explicit
collector node 294 213
common settings 18 drain node 294
complex permittivity, electric losses and Drude–Lorentz dispersion model 116
251 Drude–Lorentz polarization (node) 193
complex propagation constant 267
E E (PMC) symmetry 39
complex relative permeability, magnetic
edge current (node) 180
losses and 253
effective medium (node) 183
constitutive relations 275
eigenfrequency analysis 60
constitutive relations theory 81–82
eigenfrequency calculations theory 255
continuity, periodic boundaries and 34
eigenfrequency study 248
coupling, to the electrical circuits inter-
eigenmode analysis 89
face 66
eigenvalue (node) 62

324 | I N D E X
electric conductivity, porous media 264 external I-terminal (node) 298
electric current density (node) 217 external U vs. I (node) 297
electric field (node) 150, 217
F far field variables 41
electric field coupling (node) 239
Faraday’s law 274
electric losses theory 251
far-field calculation (node) 120, 221, 226,
electric point dipole (node) 181
239
electric potential (node) 137
far-field calculations 92
electric susceptibility 276
far-field domain (node) 119, 221
electrical circuit interface 284
far-field variables 39
theory 301
file, Touchstone 107, 196, 235
electrical circuits
Floquet periodicity 34, 172
modeling techniques 65
fluid saturation 183
electrical size, modeling 15
flux/source (node) 219
electromagnetic energy, theory 84
formation factor 264
electromagnetic heating (node) 315
forward-propagating wave 267
electromagnetic quantities 95
four-port network (node) 176
electromagnetic sources, applying 32
four-port network port (node) 177
electromagnetic waves asymptotic scat-
free-space variables 112, 238
tering interface 223
frequency domain equation 247
electromagnetic waves, boundary ele-
Frequency-Domain Modal Method 73
ments interface 227, 231
G gate node 294
electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
Gauss’ law 274
main interface 98, 101
geometry, simplifying 29
theory 246
ground (node) 137
electromagnetic waves, time explicit in-
ground node (node) 286
terface 210
theory 274 H H (PEC) symmetry 39
electromagnetic waves, transient inter- high-frequency modeling 15
face 185 hybrid-mode waves
theory 246 axisymmetric, frequency domain 251
emailing COMSOL 23 axisymmetric, time domain 254
emitter node 294 in-plane, frequency domain 250
error message, electrical circuits 66 in-plane, time domain 254
exponential filter, for wave problems 215 perpendicular 248
exporting
I impedance boundary condition (node)
SPICE netlists 70
159
external current density (node) 119
importing
external I vs. U (node) 296
SPICE netlists 69, 299

INDEX| 325
 incoming wave (node) 199, 206 M magnetic current (node) 173
inductor (node) 287 magnetic current density (node) 217
inhomogeneous materials 86 magnetic field (node) 151, 218
initial values (node) 226 magnetic losses theory 253
electromagnetic waves, boundary ele- magnetic point dipole (node) 182
ments interface 239 magnetic susceptibility 276
electromagnetic waves, frequency do- matched boundary condition (node) 151
main interface 119 material properties
electromagnetic waves, time explicit electromagnetics 86
interface 216 materials 87
electromagnetic waves, transient 193 Maxwell’s equations
transmission line 198, 206 dielectrics 84
in-plane TE waves theory electrical circuits and 301
frequency domain 250 theory 80
time domain 254 Maxwell–Ampere’s law 274
in-plane TM waves theory mesh resolution 33
frequency domain 250 microwave heating interface 312
time domain 254 mode analysis 62, 248
inports 127 mode phase
integration line for current (node) 136 for Port and Diffraction Order 128
integration line for voltage (node) 137 modeling tips 28
internet resources 21 MPH-files 22
multiphysics couplings
K Kirchhoff’s circuit laws 301
microwave heating 312
knowledge base, COMSOL 23
mutual inductance (node) 295
L layered impedance boundary condition
N n-Channel MOS transistor 294, 305
(node) 168
n-Channel MOSFET (node) 294
layered transition boundary condition
netlists, SPICE 69, 299
(node) 165
nodes, common settings 18
line current (out-of-plane) (node) 182
nonlinear materials 86
linearization point 62
NPN bipolar junction transistor 302
listener ports 127
NPN BJT (node) 293
losses, electric 251
numeric modes 126
losses, magnetic 253
lossy eigenvalue calculations 60 O open circuit (node) 200, 207
lumped element (node) 149 orthogonal polarization (node) 140
lumped port (node) 143, 201, 208, 240 P p-Channel MOS transistor 294
lumped ports 53–54 p-Channel MOSFET (node) 294

326 | I N D E X
 PEC. see perfect electric conductor refractive index 113
perfect conductors and dielectrics 83 refractive index theory 252
perfect electric conductor (node) 217 relative electric field 38
boundaries 122 resistor (node) 286
perfect magnetic conductor (node) 124,
S saturation coefficient 264
218
saturation exponent 183
periodic boundary conditions 34
scattered fields, definition 36
periodic condition (node) 171
scattering boundary condition (node)
periodic port reference point (node) 141
153, 219
permeability
scattering parameters. see S-parameters
anisotropic 248
selecting
permittivity
mesh resolution 33
anisotropic 248
solver sequences 33
phasors 87
study types 15, 19
physics interfaces, common settings 18
semiconductor device models 302
PMC. see perfect magnetic conductor
short circuit (node) 201, 208
PNP BJT (node) 293
SI units 95
polarization, 2D and 2D axisymmetry 31
simplifying geometries 29
port (node) 125
skin effect, meshes and 33
port boundary conditions 49
solver sequences, selecting 33
ports, lumped 53–54
source node 294
potentials, scalar and magnetic 84
space dimensions 16, 29
power law, porous media
S-parameter calculations
conductivity 262
electric field, and 48
permeability 263
port node and 125
permittivity 262
theory 89
Poynting’s theorem 85
specific absorption rate (node) 122
predefined couplings, electrical circuits
spherical waves 154
66
SPICE
propagating waves 267
exporting 70
propagation constant 267
SPICE netlists 69, 299
Q quality factor (Q factor) 60, 248 standard settings 18
quasistatic modeling 15 study types 15
boundary mode analysis 62, 126
R reciprocal permeability, volume average
eigenfrequency 60, 248
263
frequency domain 247
reciprocal permittivity, volume average
mode analysis 62, 248
262
subcircuit definition (node) 292
reference point (node) 158

INDEX| 327
 subcircuit instance (node) 293 transformer (node) 295
surface current density (node) 161, 219 transition boundary condition (node)
surface magnetic current density (node) 163
162 transmission line equation (node) 198,
surface roughness (node) 162 205
switch (node) 291 transmission line interface 195
symbols for electromagnetic quantities theory 266, 270
95 transmission line transient interface 203
symmetry axis reference point (node) TW axisymmetric waves theory
158 frequency domain 251
symmetry in E (PMC) or H (PEC) 39 time domain 254
symmetry planes, far-field calculations 39 two-port network (node) 173
symmetry, axial 30 two-port network port (node) 175

T TE axisymmetric waves theory U uniform element (node) 150

frequency domain 251 units, SI 95
time domain 254
V variables
TE waves theory 91
boundary mode analysis 63
technical support, COMSOL 23
eigenfrequency analysis and 61
TEM waves theory 92
far-field 39
terminating impedance (node) 200, 207
for far fields 41
theory
Jones vectors 58
constitutive relations 81–82
lumped ports 56
electrical circuit interface 301
mode analysis 63, 249
electromagnetic waves 246
S-parameters 49
electromagnetic waves, time explicit
vector elements theory 255
interface 274
voltage input, ports 53
electromagnetics 80
voltage source (node) 287
far-field calculations 92
voltage-controlled current source
lumped ports 54
(node) 290
S-parameters 89
voltage-controlled voltage source (node)
transmission line 266, 270
289
three-port network (node) 175
voltmeter (node) 286
three-port network port (node) 176
volume average, permeability 263
time domain equation, theory 253
volume average, permittivity 262
TM waves
volume averages, porous media 261
axisymmetric 247
W wave equation, electric (node) 112, 190,
TM waves theory 91
238
Touchstone file 107, 196, 235

328 | I N D E X
wave equations (node) 214
wave excitation 127
wave impedance theory 91
wave number, free-space 112, 238
wavelength, meshes and 33
websites, COMSOL 23
Wideband Debye model 117

INDEX| 329
330 | I N D E X